Research Article Occupational Risks Associated with Solid ...

Research ArticleOccupational Risks Associated with Solid WasteManagement in the Informal Sector of Gweru Zimbabwe

Steven Jerie

Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Midlands State University P Bag 9055 Gweru Zimbabwe

Correspondence should be addressed to Steven Jerie stevejeregmailcom

Received 20 January 2016 Revised 21 March 2016 Accepted 11 May 2016

Academic Editor Chunrong Jia

Copyright copy 2016 Steven Jerie This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License whichpermits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited

This study identifies and analyses the occupational risks associated with solid waste management practices in the informalenterprises of Gweru Many concerns have been raised about the potential harm from waste to the environment and the generalpublic but the risks and consequent costs of occupational hazards in waste management have received little attention in the rushto adopt or adapt technologies such as composting A multimethods research design that triangulates qualitative and quantitativeresearch paradigms is employed in this study The quantitative design involves physical characterisation of solid waste throughmaterial component separation andmeasurements as well as a questionnaire survey that investigates the risks associated with wastemanagement The qualitative component includes interviews open-ended questionnaires and field observations Occupationalrisks occur at every stage in the waste management process from the point where workers handle waste in the enterprises forcollection or recycling to the point of ultimate disposal Key findings from the study revealed that solid wastemanagement practicesare dominated bymanual handling tasks hence the higher incidents of muscular-skeletal disorders Other safety and health hazardsassociated with waste management in the informal enterprises of Gweru include incidents of diarrhoea viral hepatitis and higherincidents of obstructive and restrictive disorders

1 Introduction

Protection of human health and the environment is one ofthe major challenges facing developing as well as developedcountries of the world [1ndash5] The original aim of regulatingwaste disposal is to reduce the introduction of pollutingsubstances into the atmosphere since protection of theenvironment is amajor challenge facing developing countriessuch as Zimbabwe The activities in solid waste managementin the informal enterprises of Gweru involve risk either tothe worker directly involved or to the informal enterpriseoperators Risks occur at every stage in the process fromthe point where enterprise operators handle waste in theirenterprises for collection or recycling to the point of ultimatedisposal [6ndash11] The informal sector enterprise activitiesgenerate large quantities of waste which could be detrimentalnot only to the environment but to the waste workers aswell Many concerns have been raised about the potentialharm from waste to the environment and general public butthe risks and consequent costs of occupational hazards in

waste management have received little attention in the rushto adopt or adapt technologies such as composting Envi-ronmental policies and legislation are in the main aimed atregulating the disposal of waste rather than addressing andpreventing its generation In some countries of the developedworld attention seems to have shifted towards policies andlegislation designed to minimise the generation of waste andto secure its beneficial reutilisation It is therefore vital in thisstudy to examine the occupational safety and health hazardsassociated with solid waste generated and disposed of in theinformal enterprises of the city of Gweru the third largesturban settlement in Zimbabwe

The city of Gweru covers an area of about 16 700 squarekilometres and lies in Agro-Ecological Region Three Themain types of soils that characterise the landscape of Gweruinclude black basalt soils red loams sands and gravel Itlies in a watershed which stretches from Rusape to Bulawayoand is at an altitude of 1422 meters The municipal area isdissected by numerous streams most of which drain intothe Gweru river a tributary of Gwayi river Gwerursquos annual

Hindawi Publishing CorporationJournal of Environmental and Public HealthVolume 2016 Article ID 9024160 14 pageshttpdxdoiorg10115520169024160

2 Journal of Environmental and Public Health

rainfall averages 500ndash750mm characterised by midseasondry spells The normal rainy season starts in October rightthrough to April In the past few years however the rainfallpatterns have been increasingly becoming poor with seasonsin some cases ending in March Temperatures are high insummer (September to April) when they may average 30∘Cand low in winter (May to July) averaging 14∘C Gwerucomprises low medium and high density residential areasMkoba high density suburb located in the western sectionof the city of Gweru is the largest low income residentialarea and is divided into 20 sections which are referred to asldquovillagesrdquo Other low income high density suburbs includeAscot Monomotapa Senga-Nehosho and Mambo and themiddle density suburbs include Ivene Woodlands Nashvilleand Shamrock Park High income low density areas arelocated mainly in the northern and eastern sectors of thecity and include Lundi Park Southdowns Kopje GweruEast Windsor Park Daylesford Harben Park BrackenhurstRidgemond Athlone and Riverside The settlements inGweru are divided into 18 wards and these are located indifferent directions from the CBD According to the 2012National Census of Zimbabwe undertaken by ZIMSTAT thetotal population of Gweru was 158 233 comprising 73 768males and 84 465 females and the households make a totalof 41 149 out of the cityrsquos 18 wards The suburbs or residentialareas are divided into wards for ease of administration andservice provision by the local council

The city of Gweru has always had great potential forgrowth due to its endowmentwith awide variety of industriesand as a result it has the highest per capita income inZimbabwe This has resulted in it being the city with thehighest employment rate per capita in the country It iscentrally located and hence it is a very accessible place andthe hub of traffic traversing the countryThemajor industriesinclude Zimbabwe Alloys a chrome smelting plant andBata Shoe Company (established in 1939) and both areleading employers in Gweru The city is situated in oneof Zimbabwersquos finest cattle rearing areas the surroundingagricultural activity revolves around the cattle industry (bothbeef and dairy) Flowers are also grown in the area for theexport market and Zimbabwersquos largest distiller Afdis hasextensive vineyards in Gweru for the production of wineMining is also prevalent mainly chromite ore from richdeposits along the Great Dyke to the east of Gweru

The objective of any informal enterprise should be tominimise the amounts of unwanted products or by-productsso as to reduce impact on human health and the environment[13ndash19] It is vital to examine the potential environmental andhealth impacts of waste generated in the informal enterprisessince this gives an indication of the effectiveness of thewaste management practices such as waste collection anddisposal According to Tchobanoglous et al [12] hazardouswastes are wastes or combinations of waste that pose asubstantial present or potential hazard to humans or otherliving organisms because such wastes are nonbiodegradableor persistent in nature they can be biologicallymagnified canbe lethal ormay otherwise cause or tend to cause detrimentalcumulative effects The Environmental Management Act ofZimbabwe defines a hazardous substance as any substance

whether solid liquid or gas or any organism which isinjurious to human health or the environment It furtherdefines hazardous waste as any waste which is poisonouscorrosive noxious explosive inflammable radioactive toxicor harmful to the environment The properties of solidwaste that have been used to assess whether the waste ishazardous or not are related to questions of safety (corrosivityexplosivity flammability ignitability and reactivity) andhealth (carcinogenicity infectivity irritability mutagenicitytoxicity radioactivity and teratogenicity)

There has been growing concern over the disposal of solidwaste which may contain small amounts of hazardous wasteHazardous products generated in the informal enterprisesjust like those generated in the domestic and industrialsectors pose a threat to humanhealth and the environment intheir use and disposal In this study the amounts of hazardouswaste in the informal sector solid waste stream were deter-mined bymeasuring components separatedmechanically (byhand) from the commingledwasteWastes become a problemwhen they are harmful to the environment or human healthand in this regard the wastes become hazardous The shrink-ing of the formal sector industries in Zimbabwe has resultedin the growth of home industries in the city of Gweru Thesehome industries generate solid waste and soundmanagementof the waste is the greatest challenge currently facing theseindustries These activities produce high quantities of wastewhich could be detrimental to the health of the waste workerand environment by contributing to air water and landpollution as well as pollution of the visual environment andhence a number of safety and health risks if the waste is notproperly managed through an efficient waste managementsystem The informal enterprises are recognised as part of awaste management system in an urban environment in termsof waste recycling Studies in Zimbabwe have made prelim-inary assessments on the impact of domestic and formalwaste on the environment [20ndash24] but no comprehensivestudy has been made to determine the characteristics ofwaste generated in the informal enterprises as well as theoccupational safety and health hazards associated with thecollection and disposal of the waste Studies have not clearlyarticulated the issue of the occupational safety and healthrisks of waste generation collection and disposal in theinformal enterprises of Zimbabwe as deserving investigationbecause some say it is difficult to study and probably thegovernment does not directly generate any revenue from thissector This is an area in which our ignorance exceeds ourknowledge and hence deserves special attention in this study

2 Methodology

The research design employed in the study was closelyrelated to the ontological and epistemological assumptionsheld about reality by the various stakeholders associatedwith the informal enterprises of Gweru A multimethodsapproach triangulating quantitative (for generating harddata) and qualitative (for generating soft data) approacheswas thus employed in the study area comprising a sample of601 informal enterprises In this study working procedures

Journal of Environmental and Public Health 3

N

19∘2599840000998400998400

19∘2899840030998400998400

19∘2599840000998400998400

19∘2899840030998400998400

6 0 6 12

(km)

29∘52

99840030

99840099840029

∘49

99840000

99840099840029

∘45

99840030

998400998400

29∘52

99840030

99840099840029

∘49

99840000

99840099840029

∘45

99840030

998400998400

RoadCity centre

Residential areaIndustrial area

Figure 1 Location of informal enterprises in the city of Gweru

conditions and occupational safety and health risks wereassessed in the informal enterprises of Gweru The studypopulation for questionnaire surveys comprised all the 589organised informal enterprises in Monomotapa high densitysuburb Shamrock Parkmedium density suburb Mkoba highdensity suburb Ascot high density suburb Kudzanai marketand Kombayi market The location of these enterprises inGweru is shown in Figure 1 Focus was on these areas becauseof the large concentrations of informal enterprises charac-terised by a diverse range of enterprises that include retailservice repair manufacturing and construction activities InMonomotapa 47 out of 51 enterprises agreed to participatein the survey At Shamrock Park there was a combinationof informal enterprises and small-scale and medium-scaleenterprises All the 57 informal sector enterprises wereselected to participate in the survey and they were those withless than 10 employees and the small-scale andmedium-scaleenterprises were left out since they did not meet the criteriafor defining informal enterprises All the 182 enterprises atKudzanai that were allocated with stalls from which theyoperated were involved in this study and participated withkeen interest and the majority are retailers of food andclothing The other market area near the city centre isat Kombayi and all the 29 informal enterprises that wereallocated stalls participated in the study and atKudzanai theseare mainly food and clothing retailers In Mkoba and Ascothigh density suburbs the majority of enterprise operatorsparticipated in the survey and the very few that declined toparticipate were either suspicious or simply uncooperativeOut of a total of 229 enterprises in Mkoba 224 participatedfrom the sections of Mkoba 6 Mkoba 14 and Mkoba 16and in Ascot a total of 50 out of 53 enterprises participatedin the study All in all 589 enterprises participated in thequestionnaire survey

Questionnaire surveys were used to realise the immediateobjectives of the research as well as to gather data on theinformal enterprises of Gweru To gather data on criticalareas of solid waste management in the informal sectorthe design as recommended by Oppenheim [25] De Vaus[26] and Baker [27] was used so as to reduce ambiguityor bias The questionnaire was developed to cover aspectsof the objectives to investigate issues concerning informalenterprise waste generation and disposal practices availabil-ity and type of waste disposal services and perceptions on thewaste management situation in the informal enterprises andhow the system can be improved The questionnaire admin-istered to the home industry operators aimed at collectinginformation on the quantity and type of waste producedwaste collection and disposal practices and the occupationalsafety and health hazards associated with these activitiesTheinstrument was divided into appropriate sections to allowfor the systematic collection of data from the enterprisesin the different spatial locations of Monomotapa ShamrockPark Mkoba Kudzanai Kombayi market and Ascot Thesurvey questionnaire was semistructured containing bothopen-ended and closed-ended questions Interviews were forthe purpose of gathering information on waste managementsystem in Gwerursquos home industries occupational safety andhealth problems associated with solid waste managementplanning for waste management in informal enterprisesand environmental impact of waste produced in the homeindustries The interviews targeted policy makers and plan-ners in the organisations dealing with waste managementPersonal observations were undertaken to assess the typicaltasks performed during waste collection and disposal andthe associated hazards In addition to the field assessmentsa focus group discussion was held in each of the spatialareas was held This was meant to assess the perceptions of


the workers as well as enterprise operators on risk perceptioninjuries and diseases linked to waste occupation and theirown ideas for improvement options Data collection for thewaste compositional study followed the traditional materialbased classification adopted by Burnley [28] The samplesfrom the informal enterprises were collected in plastic bagsand labelledwith unique identitymarksThe segregated com-ponents were weighed to determine weights as percentages oftotal weight of a sample

3 Results and Analysis

31 Solid Waste Generation in the Informal Sector of Gweru

311 Composition of General Waste It is generally assumedthat solid waste generated in the informal enterprises con-tributes an insignificant proportion to the total waste streamgenerated in any urban environment and hence it does notdeserve special attention However the study reveals thatsignificant quantities of solid waste are generated in theinformal sector of Gweru especially inmarket areas that focuson retailing of vegetable and food products and the industrialsectors involved in manufacturing and construction Themajor components of the waste stream include food andvegetable wastes at Monomotapa Ascot and Mkoba (5129 and 18 of total weight resp) metals at ShamrockPark Monomotapa and Mkoba (36 31 and 19 of totalweight resp) and paper atMkobaAscot andKudzanai (1111 and 9 of total weight resp) Solid waste generatedin the retail sector is dominated by biodegradable waste inthe form of food and vegetable waste as well as long-termbiodegradable (incinerable) wastes such as paper textilesrubber and leather productsThe biodegradablewaste streamdominates in the market areas of Kudzanai and Kombayiwhere it constitutes an average of 571 of waste generated inthese areas In the market areas located in Ascot and Mkobathe biodegradable fraction comprises 316 and 20 respec-tively of the waste generated in those areas It is important tonote that biodegradability is a vital biological characteristicof the organic component of solid waste Therefore wasteswith low lignin content such as food wastes and vegetablewastes are more biodegradable than those with high lignincontent such as paper and plastic that are dominant in someenterprises Establishing biodegradability of solid waste isessential because the majority of environmental and healthproblems associated with waste generated in the enterprisesare caused by the biodegradable components This assertionconfirms findings in the literature regarding the impacts ofbiodegradability of solid waste on human health and theenvironment (see [29ndash35] and Tchobanoglous 2003)

The nonbiodegradable waste fraction includes metalsplastics and inerts arising out of builderrsquos rubble Metalsdominate in the manufacturing and construction enterprisesat Monomotapa and Shamrock Park and constitute onaverage 306 and 396 respectively of the total wastegenerated in those areas This can be attributed to the natureof activities associated with these enterprises that includewelding steel fabrication panel beating mechanical andelectrical engineering and tinsmithing The dry recyclables

such as paper plastics and glass are lower inmost cases due tothe informal practices ofwaste reduction reuse and recyclingwith the involvement of rag pickers itinerant buyers anddealers of recyclables

312The Composition of HazardousWaste The compositionof hazardous waste generated in the informal enterprises ofGweru is shown in Table 1 Hazardous waste contributeson average 26 of total waste by weight in the informalenterprises Although occurring in small quantities the haz-ardous solid waste can have significant negative impacts onhuman health and environment when improperly disposedofThe hazardous wastes pose substantial present or potentialhazards to humans or other living organisms because theyare nondegradable are persistent in nature or are lethalThe typical problems associated with hazardous enterprisewastes identified above are summarised in Table 2 In theinformal enterprises of Gweru the hazardous waste streamcomprises mainly cleaning products personal care productsautomotive products pesticides insecticides and herbicidesand miscellany which incorporates batteries and sharps suchas broken glassware

There is risk caused by the myriad of toxic chemicalspresent in some the hazardous waste shown in Table 2especially the e-waste because of its association with heavymetals such as arsenic cadmium chromium lead andmercury These heavy metals have no beneficial effects inhumans and there is no known homeostasis mechanismfor them These elements are regarded as most toxic tohumans and animals and the adverse human health effectsassociatedwith exposure to them even at low concentrationsare adverse and include but are not limited to neurotoxicand carcinogenic actions [36ndash38] Arsenic is a metalloid thatwould be associated with insecticide containers discardedin the informal enterprises In organic arsenic is consideredcarcinogenic and is related mainly to lung kidney bladderand skin disorders [36] The toxicity of arsenic in its organicform has been known for decades under the following formsacute toxicity subchronic toxicity genetic toxicity develop-mental and reproductive toxicity [39] immunotoxicity [40]and biochemical and cellular toxicity [18 32]

The solid wastes generated in the enterprises such as leadand zinc batteries detergent containers and PVC containcadmium which derives its toxicological properties fromits chemical similarity to zinc Cadmium accumulates inthe human body affecting several organs that include theliver kidneys lungs bones (osteomalacia osteoporosis) theplacenta brain and the central nervous system Other typesof damage that have been observed include reproductiveand development toxicity and hepatic haematological andimmunological effects [38] Discarded batteries alloys andpetroleum additives associated with the informal enterprisesare linked with the heavy metal lead which has no essentialfunction in the human body

(i) Toxic waste is capable of causing injury or deaththrough injection inhalation or skin absorptionsome can cause cancer genetic mutation and foetalharm


Table 1 Average composition of hazardous solid waste generated in the informal enterprises per week ( by weight)

KudzanaiKombayi Shamrock Park Monomotapa Mkoba Ascot

Containers of(i) Paint(ii) Outdated medicines(iii) Toilet bowl cleaners(iv) Hair waving lotions(v) Shampoos(vi) Nail polish(vii) Disinfectants(viii) Wood preservatives(ix) Scouring powders(x) Spot removersSharps(i) Broken glass(ii) Opened tin cansWEEE(i) Cell phones(ii) Irons(iii) Calculators(iv) Air conditioners(v) VCRs and DVDs

Containers of(i) Motor oil(ii) Paints(iii) Spot removers(iv) Diesel and petrol(v) Brake fluid(vi) Glass cleaners(vii) Drain cleaners(viii) Silver polish(ix) Furniture polish(x) Spot removers(xi) Carpet cleaners(xii) Upholstery cleaners(xiii) Photographic material(xiv) Pool cleaners(xv) Laboratory chemicals(xvi) Paint solventsSharps(i) Scrap metal(ii) Zinc pieces(iii) Cable strip(iv) Broken glass(v) Pieces of wire(vi) Opened tin cansWEEE(i) Large home appliances(ii) Small home appliances(iii) IT and telecom equipment(iv) Consumer equipmentOthersPlasticAcid leadBatteries

Containers of(i) Scouring powders(ii) Shoe polish(iii) Furniture polish(iv) Glass cleaners(v) Shampoos(vi) Outdated medicines(vii) Pesticides(viii) Insecticides(ix) Disinfectants(x) Wood preservatives(xi) Cosmetics(xii) Hair lotions(xiii) Toilet bowl cleaners(xiv) Laboratory chemicals(xv) Ant and roach killersSharps(i) Broken glassware(ii) Nails(iii) Scrap metal(iv) Needles(v) Pieces of wire(vi) Opened tin cansWEEE(i) Home appliances

Containers of(i) Wood preservatives(ii) Toilet bowl cleaners(iii) Disinfectants(iv) Laboratory chemicals(v) Scouring powders(vi) Shampoos(vii) Hair waving lotions(viii) Paints(ix) Glass cleaners(x) Toilet bowl cleaners(xi) Outdated medicines(xii) Ant and roach killersSharps(i) Broken glassware(ii) Nails(iii) Needles(iv) Opened tin cansWEEE(i) Large home appliances(ii) Small home appliances(iii) IT and telecom equipment(iv) Consumer equipment

18 by weight 387 by weight 246 by weight 222 by weightSource field survey (2015)

(ii) Flammablecombustible wastes can be easily set onfire

(iii) Corrosive waste can burn and destroy living tissue orothermaterials when brought into contact with them

Once in the bloodstream lead is primarily distributed amongblood soft tissue and mineralising tissue and children areparticularly sensitive to this metal because of their morerapid growth rate and metabolism with critical effects inthe developing nervous system [37] Mercury would beassociated with containers of seed preservatives fungicidespharmaceuticals and batteries discarded in the informalenterprises and it is one of the most toxic heavy metals in theenvironment Thus far the disposal of e-waste with the restof the municipal solid waste may result in negative impactson the environment such as groundwater contamination bylead leaching and high concentrations of lead in lead leachateWhen e-waste is burnt in incinerators heavy metals becomeconcentrated in the ash limiting its disposal and reuseoptions [15] Since most of the plastic materials in e-wastecontain flame retardants that are mainly halogenated organic

chemicals toxic organic contaminants such as dioxins andfurans may be formed during incineration and exit throughthe stack to the surrounding areas in the form of gaseouspollutants

The actual fate of the small quantities of hazardous wastegenerated in municipal solid waste is generally unknownand hence the environmental persistence of these hazardouscompounds is one of the critical issues in their long-termmanagement and this is true with regard to the hazardouswaste generated in the informal sector of Gweru identifiedin Table 2 In the informal enterprises the hazards associatedwith nonpersistent organic waste emanating from containersof oil some solvents biodegradable pesticides waste oilsand most detergents cause toxicity problems to the envi-ronment and biota Persistent organic wastes such as somepesticides are associated with immediate toxic effects (acuteand subacute) resulting in long-term chronic toxicity and thetransportation of organic waste from the source can result inwidespread contamination and bioconcentration in the foodchain


Table 2 Concerns associatedwith hazardousmunicipal solid waste

Product ConcernCleanersAbrasive cleaning powders CorrosivetoxicAerosols FlammabletoxicFurniture polish FlammabletoxicGlass cleaners IrritanttoxicOutdated medicines ToxicShoe polish FlammableSpot remover FlammabletoxicToilet bowl cleaner CorrosiveCarpet cleaner FlammabletoxicPersonal care productsHair waving lotion ToxicMedicated shampoos ToxicNail polish remover ToxicflammableAutomotive productsBrake transmission fluid FlammabletoxicCar batteries CorrosivetoxicDiesel and petrol FlammabletoxicWaste oil FlammabletoxicMiscellaneousBatteries CorrosivetoxicPesticides herbicides and fertilisers ToxicflammableInsecticides ToxicSource Tchobanoglous et al [12]

32 Health and Safety Problems Affecting EnterpriseOperators and Waste Workers

321 Overview of Health and Safety Hazards Occupationalhealth concerns emanating from solid waste in the informalenterprises relate to the infestation of areas used for storageand disposal of solid wastes with vermin and insects thatserve as potential disease vectors (Figure 2) During focusgroup discussions and questionnaire interviews with enter-prise operators a number of waste related problems werereported The problems identified included disease transmit-ting insects such as flies and cockroaches and increasingpopulations of rodents and odours The Provincial Environ-mental Health Technician in the Ministry of Health andChild Welfare and the Senior Environmental Health Officerin the Gweru City Health Department confirmed that theproblems of disease transmitting insects were attributable tothe indiscriminate dumping of refuse Enterprise operatorsreported that the waste related problems were attributed tononcollection or erratic collection of waste and the lack ofadequate temporary storage facilities

Open space dumping in the backyards of enterprises aswell as improvised pit dumping has provided fertile groundsfor breeding of disease transmitting insects such as the two-winged fly (Diptera) and cockroaches (Dictyoptera) Themost important fly species from the point of view of pathogentransmission observed in the enterprise dumping areas werethe housefly (Musca domestica) and a species of the tropical

Figure 2 Open dumping of waste at Kudzanai market is a healthhazard

green blowfly (Chrysomya)Musca domestica breed on solidmoist and fermenting organic matter and can develop in lessthan two weeks after the eggs are laid over a temperaturerange of 20∘Cndash30∘C [12]

This is a common phenomenon in the enterprisesespecially during the wet season Cockroaches are usuallyattracted by the moisture in waste streams and are potentialcarriers of faecal pathogens In confirming these problemsthe Senior Environmental Health Officer in the city of Gwerurevealed that

ldquoflies and cockroaches breeding and feeding onthe indiscriminately dumped solid waste carryparticles of waste from place to place Flies spreadenteric infections such as diarrhoea typhoiddysentery eye infections and skin infections suchas cutaneous ephthera [sic] and yaws and inci-dents of such diseases as diarrhoea have occurredin the informal enterprises These incidents arecommon during rainy seasons when fly popula-tions increase and when collections are erratic dueto logistic problems The conditions at Kudzanaimarket as well as at Kombayi market are par-ticularly worrying during the rainy season whenuncontrolled dumping can result in unsightlyheaps of waste and this is detrimental to humanhealthrdquo

Increasing rat populations were reported by 69 of theenterprise operators especially in those enterprises wherewaste is disposed of in open pits The rats are such a menaceand have the potential of spreading flea-borne disease andplague Though such diseases have not yet occurred in theenterprises they need to be guarded against as the ratpopulations continue to increase

In those enterprises with an unreliable collection systemburning of combustible solid waste such as paper plasticrubber and textiles waste is also a common disposal methodHot ashes which are added to combustible refuse pose a greatdanger to the inhabitants adjacent to the enterprises sincethis results in uncontrolled fires In most cases the fires startwith the objectionable practice of open burning of wasteand the smoke from the burning refuse is an environmentalnuisance to surrounding residents It has also been observed


Table 3 Occupational hazards affecting waste workers in the informal enterprises

Hazard TaskMuscular-skeletal disorders Lifting and carrying heavy loads and pushing pushcart

Biological agents Handling of organic waste handling contaminated materials and working in contaminatedenvironment (mould dirt)

Hazardous substances Working with mixed wasteMechanical hazards Unintentional contact with sharp items and working near moving parts of machineryvehicles

Noisemachinery Working near heavily frequented roads and in the vicinity of loud vehicles (enterprise workshops suchas carpentry metal work and engineering)

Vibration Pushing vehicles on uneven groundUVIR radiation Working in the sunElectrical risks Taking waste from workshopsPsychological burden Working with waste and disrespect of society

that waste management procedures in developing countriesare characterised by a dominance of manual handling tasks[7] The waste generated in the informal enterprises exposesthose involved in the collection and recycling to a diversityof occupational health hazards that might not be easilytreated due to limited access to healthcare facilities Exposureto occupational hazards in terms of waste management isdefined by the properties of the waste the managementtask (collection transport and recycling) and the appliedprocedures and technologies Waste collection from theinformal sector also involves carrying heavy loads and rottingorganic waste or waste contaminated with pathogens andorhazardous substances is handled The occupational hazardsassociated with these tasks are shown in Table 3

The waste handlers in the enterprises have shown a highrisk of muscular-skeletal disorders such as low back painand elbowwrist pain twice as often as the control groupdue to handling heavy loads Furthermore the repetitionof similar movements of hands and arms when grabbingand disposing waste containers causes joint problems as alsoobserved by Yang et al 2001 Cimino [41] and Poulsen andMidtgard [42] in their studiesThe risks associated with solidwaste management in the informal enterprises can thus bedivided into the following categories occupational accidentsphysical risks chemical risks ergonomic risks psychologicalrisks and biological risks The health risks either to theworker directly involved or to the enterprise operators andnearby residents are caused by many factors that include thefollowing

(i) The nature of raw waste its composition (eg toxicallergic and infectious substances) and its compo-nents (eg gases dusts leachates and sharps)

(ii) The nature of waste as it decomposes (eg gasesdusts leachates and particle sizes) and their changein ability to cause a toxic allergic or infectious healthresponse

(iii) The handling of waste (eg shovelling lifting equip-ment vibrations and accidents)

(iv) The processing of wastes (eg odour noise vibrationaccidents air and water emissions residuals explo-sions and fires)

Table 4Wastemanagement related hazards identified by theHealthand Sanitation Department of the city of Gweru

Department Hazards Impact(s)

Health andSanitation

Biological

Hepatitis BCholeraDiarrhoeaRespiratory diseases causing flu toemployeesNasal irritation and nauseaEye irritation

Physical

Hearing lossHigh temperatures in workingenvironments causing dizzinessHypothermia from lowtemperaturesFrost bites and flu

Ergonomic

Musculoskeletal injuries (MSIs)Repetitive strain injuries (RSIs)Long-term back pains andeventually strokes

Safety

Limb loss from compactorhydraulicsAcidic corrosionBurning at dumpsites afterexplosion of pressurized containerslike aerosols and so forth

Chemical

Cancers from carcinogensDisorders to the central nervoussystem (CNS)Possible lung kidney or liverdamage

Source Gweru City Council (2014)

(v) The disposal of wastes (eg odour noise vibrationstability of waste piles air and water emissionsexplosions and fires)

The health hazards associated with waste management inGweru according to records from the Gweru City CouncilrsquosHealth Department are summarised in Table 4

An interview with a health authority in the Gweru CityCouncil confirmed the statistics shown in Table 7 which


Table 5 Occupational injuries among workers in the cleansing section

Type Risk factor Number ()Cut on hand finger thumbor foot Broken glass or sharp objects 27 (40)

Sprained ankle or wrist Improper lifting or throwing technique or running anddisembarking from vehicle 11 (16)

Eye injury Dust liquid chemicals or smoke 8 (12)Shoulder injury Contact collision 8 (12)Knee injury Contact collision slip or fall 5 (8)Laceration of leg or finger Dog rat scorpion or snake bites 4 (5)Sharp back pain Excessive effort in lifting 3 (5)Trunk injury Run over by truck 1 (2)Total 67Source Gweru City Council Human Resources Department (2014)

revealed that 40 of waste collectors who were referred toGweru Provincial Hospital suffered cuts and punchers while16 suffered from sprains Eye injuries were mainly due todust and smoke from the fires at the dumpsite The officialalso indicated that there were no active vaccination programsfor workers due to low financial allocation to the health sectorby the national fiscus although she quickly pointed out thatinjections were administered at the time of occurrence Sheindicated that a single rabies injectionvile can cost up toUS$100 Back and shoulder injuries are aggravated by lackof specialised rehabilitation equipment at the hospital Truckinjuries have the lowest incidences at 2 but when they occurthey are highly life-threatening

Table 5 shows the number and percentage of occupationalinjuries among workers in the cleansing section of the GweruCity Council Health Services Department by injury typeand cause from 2011 to 2012 according to statistics from theHuman Resources Department

322MechanicalHazards Thecommonmechanical hazardsaffecting waste workers in the informal enterprises includecuts from sharp items (razor blades glass cutlets and metalpieces) and needle pricks from dressmaking enterprisesThere is also the risk of tetanus resulting from rusty wiresand scrap metals Observations revealed that workers arealso at risk of being electrocuted from naked wires wrongwiring connections traumatic injuries from sharp objectsburns from electric sparks during electrical fixing dust fromcarpenters and grind mills noise from welders and milersand exposure to heat and ultraviolet radiation from weldingHealth hazards also emanate from infections caused bybiological agents especially virus infections such as hepatitisBC Tetanus infection is also a serious concern since someof the workers are not vaccinated and the wounds are nottreated adequately due to a lack of hygiene and the necessity toresume work immediately in order not to lose income Othermechanical risks include bruises from hitting equipmentfractures and contusions evoked by falling from unsecuredplatforms of trucks However closely connected with wastecollection are cuts from sharp items from waste generated in

the informal enterprises aswell as falling accidents from smallplatforms of waste collection trucks The mechanical safetyand health problems associated with solid wastemanagementin the informal enterprises were succinctly explained by amunicipal waste worker who was busy collecting waste atMonomotapa

ldquomechanical hazards associated with solid wastegenerated and disposed in the informal sectorinclude piercing scraping and bruising by scrapmetals old wires and vehicle shells resulting inwounds from contact with sharp waste Hazardslike broken bottles liquid fires at fuelling depotsresidual fires at landfills bins with jagged edgesand compactors pose safety hazards to us employ-ees Broken bottles glasses and other sharp objectsimpale our already worn out gloves thus exposingus to cuts and bruises which may lead to diseaseslike tetanus dermatitis and may eventually festerinto septic wounds We also do not have adequateprotective clothing to protect ourselves especiallyface masks gloves and overallsrdquo

There are various methods used by the Gweru CityCouncil to prevent injuries and these include the use ofpersonal protective equipment (PPE) personal protectiveclothing (PPC) and safety warnings Safety related injuriesare the major problem in most sections PPC such as dustmasks and respirators are used to deal with problems ofhigh levels of dust and smoke However landfill workers andbin loaders complained that the material used to make themasks is not very effective since they are facing respiratorydifficulties during the time of waste burning Some of themasks do not fit to faces since they do not have roomfor adjustment hence some workers would rather operatewithoutmasks amove thatmay be detrimental to their healthand most of the time most workers do not have the maskssince they are usually in short supply (Figure 3) Work-suitsand safety shoes are also used as a way of protecting the bodyfrom harmful objects Furthermore ear plugs are used inareas with high levels of noise Working in areas with high


Table 6 Distribution of health complaints () related to poor ergonomic practices

Health complaints Ascot Monomotapa Shamrock Park Mkoba Kudzanai KombayiChronic back pain 51 53 48 46 36 21Chronic neck pain 11 67 57 66 61 41Chronic shoulder pain 69 56 54 52 56 53Repetitive strain injuries 76 71 73 75 86 69Repetitive motion injuries 76 72 72 73 81 70Sprained arms and knees 66 43 49 58 66 68Exposure to dust 89 86 87 81 77 81Electric shock 2 21 38 14 5 2Eye injury 25 48 68 66 51 56Excessive noise 13 26 32 31 8 7Excessive heat 19 13 23 24 22 25Source field survey (2015)

Figure 3 A waste worker about to burn hazardous waste without aface mask

levels of noise can cause long-term effects to the human audiosystem

323 Ergonomic Hazards Ergonomic hazards in the infor-mal enterprises result from carrying or lifting heavy loadsrepetitive movement and work that is shovelling muscular-skeletal disorders resulting from handling heavy containersheat stress resulting from exposure to excessive temperaturesand hearing loss due to too much exposure to excessivenoise Collection and sorting operations require repeatedlifting and twisting motions which are common sources ofmusculoskeletal injuries including repetitive strain injuriesCollection workers must lift twist and dump heavy binsand bags and during curbside sorting the lifting can exceedguidelines recommended and hence is likely to cause harm(Figure 4)

Manual sorting tasks often require reaching lifting andtwisting and this can cause workers pain soreness gen-eral fatigue tendonitis and musculoskeletal injuries of thefeet arms shoulders hands wrists and lower and upperbackObservations showed that garbageworkers experienceda high incidence of repetitive strain injuries because ofrepeated flexing and twisting motions further noting thatwaste collection workers are usually inadequately trained and

Figure 4 Waste collection involves manual handling tasks

prepared for the fine motor activities required for curb sidesorting hence exposure to ergonomic hazards (Table 6) Itis the awkward postures forceful exertions static loadingextended reaches deviated wrist hand and arm postures andcontact stress which present major ergonomic hazards

A total of 32 waste collectors were interviewed on healthyergonomics behaviour 29 of them aremale and aged between18 and 50 years It became clear that most men had someinsight into the occupational hazards of their workplacesbut generally lacked thorough factual occupational healthand safety knowledge The respondents were able to mentioncertain safety related occupational health risks but did notconsider these hazards to be dangerous to their health orcapable of causing disease For example the waste collectioncrews in Mkoba and Ascot considered their trade to bedangerous but could not explain the health effects that wererelated to the job The level of awareness regarding the majorareas of ergonomicswas found to be low among the collectioncrew members who operated in the informal enterpriseswhen compared to the office workers as shown in Table 7

324 Chemical Hazards In identifying the health impactsof chemical and biological agents in the informal sectorthe possible obstructing factors include the following thelong period before the effect becomes manifested the mul-tiplicity of causes of diseases (which makes it difficult todistinguish occupational diseases from diseases caused by


Table 7 Level of awareness () concerning major areas of ergonomics

Spatial locationHuman factors of

engineering(Prevention of accidents)

Work physiology(Prevention of

fatigue)

Occupational biometrics(Prevention of musculoskeletal

disorders)

Use ofanthropometric data(Postures and work)

Shamrock Park 43 53 41 66Monomotapa 27 20 36 11Kudzanai 16 18 23 26Kombayi 11 13 22 22Ascot 18 29 16 34Mkoba 7 38 31 19

eg unhygienic living conditions) the lack of knowledgemechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of human chronicdiseases and a wrong classification of diseases There ishigh danger of skin and blood infections resulting fromdirect contact with these liquids and from infected woundsintoxication and skin irritation resulting from contact withsmall amounts of hazardous chemical waste Residues of haz-ardous chemicals in recyclable containers and their gaseousemissions pose hazards to workers involved in the collectionsorting and washing processes Chemicals that pose risksinclude chlorine fluorine paper beaching deinking pulpingagents plastic additives and equipment cleaning solvents andinsecticides and herbicides Contact with skin or inhalationor even ingestion of these chemicals can cause dermatitisdisorder to the central nervous system and possible liverand kidney damage Exposure to fumes from heated metalscan produce metal fume fever which is a flu-like conditionExposure to chemicals can also cause irritation to the skinand respiratory tract and potential damage to the liver andcentral nervous system Inhalation of metal glass paper orplastic dust from shredding demagging and detinning cancause or aggravate chest discomfort bronchitis or asthmaAcute exposure to metal dust may cause irritation of theupper respiratory system and eventually severe pulmonaryirritation Chronic exposure to some heavy metals may causecancer and adverse effects to the central nervous gastroin-testinal system Disposal of old batteries and electronic andelectrical appliances such as cell phones radios computerstelevisions digital satellite decoders and fluorescent tubesmay pose danger as these contain toxic substances such asmercury lead and cadmium

Motor mechanics and welders at Shamrock ParkMonomotapa Ascot and Mkoba use paraffin paint andsolvents such as benzene and methylated spirit and thereis high danger of skin and blood infections resulting fromdirect contact with these liquids Scrap batteries removedfrom vehicles have the potential of corroding clothes causingblisters and fire outbreaks due to the acid containers Scrapmetal from welding shops and garages is hazardous sincepeople experience cuts when collecting and disposing wastematerials Rusting metals have the potential of causingtetanus in people Empty bottles of toxic chemicals aredangerous to children who play with these and poisoningmay occur through ingestion absorption and inhalation ofgases in empty containers

325 Biological Hazards Biological hazards associated withwaste generated and disposed of in the informal sectorenterprises include water borne diseases resulting fromflies and mosquitoes breeding in dumping sites aroundthe enterprises Rabid dogs scrambling in bins may resultin bites that cause rabies and rodents may also spreaddisease Dermal and blood infections may result from directcontact with waste and from infected wounds zoonosis dueto bites by wild or stray animals feeding on waste andenteric infections transmitted by insects Leaching of toxicmatter in areas close to the dumps leads to contaminationof water sources resulting in diarrheal diseases Workersmay be infected by biological agents such as bacteria andviruses that contaminate waste which are usually formedfrom the decomposition of matter and result in infectionsCuts or puncture wounds from broken glass metal edgesor needles become the site of infection following exposureto bacteria and viruses and the infections include hepatitisB fungi or parasites Common health problems associatedwith exposure to certain bacteria fungi and viruses includecontact dermatitis infections diarrhoea and skin diseasesLong-term occupational exposure to contaminated air incomposting operations can include allergic responses such asasthma chronic bronchitis and hay fever Other symptomsin waste workers include chills irritation of eyes nose andupper respiratory tract nausea headache chest tightnessand feeling of influenza Workers in paper sorting operationshave the highest incidence or chances of lung infectionscompared to all other waste workers and this is a resultof high levels of organic dust and endotoxins (poisonoussubstances produced by bacteria in the air) Water-bornediseases are also biological hazards emanating from fliesand mosquitoes breeding in dumpsites and causing malariaDermal and blood infections from direct contact with wasteand from infected wounds zoonosis resulting from bitesby stray animals feeding on waste and enteric infectionstransmitted by insects are the other biological hazards Ithas been documented that waste workers experience higherincidents of diarrhoea viral hepatitis and higher incidents ofobstructive and restrictive respiratory disorders than controlgroups and suffer from dog and rat bites skin diseases andjaundice [34 43] Some of the problems that were reportedby the authorities in the city of Gweru as emanating fromwaste generated in the enterprises are like common coldcough bronchitis bronchial asthma tuberculosis and other


systems (OSHAS 18001)

Risk assessment and

M1 M2 M3

OHS

ISO 14001

E1Design

E2Safety

(OHS)

E3Environmental

ISO 14001

The manufacturing construction

retailing

M1 = design management

M2 = safety management

M3 = environmental management

management

managementmanagementmanagement

T = informal activitySHE management

Management level

Figure 5 An idealised solid waste management model for the informal sector of Gweru

respiratory problems However other authors such as VanEerd [34] and Porta et al [44] have noted that it is difficultto prove a direct link between these diseases and the wasteoccupation

4 Discussion and Conclusion

Occupational exposure in the case of solidwastemanagementactivities in the informal enterprises of Gweru is influencedespecially by the properties of the waste and secondly by themanagement task which involves collection and disposal aswell as the applied procedures and technologies Solid wastemanagement procedures in the informal sector of Gweruare characterised by a dominance of manual handling tasksCollection involves carrying heavy loads and rotting organicwaste or waste contaminated with pathogens andor haz-ardous substances The working conditions and properties ofthe waste expose workers involved in collection and disposalof waste to a diversity of occupational safety and healthhazards that might not be treated adequately due to limitedresources

A holistic view of waste management implies integratingthe waste management system into the informal enterprisesactivities and the Gweru Municipality as an organisationsince this incorporates occupational safety and health aspects(see Figure 5) For the manufacturing and constructionenterprises in Monomotapa Shamrock Park Mkoba andAscot there would be need to take into account the wastemanagement issues as an integral part of the design activityT would represent the process such as construction and

manufacturing while E would represent an aggregate ofthe base level process design activity B1 and another baselevel activity E2 which both refine T by specifying cycleby cycle its attributes with an aim to end up with anacceptable performance of T assessed against a predefined setof performance criteria E2 refers to the SHE system takinginto account safety health and environmental issues of theactivitiesWasteworkers in the informal enterprises ofGweruexperience a number of adverse health and safety effects andthese include higher incidents of diarrhoea viral hepatitishigher incidents of obstructive and restrictive respiratorydisorders and dog and rat bites skin diseases and jaundiceThere are also higher incidents ofmuscular-skeletal disordersaffecting the waste collectors such as low back pain andelbowwrist pain and joint problems which arise from therepetitive movements of hands and arms when grabbing anddisposingwaste containersThe commonmechanical hazardsin the informal enterprises of Gweru include cuts from sharpitems such as razor blades glass cutlets and metal piecesWorkers are thus exposed to the risk of infections causedby biological agents especially virus infections Infectionssuch as hepatitis BC and tetanus are a major concern sinceworkers are rarely vaccinated and wounds are not treatedadequately due to a lack of hygiene and the desire to resumework immediately so as not to lose income Mechanicalrisks experienced by waste workers in Gweru include bruisesfrom hitting equipment fractures and contusions evoked byfalling from unsecured platforms of trucks

Since safety health and environmental managementsystems are a vital component of the waste management


Mon

itor a

nd re

view

AuditCom

mun

icat

e and

cons

ult

Analyse risk

Identify and assess existing controls

Evaluate risk

(i) Risk issues (what)(ii) Impacts (how)

(iii) Causes (why)

(i) Compare against criteria(ii) Set priorities

(i) External environment(ii) Internal environment

(iii) Risk management systems

Identify the risks

Treat risk

TreatYes

No

Risk

asse

ssm

ent

Frequency times exposure

Consequences times probability = risk critically

Figure 6 The risk assessment and management process

model shown in Figure 5 risk assessment therefore becomesimperative in determining and evaluating the risks posed bythe working conditions of the waste workers Risk assess-ment is a systematic examination of all aspects of workand it considers what could cause injury or harm whetherthe hazards could be eliminated and what preventive orprotective measures should be put in place to control therisks [16] Risk assessment is the starting point of the riskmanagement process Undertaking risk assessment wouldenable the municipality of Gweru and the enterprise opera-tors to understand the action necessary to improve workplaceoccupational health and safety The ultimate objective is todecide on an action plan designed to establish the controlof risk and to ensure that risk control remains effectiveRisk assessment directly relates to the actual techniques andprocedures in detecting what hazards could cause injuryor long-term health impacts [7] Figure 6 shows the mainelements of the risk assessment andmanagement processThefocus group discussions with waste workers and interviewswith waste authorities in Gweru showed indeed that transfermechanisms of waste from temporary waste disposal recep-tacles into municipal receptacles needed urgent attention

The risk assessment survey also showed that the wastemanagement conditions in the informal sector enterpriseswere hazardous Waste collection involved manual handlingof plastic and metal bins and this was associated with anumber of ergonomic hazards as discussed in the previoussections Some of the roads especially in Mkoba Ascotand Monomotapa high density suburbs were rough andunpaved and hence posed risks in the form of road accidents

Waste was also sometimes strewn down the streets fromthe collection vehicles In all the enterprises including thosein Monomotapa and Shamrock Park sharp items such asrazor blades glass cutlets and syringes as well as hazardoussubstances such as broken batteries and leaking solventcontainers can be found In caseswhere plastic bagswere usedfor collecting solid waste the thin permeable material poseddermal exposure because hazardous substances microorgan-isms and sharp items also injure workers when handling thewaste bagswith bare handsThere is inadequate and improperpersonal protective clothing (PPE) as evidenced by the tornor makeshift protective clothing such as the gloves worn asprotection by the workers

It was also revealed through risk assessment that mostof the waste workers as well as enterprise operators hadbeen affected by cuts and skin rashes that were caused bysubstances and insects associated with the disposed-of solidwaste The open wounds were also at risk of being infectedby tuberculosis in such unhygienic working conditions Ithas been observed by Bleck and Wettberg [7] that hepatitisB infections can occur when the cuts are caused by razorblades or syringes which are disposed of in the ordinarywaste stream Dust is generated in quite visible amountsin informal sector enterprises especially at MonomotapaKombayi market Ascot and Mkoba This was during thepouring of waste into collection bags and also during thetransfer of waste into containers Dust constitutes a majorhazard because of its contribution to inhalation exposureto biological agents and bronchial asthma cough and otherrespiratory problems may result The ergonomic hazards are


exacerbated by the carrying and emptying of heavy unstablewaste bags and this is amajor health hazard among the femaleworkers

The safety interventions in Gweru are complicated bythe fact that solid waste collection is undertaken throughlabour intensive systems and hence workers experience highphysical loads and inadequately stored waste In the low-techwaste management sector of the city of Gweru occupationalsafety and health intervention is often equalled with thesupply of personal protective clothing This has been provento be one of the least effective measures due to the demandfor correct application infrequency of supply and inadequatematerials as also in studies undertaken elsewhere by KENAOOfficials from the Health Department of the city of Gweruindicated that their safety interventions included mainly theprovision of PPE The Environmental Health Officer in thecity of Gweru indicated that ldquowe provide our waste collectioncrew with PPE to protect themselves against occupationalhazards associated with the collection and disposal of solidwaste and this has proven to be effective through the yearsrdquoVan Eerd [34] however notes that health officials may notbe aware that protective devises are among the least effectivesafety interventions and that the long distribution intervalsespecially for masks rendered the supply itself absurdumUsually even when workers are supplied with the protectiveequipment they normally do not use it as a result of lackof awareness as well as their low social status A sustainablesolution to increase occupation safety and health among theworkers would be the adaptation of workplace and processdesign

Improving the occupational safety of waste workers isthus a crucial step to increase their social welfare This canonly be done in an efficient manner by firstly identifyingthe actual occupational risks associated with solid wastemanagement activities This is vital in the quest to applya hierarchy for exposure control measures as initiated bythe Council Directive 89391EEC of June 1989 This entailseliminating the hazard at its source for example substitutinghazardous chemicals or omitting burdensome work stepsand hence rendering additional work steps unnecessary andit is the most efficient precaution Technical measures arealso vital and these involve safer equipment and are morepreferable to individual measures such as personal protectiveequipment and training in proper behaviour These do noteliminate the hazard per se but only provide a barrier betweenthe hazard and the worker at the ultimate point This is theSTOPP principle

(1) S substitution of hazardous process or material(2) T technical measures(3) O organisational measures(4) P personal protective equipment(5) P personal behaviour

The lack of a comprehensive waste policy that is packagedto deal with safety health and environmental managementissues in Zimbabwe has compromised effective solid wastemanagement in the informal sectorThere is lack of consensus

on what constitutes solid waste its characteristics and howthe waste should be managed and this has resulted in themunicipalities having no proper guidelines over the organi-sation of sustainable solid waste management in the informalenterprises

Competing Interests

The author declares that he has no competing interests

References

[1] S Jerie ldquoGender and solid waste management in the informalsector of Bulawayo ZimbabwerdquoThe Dyke vol 5 no 1 pp 46ndash64 2011

[2] H Scharff ldquoLandfill reduction experience inThe NetherlandsrdquoWaste Management vol 34 no 11 pp 2218ndash2224 2014

[3] M Tilaye and M P Van Dijk ldquoPrivate sector participation insolid waste collection in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) by involvingmicro-enterprisesrdquo Waste Management and Research vol 32no 1 pp 79ndash87 2014

[4] R Couth and C Trois ldquoSustainable waste management inAfrica through CDM projectsrdquoWaste Management vol 32 no11 pp 2115ndash2125 2012

[5] J Vehlow ldquoAir pollution control systems in WtE units anoverviewrdquoWaste Management vol 37 pp 58ndash74 2015

[6] A P Bortoleto K H Kurisu and K Hanaki ldquoModel devel-opment for household waste prevention behaviourrdquo WasteManagement vol 32 no 12 pp 2195ndash2207 2012

[7] D Bleck and W Wettberg ldquoWaste collection in developingcountriesmdashtackling occupational safety and health hazards attheir sourcerdquoWaste Management vol 32 no 11 pp 2009ndash20172012

[8] C R Lohri E J Camenzind and C Zurbrugg ldquoFinancial sus-tainability in municipal solid waste managementmdashcosts andrevenues in Bahir Dar Ethiopiardquo Waste Management vol 34no 2 pp 542ndash552 2014

[9] L A Guerrero G Maas and W Hogland ldquoSolid waste man-agement challenges for cities in developing countriesrdquo WasteManagement vol 33 no 1 pp 220ndash232 2013

[10] H Slagstad and H Bratteboslash ldquoInfluence of assumptions abouthousehold waste composition in waste management LCAsrdquoWaste Management vol 33 no 1 pp 212ndash219 2013

[11] Y Zhao H-T Wang W-J Lu A Damgaard and T HChristensen ldquoLife-cycle assessment of themunicipal solidwastemanagement system in Hangzhou China (EASEWASTE)rdquoWaste Management and Research vol 27 no 4 pp 399ndash4062009

[12] G Tchobanoglous H Theisen and S Vigil Integrated SolidWaste Management Issues McGraw Hill New York NY USA1993

[13] U Arena ldquoFrom waste-to-energy to waste-to-resources thenew role of thermal treatments of solid waste in the RecyclingSocietyrdquoWaste Management vol 37 pp 1ndash2 2015

[14] T A Hottle M M Bilec N R Brown and A E LandisldquoToward zero waste composting and recycling for sustainablevenue based eventsrdquoWaste Management vol 38 no 1 pp 86ndash94 2015

[15] Y-C Jang ldquoWaste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE)management in Korea generation collection and recycling


systemsrdquo Journal ofMaterial Cycles andWasteManagement vol12 no 4 pp 283ndash294 2010

[16] S A Kadiri ldquoRisk assessment and controlrdquo African Newsletteron Occupational Health and Safety vol 20 no 2 pp 38ndash402010

[17] M C Lavagnolo ldquoA glance at the worldrdquo Waste Managementvol 32 no 12 pp 2563ndash2566 2012

[18] AMudhoo S K SharmaVKGarg andC-H Tseng ldquoArsenican overview of applications health and environmental con-cerns and removal processesrdquoCritical Reviews in EnvironmentalScience and Technology vol 41 no 5 pp 435ndash519 2011

[19] M Sett and S Sahu ldquoErgonomic evaluation of the tasksperformed by the female workers in the unorganized sectors ofthemanual brickmanufacturing units in Indiardquo Ergonomics SAvol 22 no 1 pp 2ndash16 2010

[20] D S Tevera ldquoSolid waste disposal in Harare and its effectson the environment some preliminary observationsrdquo TheZimbabwe Science News vol 25 no 1ndash3 pp 9ndash13 1991

[21] S Jerie ldquoSound sanitary landfilling a sustainable option forwaste disposal in Harare and Gwerurdquo OSSREA Bulletin vol 2no 3 pp 78ndash87 2005

[22] S Jerie ldquoEnvironmental problems in Gweru and Kwekwe Zim-babwe a focus on domestic solid wastemanagementrdquoUNISWAResearch Journal of Agriculture Science and Technology vol 9no 2 pp 179ndash185 2008

[23] DNR Guidelines on Industrial Waste Management ReportProduced by the Department of Natural Resources HarareZimbabwe 1994

[24] MLGRUD Government of Zimbabwe Zimbabwe Urban SolidWaste Management Study Tevera-Mubvami and AssociatesHarare Zimbabwe 1995

[25] A M Oppenheim Questionnaire Design Interviewing andAttitude Measurement Pinter Publishers London UK 1992

[26] D A De Vaus Surveys in Social Research Routledge LondonUK 5th edition 2007

[27] M J Baker ldquoData collectionmdashquestionnaire designrdquo The Mar-keting Review vol 3 pp 343ndash370 2003

[28] S J Burnley ldquoA review of municipal solid waste compositionin the United KingdomrdquoWaste Management vol 27 no 10 pp1274ndash1285 2007

[29] L Chernova and A Shepovalova ldquoOccupational health andsafety challenges for small enterprisesrdquo Barents Newsletter onOccupational Health and Safety vol 14 pp 12ndash14 2011

[30] S Cointreau ldquoEnvironmental management of urban solidwastes in developing countries a project guiderdquo Urban Devel-opment Technical Paper 5World BankWashington DC USA1982

[31] L Robson J Clarke K Cullen et al The Effectiveness of Occu-pational Health and Safety Management Systems A SystematicReview List for Work and Health 2005

[32] A Schwarzeneggar T Tamninen and J E Denton PublicHealth Goals for Chemicals in Drinking Water Arsenic Office ofEnvironmental Health Hazards Association California Envi-ronmental Agency 2004

[33] K Tsuyoshi and T T Ton ldquoImproving safety and health of wastecollectors in Fijirdquo Asian-Pacific Newsletter on OccupationalHealth and Safety vol 17 no 3 pp 61ndash63 2010

[34] M Van Eerd ldquoThe occupational health aspects of waste col-lection and recycling An inventory study in Indiardquo UWEPWorking Document 4 part 11 Waste 1997

[35] D C Wilson ldquoDevelopment drivers for waste managementrdquoWaste Management and Research vol 25 no 3 pp 198ndash2072007

[36] ATSDR Toxicological Profile for Arsenic US Department ofHealth and Human Services Public Health and Human Ser-vices Centre for Diseases Control Atlanta Ga USA 2003



[39] D Chakraborti M K Senguptu M M Rahaman S AhomedC K Chowdhory and M A Hassain ldquoGroundwater arseniccontamination and its health effects in the Ganga-Meghna-Brahmaputra plainrdquo Journal of Environmental Monitoring vol6 no 6 pp 74Nndash83N 2004

[40] T Sakurai C Kojima M Ochiai T Ohta and K FujiwaraldquoEvaluation of in vivo acute immunotoxicity of a major organicarsenic compound arsenobetaine in seafoodrdquo InternationalImmunopharmacology vol 4 no 2 pp 179ndash184 2004

[41] J A Cimino ldquoHealth and safety in the solid waste industryrdquoAmerican Journal of Public Health vol 65 no 1 pp 38ndash46 1975

[42] O M Poulsen and U Midtgard ldquoHealth problems from wastecollection and recyclingrdquo in Proceedings of the InternationalMeeting for Waste Collection and Recycling Bioaerosol Exposureand Health Problems Institute for Agricultural Medicine KogeDenmark September 1996

[43] M Van Eerd ldquoThe occupational health aspects of waste col-lection and recycling A survey of literaturerdquo UWEP WorkingDocument 4 part 11 WASTE Gouda The Netherlands 1996

[44] D Porta S Milani A L Lazzarino C A Perucci and FForastiere ldquoSystematic review of epidemiological studies onhealth effects associated with management of solid wasterdquoEnvironmental Health vol 8 article 60 2009

Submit your manuscripts athttpwwwhindawicom

Stem CellsInternational

Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014


MEDIATORSINFLAMMATION

of


Behavioural Neurology

EndocrinologyInternational Journal of



Disease Markers


BioMed Research International

OncologyJournal of



Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity


PPAR Research

The Scientific World JournalHindawi Publishing Corporation httpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Immunology ResearchHindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom Volume 2014

Journal of

ObesityJournal of



Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine

OphthalmologyJournal of


Diabetes ResearchJournal of



Research and TreatmentAIDS


Gastroenterology Research and Practice


Parkinsonrsquos Disease

Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine

Volume 2014Hindawi Publishing Corporationhttpwwwhindawicom


rainfall averages 500ndash750mm characterised by midseasondry spells The normal rainy season starts in October rightthrough to April In the past few years however the rainfallpatterns have been increasingly becoming poor with seasonsin some cases ending in March Temperatures are high insummer (September to April) when they may average 30∘Cand low in winter (May to July) averaging 14∘C Gwerucomprises low medium and high density residential areasMkoba high density suburb located in the western sectionof the city of Gweru is the largest low income residentialarea and is divided into 20 sections which are referred to asldquovillagesrdquo Other low income high density suburbs includeAscot Monomotapa Senga-Nehosho and Mambo and themiddle density suburbs include Ivene Woodlands Nashvilleand Shamrock Park High income low density areas arelocated mainly in the northern and eastern sectors of thecity and include Lundi Park Southdowns Kopje GweruEast Windsor Park Daylesford Harben Park BrackenhurstRidgemond Athlone and Riverside The settlements inGweru are divided into 18 wards and these are located indifferent directions from the CBD According to the 2012National Census of Zimbabwe undertaken by ZIMSTAT thetotal population of Gweru was 158 233 comprising 73 768males and 84 465 females and the households make a totalof 41 149 out of the cityrsquos 18 wards The suburbs or residentialareas are divided into wards for ease of administration andservice provision by the local council

The city of Gweru has always had great potential forgrowth due to its endowmentwith awide variety of industriesand as a result it has the highest per capita income inZimbabwe This has resulted in it being the city with thehighest employment rate per capita in the country It iscentrally located and hence it is a very accessible place andthe hub of traffic traversing the countryThemajor industriesinclude Zimbabwe Alloys a chrome smelting plant andBata Shoe Company (established in 1939) and both areleading employers in Gweru The city is situated in oneof Zimbabwersquos finest cattle rearing areas the surroundingagricultural activity revolves around the cattle industry (bothbeef and dairy) Flowers are also grown in the area for theexport market and Zimbabwersquos largest distiller Afdis hasextensive vineyards in Gweru for the production of wineMining is also prevalent mainly chromite ore from richdeposits along the Great Dyke to the east of Gweru

The objective of any informal enterprise should be tominimise the amounts of unwanted products or by-productsso as to reduce impact on human health and the environment[13ndash19] It is vital to examine the potential environmental andhealth impacts of waste generated in the informal enterprisessince this gives an indication of the effectiveness of thewaste management practices such as waste collection anddisposal According to Tchobanoglous et al [12] hazardouswastes are wastes or combinations of waste that pose asubstantial present or potential hazard to humans or otherliving organisms because such wastes are nonbiodegradableor persistent in nature they can be biologicallymagnified canbe lethal ormay otherwise cause or tend to cause detrimentalcumulative effects The Environmental Management Act ofZimbabwe defines a hazardous substance as any substance

whether solid liquid or gas or any organism which isinjurious to human health or the environment It furtherdefines hazardous waste as any waste which is poisonouscorrosive noxious explosive inflammable radioactive toxicor harmful to the environment The properties of solidwaste that have been used to assess whether the waste ishazardous or not are related to questions of safety (corrosivityexplosivity flammability ignitability and reactivity) andhealth (carcinogenicity infectivity irritability mutagenicitytoxicity radioactivity and teratogenicity)

There has been growing concern over the disposal of solidwaste which may contain small amounts of hazardous wasteHazardous products generated in the informal enterprisesjust like those generated in the domestic and industrialsectors pose a threat to humanhealth and the environment intheir use and disposal In this study the amounts of hazardouswaste in the informal sector solid waste stream were deter-mined bymeasuring components separatedmechanically (byhand) from the commingledwasteWastes become a problemwhen they are harmful to the environment or human healthand in this regard the wastes become hazardous The shrink-ing of the formal sector industries in Zimbabwe has resultedin the growth of home industries in the city of Gweru Thesehome industries generate solid waste and soundmanagementof the waste is the greatest challenge currently facing theseindustries These activities produce high quantities of wastewhich could be detrimental to the health of the waste workerand environment by contributing to air water and landpollution as well as pollution of the visual environment andhence a number of safety and health risks if the waste is notproperly managed through an efficient waste managementsystem The informal enterprises are recognised as part of awaste management system in an urban environment in termsof waste recycling Studies in Zimbabwe have made prelim-inary assessments on the impact of domestic and formalwaste on the environment [20ndash24] but no comprehensivestudy has been made to determine the characteristics ofwaste generated in the informal enterprises as well as theoccupational safety and health hazards associated with thecollection and disposal of the waste Studies have not clearlyarticulated the issue of the occupational safety and healthrisks of waste generation collection and disposal in theinformal enterprises of Zimbabwe as deserving investigationbecause some say it is difficult to study and probably thegovernment does not directly generate any revenue from thissector This is an area in which our ignorance exceeds ourknowledge and hence deserves special attention in this study

2 Methodology

The research design employed in the study was closelyrelated to the ontological and epistemological assumptionsheld about reality by the various stakeholders associatedwith the informal enterprises of Gweru A multimethodsapproach triangulating quantitative (for generating harddata) and qualitative (for generating soft data) approacheswas thus employed in the study area comprising a sample of601 informal enterprises In this study working procedures


N

19∘2599840000998400998400

19∘2899840030998400998400

19∘2599840000998400998400

19∘2899840030998400998400

6 0 6 12

(km)

29∘52

99840030

99840099840029

∘49

99840000

99840099840029

∘45

99840030

998400998400

29∘52

99840030

99840099840029

∘49

99840000

99840099840029

∘45

99840030

998400998400

RoadCity centre

























































Biological


Physical


Ergonomic


Safety


Chemical

































fatigue)


disorders)








Risk assessment and

M1 M2 M3

OHS

ISO 14001

E1Design

E2Safety

(OHS)

E3Environmental

ISO 14001


retailing




management



Management level









Mon

itor a

nd re

view

AuditCom

mun

icat

e and

cons

ult

Analyse risk


Evaluate risk


(iii) Causes (why)




Identify the risks

Treat risk

TreatYes

No

Risk

asse

ssm

ent















Competing Interests


References




















































of






Disease Markers



OncologyJournal of





PPAR Research



Journal of

ObesityJournal of

















N

19∘2599840000998400998400

19∘2899840030998400998400

19∘2599840000998400998400

19∘2899840030998400998400

6 0 6 12

(km)

29∘52

99840030

99840099840029

∘49

99840000

99840099840029

∘45

99840030

998400998400

29∘52

99840030

99840099840029

∘49

99840000

99840099840029

∘45

99840030

998400998400

RoadCity centre

























































Biological


Physical


Ergonomic


Safety


Chemical

































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