RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning

Research is an endeavour to discover answers to intellectual and practical problems through the application of scientific method.

“Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. -Redman and Mory.

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.

Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers through the application of

scientific procedures.

The objectives are:

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it – Exploratory or Formulative Research.To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group – Descriptive Research.To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables – Hypothesis-Testing Research.

Characteristics of Research

Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.Research demands accurate observation and description.Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using existing data for a new purpose.Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation, search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered.Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate the data collected and conclusions reached.Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.Research requires courage.Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.Research is carefully recorded and reported.

SCIENTIFICSCIENTIFIC METHODMETHOD

‘‘Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organised Science’ refers to the body of systematic and organised knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire knowledge which makes use of scientific method to acquire knowledge in a particular field of enquiry.knowledge in a particular field of enquiry.

Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) Scientific method is the systematic collection of data (facts) and their theoretical treatment through proper observation, and their theoretical treatment through proper observation, experimentation and interpretation.experimentation and interpretation.

Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic Scientific method attempts to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation, and interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation, and logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination logical arguments from accepted postulates and a combination of these three in varying proportions.of these three in varying proportions.

BASIC POSTULATESBASIC POSTULATESIN SCIENTIFIC METHODIN SCIENTIFIC METHOD

It relies on empirical evidence.It relies on empirical evidence. It utilizes relevant concepts.It utilizes relevant concepts. It is committed to only objective It is committed to only objective

considerations.considerations. It presupposes ethical neutrality.It presupposes ethical neutrality. It results into probabilistic predictions.It results into probabilistic predictions. The methodology is made known.The methodology is made known. Aims at formulating scientific theories.Aims at formulating scientific theories.

Purpose clearly defined. Research process detailed. Research design thoroughly planned. High ethical standards applied. Limitations frankly revealed. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs. Findings presented unambiguously. Conclusions justified. Researcher’s experience reflected.

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHQUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• SystematicSystematic

• LogicalLogical

• EmpiricalEmpirical

• ReplicableReplicable

• CreativeCreative

• Use of multiple methodsUse of multiple methods

♪ EXPLORATIONEXPLORATION♪ DESCRIBEDESCRIBE♪ DIAGNOSEDIAGNOSE♪ HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS♪ INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONSINDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS

NEED FOR RESEARCHNEED FOR RESEARCH

SCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCHSCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

RESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKINGRESEARCH FOR DECISION MAKING

Throws light on risks and uncertaintyThrows light on risks and uncertainty

Identify alternative courses of actionIdentify alternative courses of action

Helps in economic use of resources Helps in economic use of resources

Helps in project identificationHelps in project identification

Solves investment problemsSolves investment problems

Solves pricing problemsSolves pricing problems

Solves allocation problemsSolves allocation problems

Solves decision making issues in HRSolves decision making issues in HR

Solves various operational and planning Solves various operational and planning problems of business and industryproblems of business and industry

Provides the basis for all government policies in Provides the basis for all government policies in our economic system.our economic system.

Helps social scientists in studying social Helps social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking answers to various relationships and in seeking answers to various social problems.social problems.

For students, research means a careerism or a For students, research means a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social way to attain a high position in the social structure.structure.

For professionals in research, it may mean a For professionals in research, it may mean a source of livelihood.source of livelihood.

For philosophers and thinkers, research means For philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and insights.the outlet for new ideas and insights.

For literary men and women, research means For literary men and women, research means development of new styles and creative work.development of new styles and creative work.

For analysts and intellectuals, research means For analysts and intellectuals, research means generalizations of new theories. generalizations of new theories.

PROBLEMS IN RESEARCHPROBLEMS IN RESEARCH

Not similar to science Uncontrollable variables Human tendencies Time and money Lack of computerization Lack of scientific training in the methodology of

research

Insufficient interaction between university research departments and business establishments

Lack of confidence on the part of business units to give information

Lack of code of conduct

Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial Difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistanceassistance

Poor library management and functioningPoor library management and functioning

Difficulty of timely availability of published data.Difficulty of timely availability of published data.

Ignorance Ignorance

Research for the sake of research-limited practical Research for the sake of research-limited practical utility though they may use high sounding utility though they may use high sounding business jargon.business jargon.

ROLE OF RESEARCH ROLE OF RESEARCH IN IN

DECISION-MAKINGDECISION-MAKING

♪ Decision-making is the process of selecting the best Decision-making is the process of selecting the best alternative from the available set of alternatives.alternative from the available set of alternatives.

♪ Management is chiefly concerned with decision-Management is chiefly concerned with decision-making and its implementation.making and its implementation.

♪ These decisions should be based on appropriate These decisions should be based on appropriate studies, evaluations and observations.studies, evaluations and observations.

♪ Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed Research provides us with knowledge and skills needed to solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a to solve the problems and to meet the challenges of a fast paced decision-making environment. fast paced decision-making environment.

According to Herbert A Simon, decision-making involves three activities:

Intelligence Activity - scanning the environment for identifying conditions necessary for the decision.

Designing Activity - identifying, developing and analyzing the alternative courses of action.

Choice Activity - choosing the best course of action from among the alternatives.

FACTORS THAT AFFECT MANAGERIAL FACTORS THAT AFFECT MANAGERIAL DECISIONSDECISIONS

INTERNAL FACTORSINTERNAL FACTORS – factors present inside an – factors present inside an organisation such as resources, technology, trade organisation such as resources, technology, trade unions, cash flow, manpower etc.unions, cash flow, manpower etc.

EXTERNAL FACTORSEXTERNAL FACTORS – factors present outside the – factors present outside the organisation such as government policies, political organisation such as government policies, political factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework, factors, socio-economic factors, legal framework, geographic and cultural factors etc.geographic and cultural factors etc.

QUANTITATIVE FACTORSQUANTITATIVE FACTORS – factors that can be – factors that can be measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost measured in quantities such as time, resources, cost factors etc.factors etc.

QUALITATIVE FACTORSQUALITATIVE FACTORS – factors that cannot be – factors that cannot be measured in quantities such as organizational measured in quantities such as organizational cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of cohesiveness, sense of belonging of employees, risk of technological change etc.technological change etc.

UNCERTAINITY FACTORSUNCERTAINITY FACTORS – factors which cannot – factors which cannot be predicted.be predicted.

TYPES OF RESEARCHTYPES OF RESEARCH

Descriptive vs Analytical ResearchDescriptive vs Analytical Research

Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research is a fact finding is a fact finding investigation which is aimed at describing the investigation which is aimed at describing the characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or) characteristics of individual, situation or a group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.describing the state of affairs as it exists at present.

Analytical ResearchAnalytical Research is primarily is primarily concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or information already available. information already available.

Applied vs Fundamental ResearchApplied vs Fundamental ResearchApplied ResearchApplied Research or Action Research is or Action Research is

carried out to find solution to a real life problem carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision.requiring an action or policy decision.

Fundamental ResearchFundamental Research which is also which is also known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice.practice.

It is undertaken out of intellectual It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.

Quantitative vs Qualitative ResearchQuantitative vs Qualitative Research

Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research is employed for is employed for measuring the quantity or amount of a particular measuring the quantity or amount of a particular phenomena by the use of statistical analysis.phenomena by the use of statistical analysis.

Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research is a non- is a non-

quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality of a particular phenomenon.out the quality of a particular phenomenon.

Conceptual vs Empirical ResearchConceptual vs Empirical Research

Conceptual ResearchConceptual Research is generally used is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing ones.or to reinterpret existing ones.

Empirical ResearchEmpirical Research is a data based is a data based research which depends on experience or observation research which depends on experience or observation alone. It is aimed at coming up with conclusions alone. It is aimed at coming up with conclusions without due regard for system and theory.without due regard for system and theory.

Some other types of research..Some other types of research.. One-time ResearchOne-time Research – Research confined to a single – Research confined to a single

time period.time period. Longitudinal ResearchLongitudinal Research – Research carried on over – Research carried on over

several time periods.several time periods. Diagnostic ResearchDiagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research – It is also called clinical research

which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the possible frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions for it.solutions for it.

Exploratory ResearchExploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of – It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the problem. precise formulation of the problem. Hence it is also Hence it is also known as formulative research. known as formulative research.

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research – It is designed to assess the – It is designed to assess the effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by effect of one particular variable on a phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled.keeping the other variables constant or controlled.

Historical ResearchHistorical Research – It is the study of past records – It is the study of past records and other information sources, with a view to find the and other information sources, with a view to find the origin and development of a phenomenon and to origin and development of a phenomenon and to discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand discover the trends in the past, inorder to understand the present and to anticipate the future. the present and to anticipate the future.

RESEARCH PROCESSRESEARCH PROCESS

Define ResearchProblem

Review Concepts

And theories

Review PreviousResearchfindings

Formulatehypothesis

DesignResearch

(IncludingSampleDesign)

CollectData

(Execution)

AnalyseData(Test

Hypothesisif any)

Interpretand

report

FF

F

F F

FF

I

II

III IV V VI VII

F

FF

Feed Back

Feed Forward

Review the literature

DEFINITION DEFINITION OF THE OF THE

RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

STEP-1

RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

What is a research problem?What is a research problem?

The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be The term ‘problem’ means a question or issue to be examined.examined.

Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need Research Problem refers to some difficulty /need which a researcher experiences in the context of either which a researcher experiences in the context of either theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.solution for the same.

HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A HOW DO WE KNOW WE HAVE A RESEARCH PROBLEM?RESEARCH PROBLEM?

Customer complaintsCustomer complaints Conversation with company employeesConversation with company employees Observation of inappropriate behaviour or Observation of inappropriate behaviour or

conditions conditions in the firmin the firm Deviation from the business planDeviation from the business plan Success of the firm’s competitor’sSuccess of the firm’s competitor’s Relevant reading of published material (trends, Relevant reading of published material (trends,

regulations)regulations) Company records and reportsCompany records and reports..

The first step in the research process – The first step in the research process – definition definition of the problemof the problem involves two activities: involves two activities:

Identification / Selection of the ProblemIdentification / Selection of the Problem

Formulation of the ProblemFormulation of the Problem

IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE IDENTIFICATION / SELECTION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

This step involves identification of a few This step involves identification of a few problems and selection of one out of them, after problems and selection of one out of them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain selection evaluating the alternatives against certain selection criteria.criteria.

SOURCES OF PROBLEMSSOURCES OF PROBLEMS

ReadingReading Academic ExperienceAcademic Experience Daily ExperienceDaily Experience Exposure to Field SituationsExposure to Field Situations ConsultationsConsultations BrainstormingBrainstorming ResearchResearch IntuitionIntuition

CRITERIA OF SELECTIONCRITERIA OF SELECTION

The selection of one appropriate researchable The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those alternatives against certain evaluation of those alternatives against certain criteria. They are:criteria. They are:

Internal / Personal criteriaInternal / Personal criteria – Researcher’s Interest, – Researcher’s Interest, Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own Researcher’s Competence, Researcher’s own Resource: finance and time.Resource: finance and time.

External Criteria or FactorsExternal Criteria or Factors – Researchability of the – Researchability of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the problem, Importance and Urgency, Novelty of the Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Problem, Feasibility, Facilities, Usefulness and Social Relevance, Research Personnel. Relevance, Research Personnel.

DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE DEFINITION / FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEMRESEARCH PROBLEM

Formulation is the process of refining the research Formulation is the process of refining the research ideas into research questions and objectives.ideas into research questions and objectives.

Formulation means translating and transforming the Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic/idea into a selected research problem/topic/idea into a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the research problem is.with specifying exactly what the research problem is.

Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, Problem definition or Problem statement is a clear, precise and succinct statement of the question or issue precise and succinct statement of the question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.answer or solution.

There are two ways of stating a problem:There are two ways of stating a problem:

1)1) Posting question / questionsPosting question / questions

2)2) Making declarative statement / statementsMaking declarative statement / statements

PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE PROCESS INVOLVED IN DEFINING THE PROBLEMPROBLEM

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM IN A GENERAL WAY.GENERAL WAY.

UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE Of UNDERSTANDING THE NATURE Of PROBLEMPROBLEM

SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE SURVEYING THE AVAILABLE LITERATURELITERATURE

DEVELOPING IDEAS THROUGH DEVELOPING IDEAS THROUGH DISCUSSIONSDISCUSSIONS

REPHRASING THE RESEARCH PROBLEMREPHRASING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEMCRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROBLEM

Clear and UnambiguousClear and Unambiguous EmpiricalEmpirical VerifiableVerifiable InterestingInteresting Novel and OriginalNovel and Original Availability of GuidanceAvailability of Guidance

Statement of Research Objectives

Defining Problem, Results inClear Cut Research Objectives..

Analysis of the Situation

Symptom Detection

Problem Definition

ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

Research Objectives are the specific components of Research Objectives are the specific components of the research problem, that you’ll be working to the research problem, that you’ll be working to answer or complete, in order to answer the overall answer or complete, in order to answer the overall research problem. - Churchill, 2001research problem. - Churchill, 2001

The objectives refers to the questions to be The objectives refers to the questions to be answered through the study. They indicate what we answered through the study. They indicate what we are trying to get from the study or the expected are trying to get from the study or the expected results / outcome of the study. results / outcome of the study.

ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT OF RESEARCH OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, Research Objectives should be clear and achievable, as they directly assist in answering the research as they directly assist in answering the research problem.problem.

The objectives may be specified in the form of The objectives may be specified in the form of either statements or questions.either statements or questions.

Generally, they are written as statements, using the Generally, they are written as statements, using the word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to word “to”. (For example, ‘to discover …’, ‘to determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. ) determine …’, ‘to establish …’, etc. )

REVIEW REVIEW OF OF

LITERATURELITERATURE

STEP-2

REVIEW OF LITERATUREREVIEW OF LITERATURE

Literature Review is the documentation of a Literature Review is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and comprehensive review of the published and unpublished work from secondary sources of data in unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.the areas of specific interest to the researcher.

The main aim is to find out problems that are already The main aim is to find out problems that are already investigated and those that need further investigation.investigated and those that need further investigation.

REVIEW OF LITERATUREREVIEW OF LITERATURE

It is an extensive survey of all available past studies It is an extensive survey of all available past studies relevant to the field of investigation.relevant to the field of investigation.

It gives us knowledge about what others have found It gives us knowledge about what others have found out in the related field of study and how they have out in the related field of study and how they have done so.done so.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To gain a background knowledge of the research To gain a background knowledge of the research topic.topic.

To identify the concepts relating to it, potential To identify the concepts relating to it, potential relationships between them and to formulate relationships between them and to formulate researchable hypothesis.researchable hypothesis.

To identify appropriate methodology, research design, To identify appropriate methodology, research design, methods of measuring concepts and techniques of methods of measuring concepts and techniques of analysis.analysis.

To identify data sources used by other researchers.To identify data sources used by other researchers. To learn how others structured their reports.To learn how others structured their reports.

How to conduct the Literature How to conduct the Literature Survey? Survey?

Identify the relevant sources.Identify the relevant sources.

Extract and Record relevant information.Extract and Record relevant information.

Write-up the Literature Review.Write-up the Literature Review.

SOURCES OF LITERATURESOURCES OF LITERATURE

Books and JournalsBooks and Journals Electronic DatabasesElectronic Databases

Bibliographic DatabasesBibliographic DatabasesAbstract DatabasesAbstract DatabasesFull-Text DatabasesFull-Text Databases

Govt. and Industry ReportsGovt. and Industry Reports InternetInternet Research Dissertations / ThesisResearch Dissertations / Thesis

RECORDING THE LITERATURERECORDING THE LITERATURE

The most suitable method of recording The most suitable method of recording notes is the notes is the card system.card system.

The recording system involves use of two The recording system involves use of two sets of cards:sets of cards:

Source cardsSource cards (3”x 5”) – used for noting (3”x 5”) – used for noting bibliographic information.bibliographic information.Note cardsNote cards (5”x 8”) – used for actual note taking. (5”x 8”) – used for actual note taking.

SOURCE CARDSSOURCE CARDS

Source Cards serve two purposes:Source Cards serve two purposes:

a)a) Provide documentary information for foot Provide documentary information for foot notes.notes.

b)b) It is used for compiling bibliography to be It is used for compiling bibliography to be given at the end of the report.given at the end of the report.

SOURCE CARDSSOURCE CARDS

Source Cards can be coded by a simple system Source Cards can be coded by a simple system inorder to relate them to the corresponding note cards.inorder to relate them to the corresponding note cards.

1)1) Marking a combination of letters and a number on Marking a combination of letters and a number on the right hand top corner that begins with ‘C’. For the right hand top corner that begins with ‘C’. For example; C1, C2 etc.example; C1, C2 etc.

OROR2)2) Marking the letter ‘B’ or ‘J’ or ‘R’ (B=Books, Marking the letter ‘B’ or ‘J’ or ‘R’ (B=Books, J=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand top corner.J=Journal, R=Report) on the left hand top corner.

SOURCE CARDSSOURCE CARDSThe recording of bibliographic information The recording of bibliographic information

should be made in proper bibliographic format.should be made in proper bibliographic format.

The format for citing a book is:The format for citing a book is:Author’s name, (year), Title of the book, Place of Author’s name, (year), Title of the book, Place of

publication, Publisher’s name.publication, Publisher’s name.For Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management, For Example; Koontz Harold (1980), Management,

New Delhi, McGraw-Hill International.New Delhi, McGraw-Hill International.

The format for citing a journal article is:The format for citing a journal article is:Author’s name, (year), Title of the article, Journal Author’s name, (year), Title of the article, Journal

name, Volume (number), pages.name, Volume (number), pages.For Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of For Example; Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of

Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56. 50-56.

NOTE CARDSNOTE CARDS

Detailed Information extracted from a Detailed Information extracted from a printed source is recorded on the note cards.printed source is recorded on the note cards.

It is desirable to note a single fact or idea on It is desirable to note a single fact or idea on each card, on one side only.each card, on one side only.

How to write the review?How to write the review?

There are several ways of presenting the ideas of There are several ways of presenting the ideas of others within the body of the paper.others within the body of the paper.

For Example; If you are referring the major For Example; If you are referring the major influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of Industrial influencing factors in the Sheth’s model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,Buying Behaviour, it can be written as,

1)1)Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a Sheth (1973, p-50) has suggested that, there are a number of influencing factors ……..number of influencing factors ……..

2)2)According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial According to Sheth (1973) model of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors……..factors……..

How to write the review?How to write the review?

3)3)In some models of industrial buying behaviour, In some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).there are a number of influencing factors (Sheth, 1973).

4)4)In some models of industrial buying behaviour, In some models of industrial buying behaviour, there are a number of influencing factorsthere are a number of influencing factors11..

1.1. Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Sheth J.N (1973), A Model of Industrial Buying Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.Behaviour, Journal of Marketing, 37(4), 50-56.

Points to be kept in mind while Points to be kept in mind while reviewing literature..reviewing literature..

Read relevant literature.Read relevant literature.Refer original works.Refer original works.Read with comprehension.Read with comprehension.Read in time.Read in time.Index the literature.Index the literature.

FORMULATION FORMULATION OF OF

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

STEP-3

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis is an assumption about A hypothesis is an assumption about relations relations between between variables.variables.

Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured Hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationshiprelationship between two or more between two or more variables variables expressed expressed in the form of a testable statement.in the form of a testable statement.

Relationships are conjectured on the basis of Relationships are conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the the network of associations established in the theoretical frameworktheoretical framework formulated for the research formulated for the research study.study.

VARIABLESVARIABLES

Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.Anything that can vary can be considered as a variable.

A variable is anything that can take on differing or A variable is anything that can take on differing or varying values.varying values.

For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, For example; Age, Production units, Absenteeism, Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.Sex, Motivation, Income, Height, Weight etc.

Note:Note: The values can differ at various times for the The values can differ at various times for the same object or person (or) at the same time for different same object or person (or) at the same time for different objects or persons.objects or persons.

Variable / AttributeVariable / Attribute

A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more A variable is a characteristic that takes on two or more values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a values whereas, an attribute is a specific value on a variable (qualitative).variable (qualitative).

For example; For example; The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male The variable SEX/GENDER has 2 attributes - Male

and Female.and Female. The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes – The variable AGREEMENT has 5 attributes –

Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, Strongly Disagree.Disagree.

Types of VariablesTypes of Variables

Explanatory vs Extraneous VariableExplanatory vs Extraneous VariableThe variables selected for analysis are called explanatory The variables selected for analysis are called explanatory

variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose variables and all other variables that are not related to the purpose of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.of the study but may affect the dependant variable are extraneous.

Dependant vs Independent VariableDependant vs Independent VariableThe variable that changes in relationship to changes in The variable that changes in relationship to changes in

another variable(s) is called another variable(s) is called dependant variabledependant variable..The variable whose change results in the change in another The variable whose change results in the change in another

variable is called an variable is called an independent variableindependent variable.. OROR

An independent variable is the one that influences the An independent variable is the one that influences the dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.dependant variable in either a positive or negative way.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that Research Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates an relates an independent variableindependent variable to a to a dependant dependant variable.variable.

Hypothesis must contain atleast one Hypothesis must contain atleast one independent variable and one dependant variable.independent variable and one dependant variable.

HYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the Hypothesis are tentative, intelligent guesses as to the solution of the problem. solution of the problem.

Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It Hypothesis is a specific statement of prediction. It describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen describes in concrete terms what you expect to happen in the study.in the study.

Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of Hypothesis is an assumption about the population of the study.the study.

It delimits the area of research and keeps the It delimits the area of research and keeps the researcher on the right track.researcher on the right track.

PROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESISPROBLEM (VS) HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and Hypothesis is an assumption, that can be tested and can be proved to be right or wrong.can be proved to be right or wrong.

A problem is a broad question which cannot be A problem is a broad question which cannot be directly tested. A problem can be scientifically directly tested. A problem can be scientifically investigated after converting it into a form of investigated after converting it into a form of hypothesis. hypothesis.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

Conceptual ClarityConceptual Clarity - It should be clear and precise. - It should be clear and precise.

SpecificitySpecificity - It should be specific and limited in scope. - It should be specific and limited in scope.

ConsistencyConsistency - It should be consistent with the - It should be consistent with the objectives of research.objectives of research.

TestabilityTestability - It should be capable of being tested. - It should be capable of being tested.

ExpectancyExpectancy - It should state the expected relationships - It should state the expected relationships between variables.between variables.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESISCHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

SimplicitySimplicity - It should be stated as far as possible in - It should be stated as far as possible in simple terms.simple terms.

ObjectivityObjectivity - It should not include value judgments, - It should not include value judgments, relative terms or any moral preaching.relative terms or any moral preaching.

Theoretical RelevanceTheoretical Relevance - It should be consistent with a - It should be consistent with a substantial body of established or known facts or existing substantial body of established or known facts or existing theory.theory.

Availability of TechniquesAvailability of Techniques – Statistical methods should – Statistical methods should be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.be available for testing the proposed hypothesis.

Discussions with colleagues and experts about the Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a problem, its origin and objectives in seeking a solution.solution.

Examination of data and records for possible trends, Examination of data and records for possible trends, peculiarities.peculiarities.

Review of similar studies.Review of similar studies.

Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.Exploratory personal investigation / Observation.

Logical deduction from the existing theory.Logical deduction from the existing theory.

Continuity of research.Continuity of research.

Intuition and personal experience.Intuition and personal experience.

SOURCES OF HYPOTHESISSOURCES OF HYPOTHESIS

Descriptive HypothesisThese are assumptions that describe the

characteristics (such as size, form or distribution) of a variable. The variable may be an object, person, organisation, situation or event.

Examples: “Public enterprises are more amenable for centralized

planning”.

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

Relational Hypothesis [Explanatory Hypothesis]

These are assumptions that describe the relationship between two variables. The relationship suggested may be positive, negative or causal relationship.

Examples: “Families with higher incomes spend more for recreation”.

Causal Hypothesis state that the existence of or change in one variable causes or leads to an effect on another variable. The first variable is called the independent variable and the latter is the dependant variable.

Null Hypothesis

When a hypothesis is stated negatively, it is called null hypothesis. It is a ‘no difference’, ‘no relationship’ hypothesis. ie., It states that, no difference exists between the parameter and statistic being compared to or no relationship exists between the variables being compared.

It is usually represented as HO or H0 .

Example: H0: There is no relationship between a family’s income and

expenditure on recreation.

Alternate Hypothesis It is the hypothesis that describes the researcher’s

prediction that, there exist a relationship between two variables or it is the opposite of null hypothesis. It is represented as HA or H1.

Example:

HA: There is a definite relationship between

family’s income and expenditure on recreation.

FORMS OFFORMS OF RELATIONSHIPSRELATIONSHIPS

NON-DIRECTIONALNON-DIRECTIONAL

• There IS a relationship There IS a relationship betweenbetween

• X & YX & Y

• X….linked….YX….linked….Y

Vs DIRECTIONALVs DIRECTIONAL

• If X goes up, Y ….If X goes up, Y ….• oror• As X increases, Y…As X increases, Y…• X = IndependentX = Independent• variablevariable• Y = Dependent variableY = Dependent variable

DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES- “X” causes “Y” to change “X” causes “Y” to change

• If X changes If X changes • (increases(increases• decreases)decreases)• thenthen• Y will ______Y will ______• (increase or(increase or• decrease)decrease)• a causal linka causal link

DIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIPDIRECTION OF RELATIONSHIP

• If X increases, Y increasesIf X increases, Y increases

• A A POSITIVEPOSITIVE relationship relationship

• If X increase, Y decreasesIf X increase, Y decreases

• A A NEGATIVE NEGATIVE or or INVERSE INVERSE relationshiprelationship

• As X changes, Y does NOT change...>As X changes, Y does NOT change...>

• No Change...>No Change...>NO RELATIONSHIPNO RELATIONSHIP

NON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESESNON-DIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES - the weakest form- the weakest form

• There IsThere Is• a relationshipa relationship• between X & Ybetween X & Y

– non-causalnon-causal– correlational correlational

statementstatement– X…..YX…..Y

Positive correlationPositive correlation

• When the values of When the values of • TWO variablesTWO variables• ““go together”go together”• oror• values on X & Yvalues on X & Y• change in SAMEchange in SAME• DIRECTIONDIRECTION 0

10

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Hrwork

Earnings

CORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIPCORRELATIONAL RELATIONSHIP

Negative CorrelationNegative Correlation

• When the values of When the values of two variablestwo variables

• CO-VARY CO-VARY • in Opposite directionin Opposite direction

• (as one goes up,(as one goes up,• the other goes down)the other goes down)

0

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Earnings

FUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESISFUNCTIONS OR ROLE OF HYPOTHESIS

It gives a definite point to the investigation and provides direction to the study.

It determines the data needs. It specifies the sources of data. It suggests which type of research is likely to be more

appropriate. It determines the most appropriate technique of

analysis. It contributes to the development of theory.