Research Methods and Abnormal Psychology

Chapter 3

Basic Components of Research Study (cont.)

Internal vs. External Validity Internal validity – Confidence that effects are due to

the independent variable External validity – Extent to which the findings are

generalizable

Ways to Increase Internal Validity by Minimizing Confounds Use of control groups or statistical control Use of random assignment procedures Use of analog models

Relation Between Internal and External Validity

Types of Research Designs

Descriptive designs Involves measurement of independent variables, but

not manipulation by experimenter Answers questions about relations among variables Does not allow us to infer causation Examples: case studies and epidemiology

Experimental designs Involves manipulation of an independent variable to

observe the effect Allows stronger inference about causation Examples: analog studies and randomized trials

Descriptive Designs: Case Studies

Nature of the Case Study Extensive observation and detailed description of a

client Foundation of early historic developments in

psychopathology

Limitations of the Case Study Lacks scientific rigor and suitable controls Often entails numerous confounds Useful for generating scientific hypotheses, but not

testing

Descriptive Designs: Epidemiology

Study incidence, prevalence, and course of disorders and disease Uses “correlational method”

The Nature of Correlation Statistical expression of covariation between two

variables No independent variable is manipulated

Nature of Correlation and Strength of Association Range from –1.0 to 0 to +1.0 Positive vs. negative correlation

Correlation and Its Relation to Causation Problem of directionality “Third variable” problem Correlation does not imply causation

Experimental Designs: Analog Studies

Experimenter manipulates independent variable to create phenomena analagous to psychological disorder Animal models – depression, aggression May be used to test treatment mechanisms or

effects of psychological disorders Advantage: larger potential samples Disadvantage: limited external validity to clinical

samples

Experimental Designs: Randomized Trials

True experiment Participants randomly assigned to experimental or

control group Independent variable is present in experimental

group, absent in control group Example: treatment outcome studies

Other considerations Placebo can control for participant expectancy

effects Double-blind design can control for experimenter

expectancies

Studying Change over Time

How does the problem or behavior change over time? Important in prevention and treatment research

Cross-sectional designs Assess different groups of age cohorts at one time Advantage: faster Disadvantage: cohort effects limit inference of

causes Logitudinal designs

Follow one group over time, across different ages Advantage: better inference about causes Disadvantage: cross-generation effects limit

generalizability

Ethics in Research

Sources of Ethical Guidelines Institutional Review Boards APA Ethics Codes Federal Regulations

Considerations Informed consent – Historical evolution post WWII Competence – Ability to provide consent Voluntarism – Lack of coercion Full information – Necessary information to make an

informed decision Comprehension – Understanding about benefits and

risks of participation

Anxiety Disorders

Chapter 4

Nature of Anxiety and Fear

Anxiety Future-oriented mood state characterized by marked

negative affect Somatic symptoms of tension Apprehension about future danger or misfortune

Fear Present-oriented mood state, marked negative affect Immediate fight or flight response to danger or threat Strong avoidance/escapist tendencies Involves abrupt activation of the sympathetic

nervous system

Anxiety and Fear are Normal Emotional States

From Normal to Disordered Anxiety and Fear

Characteristics of Anxiety Disorders Psychological disorders – Pervasive and persistent

symptoms of anxiety and fear Involve excessive avoidance and escapist tendencies Symptoms and avoidance causes clinically significant

distress and impairment

The Anxiety Disorders: An Overview

Generalized Anxiety Disorder Panic Disorder with and without Agoraphobia Specific Phobias Social Phobia Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

Generalized Anxiety Disorder:The “Basic” Anxiety Disorder

Overview and Defining Features Excessive uncontrollable anxious apprehension and

worry about life events Coupled with strong, persistent anxiety Somatic symptoms differ from panic (e.g., muscle

tension, fatigue, irritability) Persists for 6 months or more

Facts and Statistics 4% point prevalence Females outnumber males approximately 2:1 Onset is often insidious, beginning in early adulthood Tendency to be anxious runs in families

Panic Disorder with and without Agoraphobia

Overview and Defining Features Experience of unexpected panic attack (i.e., a false

alarm) Develop anxiety, worry, or fear about having another

attack or its implications Agoraphobia – Fear or avoidance of situations/events

associated with panic Symptoms and concern about another attack

persists for 1 month or more Facts and Statistics

3.5% point prevalence Two thirds with panic disorder are female Onset is often acute, beginning between 25 and 29

years of age

The Phenomenology of Panic Attacks

What Is a Panic Attack? Abrupt experience of intense fear or discomfort Accompanied by several physical symptoms (e.g.,

breathlessness, chest pain)

DSM-IV Subtypes of Panic Attacks Situationally bound (cued) panic – Expected and

bound to some situations Unexpected (uncued) panic – Unexpected “out of the

blue” without warning Situationally predisposed panic – May or may not

occur in some situations

Panic Is Analogous to Fear as an Alarm Response

Panic Disorder with and without Agoraphobia

Overview and Defining Features Experience of unexpected panic attacks (i.e., a false alarm) Develop anxiety, worry, or fear about having another

attack or its implications Agoraphobia – Fear or avoidance of situations/events

associated with panic Symptoms and concern about another attack persists for 1

month or more Facts and Statistics

3.5% point prevalence Two thirds with panic disorder are female Onset is often acute, beginning between 25 and 29 years

of age

Overview and Defining Features Extreme and irrational fear of a specific object or

situation Markedly interferes with one's ability to function Recognize fears are unreasonable, but go to great

lengths to avoid phobic objects

Facts and Statistics About 11% point prevalence for one or more specific

phobias Females are again over-represented Phobias run a chronic course, with onset beginning

between 15 and 20 years of age

Specific Phobias: An Overview

Social Phobia: An Overview

Overview and Defining Features Extreme and irrational fear/shyness in social and

performance situations Markedly interferes with one's ability to function Often avoid social situations or endure them with

great distress Generalized subtype – Social phobia across

numerous social situations

Facts and Statistics About 13% lifetime prevalence Females are slightly more represented than males Onset is usually during adolescence with a peak age

of onset at about 15 years

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): An Overview

Overview and Defining Features Requires exposure to an event resulting in extreme

fear, helplessness, or horror Person continues to re-experience the event (e.g.,

memories, nightmares, flashbacks) Avoidance of cues that remind person of event Emotional numbing and interpersonal problems are

common Markedly interferes with one's ability to function PTSD diagnosis cannot be made earlier than 1 month

post-trauma

Facts and Statistics About 7.8% point prevalence Combat and sexual assault are the most common

traumas

Overview and Defining Features Obsessions – Intrusive and nonsensical thoughts,

images, or urges that one tries to resist or eliminate Compulsions – Thoughts or actions to suppress the

thoughts and provide relief Most persons with OCD display multiple obsessions Most persons with OCD present with cleaning and

washing or checking rituals

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): An Overview

Facts and Statistics About 2.6% lifetime prevalence Most persons with OCD are female OCD tends to be chronic Onset is typically in early adolescence or young

adulthood

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD):Causes and Associated Features