Research MethodsResearch MethodsA look at how psychologists A look at how psychologists

conduct research and some famous conduct research and some famous psychology experimentspsychology experiments

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison ExperimentExperiment

Zimbardo’s research Zimbardo’s research question: How does question: How does environment and status environment and status affect people’s behavior?affect people’s behavior?

Video

Zimbardo’s study: What was learned?Zimbardo’s study: What was learned?

Guards will play one of 3 roles:Guards will play one of 3 roles: Leader that tries to be mean, exploits power positionLeader that tries to be mean, exploits power position Follower—goes along with leader’s crueltyFollower—goes along with leader’s cruelty Avoider—tries to ignore or escape the cruelty but does Avoider—tries to ignore or escape the cruelty but does

nothing to stop itnothing to stop it

Prisoners do one of the following:Prisoners do one of the following: submit to will/authority of guardssubmit to will/authority of guards try to rebel through hunger strikes, active rebelliontry to rebel through hunger strikes, active rebellion do NOT tend to band together against injustices of guardsdo NOT tend to band together against injustices of guards

Conclusion: The environment can cause people to do “bad” Conclusion: The environment can cause people to do “bad” things and be quiet in face of injusticethings and be quiet in face of injustice

Unethical?Unethical? Zimbardo should not have played role of wardenZimbardo should not have played role of warden Zimbardo failed to protect emotional well being of both Zimbardo failed to protect emotional well being of both

guards and prisonersguards and prisoners

Topic: Authority and ObedienceTopic: Authority and ObedienceExperiment: Dr. Stanley Milgram’s “shock” Experiment: Dr. Stanley Milgram’s “shock” experimentexperiment

Research questionResearch question: Will people do things they find morally objectionable if : Will people do things they find morally objectionable if an authority figure asks them to do so?an authority figure asks them to do so?

Procedures:Procedures: Subject is told to deliver increasing voltage of electric shock to Subject is told to deliver increasing voltage of electric shock to “memory test subject” in adjacent room. As screams and pleads of “stop” “memory test subject” in adjacent room. As screams and pleads of “stop” are heard, subject is told by authority figure (psychologist in labcoat) to are heard, subject is told by authority figure (psychologist in labcoat) to “please continue.”“please continue.”

Data: Data: 63% of subjects continue delivering shocks to end63% of subjects continue delivering shocks to end

Conclusion: Conclusion: People will go against their own People will go against their own conscienceconscience (moral code) when pressed to do (moral code) when pressed to do

so by someone in authorityso by someone in authority

Show Show Milgram British redo video video

Topic: Conformity to social pressureTopic: Conformity to social pressureExperiment: Dr. Solomon Asch line experimentsExperiment: Dr. Solomon Asch line experiments

Procedures: Procedures: 1 subject in room full of 1 subject in room full of “plants”. Plants give obviously “plants”. Plants give obviously incorrect answer. Will subject trust incorrect answer. Will subject trust his/her own perception and give his/her own perception and give honest answer or bend to norm?honest answer or bend to norm?

Findings:Findings: 76% of subjects will go with group at 76% of subjects will go with group at

least once; 25% never bent to group’s least once; 25% never bent to group’s opinion; 5% always bent to group’s opinion; 5% always bent to group’s opinionopinion

video clipvideo clip

Topic: Bystander ApathyTopic: Bystander Apathy

Darley and Latane (1968)Darley and Latane (1968)

Subjects are in separate rooms engaged in Subjects are in separate rooms engaged in discussion over intercomdiscussion over intercom

1 of the people in discussion starts to have epileptic 1 of the people in discussion starts to have epileptic seizure and pleads for helpseizure and pleads for help

What happens? WHY?What happens? WHY? Greater # of people in group, slower people are to Greater # of people in group, slower people are to

respond to helprespond to help

Video clipVideo clip

What would you do?What would you do?

Bystander effect: Why it happens… 1. Belief someone else will do something. 2. Diffusion of responsibility; the larger the group, the

less pressure each witness feels to do anything helpful. 3. Fear of victimization in which people avoid conflict

because of the dread that they will be attacked if they help.

4. Observing no one taking action is translated into something like, ”I must be the only person who thinks anything is wrong because nobody else is responding.” (pluralistic ignorance)

5. People rationalize not taking actions e.g. "Well, no one else is doing anything because: it's a lover's quarrel; its just teenage pranks; its just innocent play acting,....etc."

Adapted from Schwartz, Allan Ph.D “The Bystander Effect, What Would You Do?” 11/3/2009. Retrieved on 2/11/11 from http://www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=33728

Social Learning (Observational Learning) TheorySocial Learning (Observational Learning) TheoryBandura’s Bobo doll experimentBandura’s Bobo doll experiment

How much do social modeling and reinforcement of How much do social modeling and reinforcement of behaviors affect an individual’s behaviors?behaviors affect an individual’s behaviors?

1.1. What were the procedures of the Bobo doll experiment? What were the procedures of the Bobo doll experiment? see video link to original Bandura experimentsee video link to original Bandura experiment

Bandura’s data/findingsBandura’s data/findingsBandura’s Bobo doll experimentBandura’s Bobo doll experiment

1.1. Children who observed the aggressive models made far more imitative Children who observed the aggressive models made far more imitative aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or aggressive responses than those who were in the non-aggressive or control groups.• control groups.•

2.2. There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those There was more partial and non-imitative aggression among those children who has observed aggressive behavior, although the difference children who has observed aggressive behavior, although the difference for non-imitative aggression was small.• for non-imitative aggression was small.•

3.3. The girls in the aggressive model conditions also showed more physical The girls in the aggressive model conditions also showed more physical aggressive responses if the model was male but more verbal aggressive aggressive responses if the model was male but more verbal aggressive responses if the model was female; (However, the exception to this responses if the model was female; (However, the exception to this general pattern was the observation of how often they punched Bobo, general pattern was the observation of how often they punched Bobo, and in this case the effects of gender were reversed). • and in this case the effects of gender were reversed). •

4.4. Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The Boys were more likely to imitate same-sex models than girls. The evidence for girls imitating same-sex models is not strong.• Boys imitated evidence for girls imitating same-sex models is not strong.• Boys imitated more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in more physically aggressive acts than girls. There was little difference in the verbal aggression between boys and girls. –the verbal aggression between boys and girls. –

Bandura’s data/findingsBandura’s data/findingsBandura’s Bobo doll experimentBandura’s Bobo doll experiment

Conclusion: people mimic/imitate behaviors they see others Conclusion: people mimic/imitate behaviors they see others doing ESPECIALLY Data: IF the person they are imitating doing ESPECIALLY Data: IF the person they are imitating (model) seems to have status, power, is rewarded for (model) seems to have status, power, is rewarded for behaviorbehavior

So what? Media, older peers, parents set standards for So what? Media, older peers, parents set standards for behavior behavior

““Do as I say, not as I do” does NOT work!!Do as I say, not as I do” does NOT work!! Actions speak louder than words because we are mimickersActions speak louder than words because we are mimickers “ “Children see, children do”Children see, children do”

The blue eyes vs. brown The blue eyes vs. brown eyes experiment eyes experiment

Topic: How do prejudices and discrimination Topic: How do prejudices and discrimination form?form? How does being the victim of discrimination How does being the victim of discrimination

affect a person?affect a person? How does being the victimizer affect a person?How does being the victimizer affect a person?

Video: A class divided (chapters 1 & 2 approx. Video: A class divided (chapters 1 & 2 approx. 15 minutes)15 minutes)

Take notes outlining the purposed and Take notes outlining the purposed and procedures of the experimentprocedures of the experiment

What did Elliot’s data show?What did Elliot’s data show?

Blue Eye experimentBlue Eye experiment

ProceduresProceduresDay 1: Day 1:

1.1. tell students in class that students with blue eyes tell students in class that students with blue eyes are better, smarter than students with brown/green are better, smarter than students with brown/green eyeseyes

2.2. Have non-blue eyed students wear colors for easier Have non-blue eyed students wear colors for easier identificationidentification

3.3. assign extra privileges to blue eyed studentsassign extra privileges to blue eyed students4.4. give extra praise to blue eyed students, extra give extra praise to blue eyed students, extra

criticism to non-blue eyedcriticism to non-blue eyed5.5. Observe and record behaviors of kids in each groupObserve and record behaviors of kids in each group

Blue Eye experimentBlue Eye experiment

ProceduresProceduresDay 2: Role reversalDay 2: Role reversal

1.1. tell students in class that students with Brown or tell students in class that students with Brown or Green eyes are better, smarter than students with Green eyes are better, smarter than students with blue eyesblue eyes

2.2. Have blue eyed students wear colors for easier Have blue eyed students wear colors for easier identificationidentification

3.3. assign extra privileges to Brown/green eyed assign extra privileges to Brown/green eyed studentsstudents

4.4. give extra praise to Brown/green eyed students, give extra praise to Brown/green eyed students, extra criticism to blue eyedextra criticism to blue eyed

5.5. Observe and record behaviors of kids in each groupObserve and record behaviors of kids in each group

Blue Eye experimentBlue Eye experiment

ProceduresProceduresDay 3: DebriefDay 3: Debrief

1.1. tell students that all are equaltell students that all are equal2.2. discuss with students how they felt being discuss with students how they felt being

judged by color of their eyesjudged by color of their eyes

Blue Eye experimentBlue Eye experiment FindingsFindings

1.1. Dominant group students immediately begin banding Dominant group students immediately begin banding together against inferior grouptogether against inferior group

2.2. body language of inferior students shows frustration, body language of inferior students shows frustration, anxiety, sadness, shameanxiety, sadness, shame

3.3. those in superior group seem gleeful about extra those in superior group seem gleeful about extra privileges and show no empathy for suffering of inferior privileges and show no empathy for suffering of inferior groupgroup

4.4. students in superior group showed dramatic students in superior group showed dramatic improvement in phonics skills activity; those in inferior improvement in phonics skills activity; those in inferior group showed dramatic declines on same activitygroup showed dramatic declines on same activity

5.5. when roles reversed, students who felt oppressed on when roles reversed, students who felt oppressed on day 1 eagerly become the oppressors on day 2 (anxious day 1 eagerly become the oppressors on day 2 (anxious to enact vengeance)to enact vengeance)

Blue Eye experimentBlue Eye experimentElliot’s conclusions:Elliot’s conclusions:1.1. self-fulfilling prophecy: the expectations we self-fulfilling prophecy: the expectations we

have about others can influence the way those have about others can influence the way those others behaveothers behave

2.2. dispositional attributions—people’s failings, dispositional attributions—people’s failings, bad behaviors were attributed to their eye color bad behaviors were attributed to their eye color rather than situationrather than situation

3.3. prejudices and discrimination are learned prejudices and discrimination are learned behaviors, attitudesbehaviors, attitudes

4.4. having people “walk in each other’s shoes” having people “walk in each other’s shoes” helps end the discriminationhelps end the discrimination

5 Main methods of 5 Main methods of Conducting ResearchConducting Research

1.1. case studiescase studies

2.2. naturalistic observationnaturalistic observation

3.3. surveyssurveys

4.4. correlation studiescorrelation studies

5.5. experimentsexperiments

Method 1: Case studyMethod 1: Case study Collecting anecdotal evidence about particularly Collecting anecdotal evidence about particularly

unique people (usually done with people who have a unique people (usually done with people who have a psychological disorder or illness).psychological disorder or illness).

Strengths: Strengths: wealth of information about a rare disorder or wealth of information about a rare disorder or

diseasedisease serves as serves as prototype prototype for comparing others who for comparing others who

show similar symptomsshow similar symptoms motivates additional researchmotivates additional research

Weaknesses: Weaknesses: hard to apply findings to general populationhard to apply findings to general population hard to prove patterns or test hypotheses if only 1 hard to prove patterns or test hypotheses if only 1

person is studiedperson is studied

Examples of infamous case studies:

Dissociative identity disorder (multiple-personalities) :“Sybil”

Feral children: “Victor: The Wild Boy of Aveyron” 1800s boy in France

Frontal brain injury: Phineas Gage

Anterograde amnesia: H.M.

Method 2: Method 2: Naturalistic observationNaturalistic observation

Observing people as they go about normal, daily life in Observing people as they go about normal, daily life in natural (rather than laboratory or contrived) settings.natural (rather than laboratory or contrived) settings.

Strengths: Strengths: able to observe what people really do in real life able to observe what people really do in real life

situationssituations

Weaknesses: Weaknesses: Unable to make clear cause-effect conclusions because Unable to make clear cause-effect conclusions because

there are too many unknown factors that might there are too many unknown factors that might contribute to a person’s behaviorscontribute to a person’s behaviors

Research is ruined if people sense they are being Research is ruined if people sense they are being studied, watchedstudied, watched

Method 3: Surveys Method 3: Surveys Ask people about themselves, their Ask people about themselves, their

behaviors, their mental strengths and behaviors, their mental strengths and weaknesses, their emotions, etc.weaknesses, their emotions, etc.

Strengths: Strengths: Good for finding correlation Good for finding correlation

(relationships between (relationships between variables)variables)

Weaknesses: Weaknesses: unable to determine a cause-effect unable to determine a cause-effect

relationshiprelationship people sometimes lie!people sometimes lie!

Examples of when a survey might be used:

Trying to find relationship between television viewing habits and eating/exercise habits

Determining if people’s opinions about smoking affect their likelihood to smoke

Determining if there is a relationship between being raised by a single parent and pre-marital sexual behaviors

Method 4: Correlation Method 4: Correlation studiesstudies

Collecting data about various behaviors and demographic factors (age, gender, race, Collecting data about various behaviors and demographic factors (age, gender, race, job, where you live, religion, etc.) and looking for relationships between the datajob, where you live, religion, etc.) and looking for relationships between the data

Strengths: Strengths: able to graph relationships between 2 or more variablesable to graph relationships between 2 or more variables

negative correlationnegative correlation: when one variable increases, the other decreases: when one variable increases, the other decreases More exercise is linked to less heart diseaseMore exercise is linked to less heart disease More smoking of marijuana is linked to decrease in academic achievementMore smoking of marijuana is linked to decrease in academic achievement

positive correlationpositive correlation: when one variable increases, so does the other: when one variable increases, so does the other as school attendance increases, grades increaseas school attendance increases, grades increase as alcohol consumption of pregnant woman increases, incidence of as alcohol consumption of pregnant woman increases, incidence of

retardation in their babies increasesretardation in their babies increases

Weaknesses: Weaknesses: unable to draw cause-effect conclusions!unable to draw cause-effect conclusions!

Method 5: ExperimentMethod 5: Experiment Contrive a situation, control the variables, manipulate Contrive a situation, control the variables, manipulate

one variable, watch/measure people’s reaction to that one variable, watch/measure people’s reaction to that variable.variable.

Strengths: Strengths: able to draw cause-effect conclusionsable to draw cause-effect conclusions

Weaknesses: Weaknesses: contrived setting may affect resultscontrived setting may affect results

MethodologyMethodology All research projects have in common:All research projects have in common:

research questionresearch question: general concept study is trying to find an : general concept study is trying to find an answer toanswer to

hypothesishypothesis: educated prediction of answer to research : educated prediction of answer to research questionquestion

procedures and methods planned procedures and methods planned written report of data and findingswritten report of data and findings follow ethical guidelinesfollow ethical guidelines

Get informed consent of participantsGet informed consent of participants Experiment must not put anybody in danger physically or Experiment must not put anybody in danger physically or

emotionally!emotionally! Honesty in data collection and reporting.Honesty in data collection and reporting. You must debrief people after you manipulate them.You must debrief people after you manipulate them.

Experiment Experiment methodologymethodology

Experiments have additional methods that Experiments have additional methods that must be followedmust be followed Independent variableIndependent variable: the thing you are : the thing you are

manipulating to test your hypothesis manipulating to test your hypothesis  Dependent variableDependent variable: The behavior you are : The behavior you are

measuring/observing (what you think will be measuring/observing (what you think will be affected by exposing participants to the affected by exposing participants to the independent variable!)independent variable!)

  Control groupControl group: group that is not exposed to : group that is not exposed to independent variableindependent variable

The Sorting The Sorting ExperimentExperiment

Challenge: Can you name the following elements in the Challenge: Can you name the following elements in the sorting experiment?sorting experiment?

Research questionResearch question

HypothesisHypothesis

IVIV

DVDV

Confounding variablesConfounding variables

ProceduresProcedures

Control groupControl group

Did you notice any mistakes in my methodology?Did you notice any mistakes in my methodology?

What were the variables in the experiments What were the variables in the experiments we have learned about?we have learned about?

Zimbardo prison studyZimbardo prison study IV: role of guard or prisonerIV: role of guard or prisoner DV: how people in roles behaveDV: how people in roles behave

Milgram studyMilgram study IV: Teacher believing he is administering real IV: Teacher believing he is administering real

shocks as punishment to studentshocks as punishment to student DV: How much teacher will increase shock DV: How much teacher will increase shock

voltage, how much teacher will protest, voltage, how much teacher will protest, question proceduresquestion procedures

What were the variables in the experiments What were the variables in the experiments we have learned about?we have learned about?

Asch’s conformity studyAsch’s conformity study IV: having confederates make obviously IV: having confederates make obviously

inaccurate choice of lineinaccurate choice of line DV: choice of line subject makes (conforms to DV: choice of line subject makes (conforms to

group or makes correct choice)group or makes correct choice) Bandura’s Bobo doll studyBandura’s Bobo doll study

IV: type of behavior model exhibits towards IV: type of behavior model exhibits towards Bobo doll (aggressive, non-aggressive)Bobo doll (aggressive, non-aggressive)

DV: type of behavior children exhibit towards DV: type of behavior children exhibit towards Bobo doll after watching model with dollBobo doll after watching model with doll

What were the variables in the experiments What were the variables in the experiments we have learned about?we have learned about?

Blue eye experimentBlue eye experiment IV: being assigned to superior or inferior IV: being assigned to superior or inferior

group based upon eye colorgroup based upon eye color DV: behaviors of those in superior and inferior DV: behaviors of those in superior and inferior

groupsgroups

Control groupsControl groups

Ms. C’s experiment:Ms. C’s experiment: Student who was not exposed to exercise Student who was not exposed to exercise

before doing sorting taskbefore doing sorting task

Zimbardo prison studyZimbardo prison study Have 20 students live together in same Have 20 students live together in same

psychology lab basement for 2 weeks but psychology lab basement for 2 weeks but none is assigned role of prisoner or guard and none is assigned role of prisoner or guard and students are not told it is a prisonstudents are not told it is a prison

Milgram studyMilgram study someone not in position of authority asks someone not in position of authority asks

people to play role of teacher (person who people to play role of teacher (person who delivers shocks) delivers shocks)

Control groupsControl groups

Asch studyAsch study Ask people to name correct line while in Ask people to name correct line while in

groups without any confederates giving groups without any confederates giving wrong answerwrong answer

Bandura studyBandura study Have children go into room with Bobo doll Have children go into room with Bobo doll

that have not watched anybody model that have not watched anybody model behavior towards Bobo dollbehavior towards Bobo doll

Control groupsControl groups

Blue eye experimentBlue eye experiment Teacher runs class same way (same lessons, Teacher runs class same way (same lessons,

activities, rules) BUT does not divide class activities, rules) BUT does not divide class into superior and inferior groups based upon into superior and inferior groups based upon eye colors. Observe to see if kids naturally eye colors. Observe to see if kids naturally segregate and discriminate based upon eye segregate and discriminate based upon eye color.color.

Control groupsControl groups

Classical Conditioning: Pavlov and “Pavlovian Classical Conditioning: Pavlov and “Pavlovian Response”Response”

Russian Dr. Ivan Pavlov, M.D. (1849-1936) studied effects of external environment on reflex responses “Classical conditioning focuses on the learning of involuntary emotional or physiological responses such as fear, increase heartbeat, salivation, or sweating, which are sometimes called reflexes because they are automatic responses to stimuli” *

Video clip The Office Clip 2 “quack”1920 John Watson experiment “Baby Albert” video

Identify the classical Identify the classical conditioning variables in conditioning variables in

Quack and the OfficeQuack and the OfficeQuackQuack NS: NS: US:US: UR:UR: CS: CS: CR:CR:

The OfficeThe Office NS: NS: US:US: UR:UR: CS: CS: CR: CR:

quack sound

feeling of dart hitting body

flinching when hit

flinching when hit

quack sound

computer reboot sound

computer reboot sound

altoid on tongue

refreshed tongue

tongue anticipating altoid

The terminologyThe terminology Conditioned response (CR) :The Conditioned response (CR) :The

behavior that the experimenter behavior that the experimenter is trying to elicit from the is trying to elicit from the subjectsubject salivationsalivation

Neutral stimulus (NS): A Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus (sight, sound, smell, stimulus (sight, sound, smell, feeling) that does NOT elicit feeling) that does NOT elicit desired response prior to desired response prior to conditioning.conditioning. Sound of bell Sound of bell

  Unconditioned stimulus (US): a Unconditioned stimulus (US): a stimulus that leads to an stimulus that leads to an involuntary response by a involuntary response by a subject without any training.subject without any training. Food Food

Acquisition is when the NS becomes conditioned stimulus (CS)

After repeated paired exposures of NS and US, NS becomes CS therefore...subject begins behaving in same involuntary way it would to unconditioned stimulus (US) after US has been removed

1. Generalization: Stimulus similar to CS will elicit same CR

--Different bells elicit salivation

2. Discrimination: Animal learns to ignore stimuli that are similar to CS if similar stimuli never accompany original US

--Sound of different bell NEVER paired with food

3. Extinction: CR will stop after repeated exposure to CS without US

--Original bell rung many times without exposure to food

More classical conditioning terminology

Practical applications of Pavlovian ResponsePractical applications of Pavlovian Response

In simple termsIn simple terms: : you can train an animal (and you can train an animal (and a person) to respond in a desired way a person) to respond in a desired way (perform a behavior or extinguish a (perform a behavior or extinguish a behavior!) by training the person to behavior!) by training the person to associate desired (or undesired) behavior associate desired (or undesired) behavior with a simple stimulus with a simple stimulus stop coyote from eating sheep by poisoning stop coyote from eating sheep by poisoning

sheep carcassessheep carcasses eliminate phobias (pair the feared stimulus eliminate phobias (pair the feared stimulus

with a positive stimulus)with a positive stimulus)ending fast food addiction (3 min)

Operant ConditioningOperant ConditioningB.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner

Skinner (died 1990) American behavioral psychologist Skinner (died 1990) American behavioral psychologist

Designed the “Designed the “Skinner Box”Skinner Box” to prove that animals (rats, to prove that animals (rats, pigeons) could be trained to do non-instinctual behaviors if pigeons) could be trained to do non-instinctual behaviors if reinforced (rewarded) for the desired behaviorreinforced (rewarded) for the desired behavior

2 kinds of “reinforcers” 2 kinds of “reinforcers” PositivePositive--reward like money or food--reward like money or food Negative Negative --removal of a negative stressor (loud noise, bright --removal of a negative stressor (loud noise, bright

light, shock) (NOTE: This is not the same as punishment!!)light, shock) (NOTE: This is not the same as punishment!!)

Animals can be trained to stop doing previously learned Animals can be trained to stop doing previously learned behaviors if punished for performing the behaviorbehaviors if punished for performing the behavior

Punishment does NOT work very well to make behavior extinct Punishment does NOT work very well to make behavior extinct IF reward outweighs punishmentIF reward outweighs punishment

Video: Leonard trains Penny

Video 2

Practical Applications of Operant Practical Applications of Operant ConditioningConditioning

eliminating phobias through systematic desensitization –eliminating phobias through systematic desensitization –Behaviorist Joseph Wolpe teaches people to Behaviorist Joseph Wolpe teaches people to relax muscles relax muscles while while exposed to incrementally exposed to incrementally scarier scarier situations if have a phobiasituations if have a phobia

Behavior modification (B-mod)– used in schools and by parents Behavior modification (B-mod)– used in schools and by parents to get desired behavior to occur and eliminate undesirable to get desired behavior to occur and eliminate undesirable behaviorsbehaviors Examples:Examples:

Token economy—Token economy— child earns stickers for good behavior that can be child earns stickers for good behavior that can be

exchanged for a toy or privilegeexchanged for a toy or privilege prisoner earns points for good behavior that can be prisoner earns points for good behavior that can be

exchanged for cigarettes/candy, extra privilegesexchanged for cigarettes/candy, extra privileges Teacher sticker charts/checks on boardTeacher sticker charts/checks on board

The experiment: Procedures and The experiment: Procedures and findingsfindings

Procedures:Procedures:Elliot’s conclusions:Elliot’s conclusions: self-fulfilling prophecy: the expectations we have about self-fulfilling prophecy: the expectations we have about

others can influence the way those others behaveothers can influence the way those others behave students in non-privileged group performed poorly on students in non-privileged group performed poorly on

academic challenge; in privileged group performed well academic challenge; in privileged group performed well (just like Rosenthal’s and Jacobson’s Pygmalion in the (just like Rosenthal’s and Jacobson’s Pygmalion in the classroom study)classroom study)

dispositional attributions—people’s failings, bad dispositional attributions—people’s failings, bad behaviors were attributed to their eye color rather than behaviors were attributed to their eye color rather than situationsituation

prejudices and discrimination learnedprejudices and discrimination learned having people “walk in each other’s shoes” helps end having people “walk in each other’s shoes” helps end

the discriminationthe discrimination

Time to design and conduct your own Time to design and conduct your own research project!!research project!!

1.1. Pick a topic to studyPick a topic to study

2.2. Pick one of the following research methods to find out more about your Pick one of the following research methods to find out more about your topic:topic: correlation surveycorrelation survey naturalistic observationnaturalistic observation experiment—cause and effect or correlationexperiment—cause and effect or correlation

3. Create a research proposal that includes the following:3. Create a research proposal that includes the following:   Research question/topic: General topic you plan to study or question you plan to Research question/topic: General topic you plan to study or question you plan to

answeranswer Hypothesis: Educated guess of what you predict will be the results of your research Hypothesis: Educated guess of what you predict will be the results of your research

studystudy If an experiment: identify independent variable, dependent variable, and possible If an experiment: identify independent variable, dependent variable, and possible

confounding variablesconfounding variables Procedures and materials: Step-by-step plans of how you will conduct your researchProcedures and materials: Step-by-step plans of how you will conduct your research Identify who will be your test subjects/participants & when and where you plan to Identify who will be your test subjects/participants & when and where you plan to

do the researchdo the research

ESP: Ganzfield ESP: Ganzfield procedureprocedure

Video clip (start at 6:11)Video clip (start at 6:11)