Research Methods CPDS 525Introduction/Orientation (an

extensive introduction to the CPDS: 525)

Ram Thapaliya, Ph.D

Definitions: Research(a) “a scientific process of inquiry and/or experimentation that involves purposeful, systematic and rigorous collection of data. Analysis and interpretation of the data are then made in order to gain new knowledge or add to existing knowledge. Research has the ultimate of developing an organized body of scientific knowledge” (Dempsey and Dempsey, 1992, p 4).

(b) “a cyclical process of steps that typically begins with identifying theproblem or issue of the study. It then consists of reviewing the literature,specifying a purpose for the study and forming an interpretation of theinformation. This process culminates in a report disseminated to the

audiencethat is evaluated and used in the educational community” (Creswell, 2002, p18).(c) “a documented, data-driven approach to the development of knowledge” (Walker, 2002, p 10)

Why research is undertaken• address gaps in knowledge• expand knowledge• improve practice through new ideas, new insights into

methods• make more informed choices/decisions based on

available information• create data-base for policy-making as research

provides an understanding of the factors affecting desired outcomes

• helps to build skills – organizational, analytical, writing, presentation, time management,

Main reasons for undertaking research on your thesis topic

• testing (scientific) theories• advancing (scientific) knowledge• assisting with the building and managing of

successful social programs (e.g.,• evaluation research and social impact

assessment

Analysis• Positive analysis: what is actually occurring or has

occurred. The focus is on explanation with a view of predicting.

• Normative Analysis: what ought to be/should be and involves some degree of value judgement.

• Research Methodology: Study of relationships between theories (theoretical concepts) and methods of reaching warranted conclusions about the nature of the real world.

Note: Research Methodology reflects the analysis of the body of rules employed by a discipline (e.g., economics, political science, sociology).

DISSERTATION

(The Ph.D dissertation fulfills to major purposes: (1) it is an intensive, highly professional training, experience, the successful completion of which demonstrates the candidate’s ability to address a major intellectual problem and arrive at a successful conclusion independently and at a high level of professional competence, and (2) its results constitute an original contribution to knowledge in the field. Council of Graduate Schools, 1990a, p.21)

Thesis: The analysis of a set of facts in their relation to one another

• “The midpoint to the dissertation, beyond this generalization, little agreement exists its goals and objectives, functions, and purpose, curricula and criteria for evaluation” Glazer, AAU.

Note: The author of a master’s thesis should demonstrate independent ability to address and solve a serious intellectual problems, albeit one that is less ambitious than that addressed by the doctoral dissertation. However the master’s thesis also represent an original and substantial contribution to knowledge.

Thesis

• Consists of an argument or a series of arguments combined with the description and discussion of research you have undertaken.

• Note: You are expected to review critically the available publications in the field and attempt to add an element of original research to it. Your supervisor will advise you about suitable research.

Preparing to write/research• Teamwork between you and your supervisor• Find out how the software can help you to do tasks like fill in

citations, maintain a consistent style, create a Table of contents

• Writing conventions: conventions are the rules you need to follow in writing regarding citations, bibliographies, style (eg, language free of gender bias), page setup, punctuation, spelling, figures and tables, and the presentation of graphics

• Look at other theses in the field• Remember that writing is a thinking process• Preparing proposals and applications

Purpose of study

• Deciding on a paradigm, using literature, writing an introduction, stating a purpose for the study, identifying research questions and hypotheses, using theory, defining, delimiting, and stating the significance of the study, and advancing methods and procedures for data collection and analysis.

Excersise

• Get to know your classmate and write a paragraph about him/her.

Suggested questions• What is your nape please?• Where are you from• How old are you• Where do you live?• Who do you live with?• Do you have any brothers and sisters?• Are you married?• Do you have any children?• Why are you studying conflict peace?• What do you like to do in your free time?

Example writing paragraph about your classmate

My classmate My classmate’s name is Sunita. She is from Rolpa.

She is 25 years old. She lives in Baluwatar with her mother, father and three sisters. She is not married. She doesn’t have any children but she wants to have a daughter and a son. She is studying conflict peace because she wants to be a social scientist. In her free time Sunita likes to play tennis, read good books and go out with her friends. She wants me to play tennis with her on Saturday. I am happy that Sunita is my classmate.

An IMPORTANT PERSON

• Think about a person who is important to you. Who is this person? Why is this person important to you? Write two paragraph.

1st paragraph

• WHO?• Name• Your relation• How long you know this person• His location• His/her professional• And some more about him/her

2nd paragraph• Why is this person important to you?• What did this person do for you• How did this person help to change your life• What did you learn from this person?• What did you do for this person?• What do you want to for this person?• How do you feel about this person• How does this person feel about you?• What do you hope for the future?• Is there anything else you want to write about?

Pinkey’s Story• Pinkey was eighteen years old and she was finishing high school. She

wanted to be a professional, but there were few opportunity in her country Nepal. First, it was difficult to go to school because it was expensive, and priority given to men. Second, even if she could go to school, there were very few jobs available. Finally, her parents did not approve and would not help her.

• Pinkey had an older brother who lived in Poland. He said she could come to live with him and go to school at the same time. There were disadvantage to going to Poland. She had a boyfriend, and he didn't want her to go. She knew that Poland was busy country and cold in the winter. She knew she would have to learn polish, Russian, Swedish and German languages and that it would be difficult for her. Pinkey thought about going to Poland, and she considered advantages and disadvantages.

Activity• This is the beginning of a story. How would you finish this

story? Discuss this with your group then finish the story by your self: What did Pinkey decided to do? Tel why. Also tell what happened to her.

• If she decided to go Poland: How did she explain her decision to her parents and boyfriend? What happened to her after she came to Poland?

• If she decided to stay in Nepal: What did she do about her ambitions to get an education and become a professional? Did she have to give them up, or was she able to work out a plan? Was Pinkey happy or unhappy with her decision? Explain why.

Unit I. A. Social Science Research: Perspectives and Approaches : 5 hrs

• Introduction to Social Science Research: Definition, Type, Salient Features, Objectives

• Theories and paradigm in Social Sciences • Research practices in Conflict and Peace Research • B. Fundamental Concepts of Social Science Research • Research Problem, Hypothesis, Objectives,

Conceptual framework, Causality (Cause and Effects), Reliability and Validity, Generalization, and Dissemination

Introduction to Social Science

• The study of society and of the relationship of individual members within the society, including economics, history, political science, psychology, anthropology, and sociology

• Social Sciences include various disciplines dealing with human life, human behaviour, social groups and social institutions.

• Human nature and man's en-vironment are so complex that it is more difficult to comprehend and predict human behaviour than the physical phenomena. The behaviour of human beings is influenced by biological, psychological, socio-cultural, temporal and environmental fac-tors.

Introduction to Social Science Research:

• Systematic method of exploring, analyzing and conceptualizing human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge of human behavior and social life

• To clarify the doubtful, and correct the misconceived facts of social life

• Note: The fields of social science research are virtually unlimited, and the materials of research endless. Every group of social phenomena, every phase of human life, and every stage of past and present development are materials for the social scientists.

Objectives

• To discover new facts or verify and test old facts• To understand the human behaviour and its interaction with

the environment and the social institutions • To find out the causal connection between human activities

and natural laws governing them• To develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories, which

would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour and social life.

• Note: Applying the appropriate research design in gathering the required data about people and their behavior is essential in understanding the complexities of human behavior.

Type, Salient Features,

• Experimental Research Design: An experiment is a research design where a certain degree of control over a given set of variables is exercised by the researcher when conducting an investigation. A branch of statistics that attempts to outline the way in which experiments should be carried out so the data gathered will have statistical value

Research Type cont..

• Case Study Research Design: Focuses on a single case rather than dealing with a sample of a large population

• Longitudinal Research Design: Involves collection of data over a period of time (Trend study: particular characteristic of the population over time, Cohort study: group of individuals, who have shared a particular time together during a particular time, Panel study: involves collection of data from a panel or the same set of people over several points in time)

• Cross sectional Research design: common research design used by social scientists

Functions of Social Science Research

• Discovery of facts and their interpretation • Diagnosis of Problems and their analysis• Systematisation of knowledge• Control over Social Phenomena• Prediction• Development Planning• Social Welfare

Primary methods of research in the study of conflict and its resolution

Objectives of study

Personal Conflict Impact research

• Produce a two-pages essay in which you discuss the role of conflict and conflict resolution in your personal life experience. Some question you might respond to are:

Suggested Questions

a. With whom have you been most in conflict at various points of your life?b. Over what issues?c. How did conflict behavior affect you?d. How do members of your family and your family as a group deal with

conflict)e. What devices or skills have you developed to regulated and resolved

conflict?f. Have you had direct, personal exposure to violence? If so in what forms?g. How did you that view conflict? As unhealthy? Natural?Note: Good, sound research projects begin with straightforward,

uncomplicated thoughts, easily read and understood.

Unit II: Research Designs 5 hrs

• Meaning, Fundamental Features, Types (Qualitative, Quantitative, mixed design), Strengths and Limitations of Descriptive, Longitudinal, Cross-Cultural and Comparative Research Designs.

WHAT IS RESEARCH DESIGN?

• Research design `deals with a logical problem and not a logistical problem' (Yin, 1989: 29)

• A research design is not just a work plan. A work plan details what has to be done to complete the project but the work plan can be a small portion of research design.

• The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables us to answer the initial question as unambiguously as possible.

• In other words, when designing research we need to ask: given this research question (or theory), what type of evidence is needed to answer the question (or test the theory) in a convincing way?

Research Design

• Social researchers ask two fundamental types of research questions:

• 1 What is going on (descriptive research)?: Is the level of social inequality increasing or declining?, How secular is society? Or How much poverty is there in this community?

• 2 Why is it going on (explanatory research)?: Why the crime rate is as high as it is? Why some types of crime are increasing? Why the rate is higher in some countries than in others?

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

• ) “It emphasizes the importance of looking at variables in the natural setting in which they are found” (Jacob, 1988)

• defines qualitative research as “a form of systematic empirical inquiry into meaning” Shank (2002)

• “This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them” Denzin and Lincoln (2000

Advantages of qualitative research• Flexibility to follow unexpected ideas during research and explore processes

effectively• Sensitivity to contextual factors• Ability to study symbolic dimensions and social meaning• Increased opportunities to develop empirically supported new ideas and

theories• For in-depth and longitudinal explorations of leadership phenomena• Produces more in-depth, comprehensive information• It seeks a wide understanding of the entire situation• For more relevance and interest for practitioners• To understand complex phenomena that are difficult or impossible to

approach or to capture quantitatively• To try to “understand” any social phenomenon from the perspective of the

actors involved, rather than explaining it (unsuccessfully) from the outside(Conger, 1998; Bryman et al, 1988; Alvesson, 1996)

Disadvantages

• The very subjectivity of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the reliability and validity of the approaches and information.

• It is very difficult to prevent or detect researcher induced bias

• Its scope is limited due to the in-depth, comprehensive data gathering approaches required

Characteristics• Purpose: Understanding - Seeks to understand people’s interpretations.• Reality: Dynamic - Reality changes with changes in people’s perceptions.• Viewpoint: Insider - Reality is what people perceive it to be.• Values: Value bound - Values will have an impact and should be

understood and taken into account when conducting and reporting research.

• Focus: Holistic - A total or complete picture is sought.• Orientation: Discovery - Theories and hypotheses are evolved from data

as collected.• Data: Subjective - Data are perceptions of the people in the environment.• Instrumentation: Human - The human person is the primary collection

instrument.• Conditions: Naturalistic - Investigations are conducted under natural

conditions.• Results: Valid - The focus is on design and procedures to gain "real,"

"rich," and "deep" data.

Quantitative• This is the traditional practice in leadership research, with surveys and

experiments as the most favored methods• Quantitative practices usually reflect a positivist stance to inquiry• One of the main benefits of quantitative research compared with

qualitative research is that it is more precise and easy to analyze.• Qualitative research requires more subjective evaluation but Quantitative

data also tend to offer a more efficient picture of the results; they are also usually more objective as researchers are not able to manipulate the numbers or scores when the studies are conducted accurately and without bias. With qualitative studies, researchers break down opinions and thoughts and may have bias. Quantitative research is also more efficient to carry out when dealing with a larger sample size. Social Statistics for a Diverse Society, Chava Frankfort-Nachmias & Anna Leon-Guerrero.

Quantitative • “Quantitative research uses data collection for

statistical formulas and future projections. It provides support for companies in decision making, which allows them to have more confidence when taking action. All data are collected in numerical or statistical format. Relative to qualitative data, quantitative data are more often recommended during latter phases of a research project or process” John W. Creswell

Advantages

• quantitative data are precise• They offer limited ability to get more involved

or in-depth responses. • To add rich detail and nuance that illustrates

or documents existing knowledge of a phenomenon, generated quantitatively

Disadvantages

• Often, simplifying assumptions are made to enable analysis

• Results may not resemble the “messy reality” of schools

• May lack insight• Understand what is so, but not understand

why it is so

Unit III: Data Collection method and Tools 10 hrs

• A. Selection of sample area and rapport building• B. Quantitative Research/Data• Sampling Methods and size • Survey: Methods and Types• Measurements: Uses, Rationale and Limitations• Questionnaire preparation: Types, Uses and Limitations• C. Qualitative Research/Data • Field Research (Field methods and modes of inquiry)• Questionnaire (check-list) Preparation, Uses and Limitations• Qualitative Interviews: Key Informant Interview (KII), Focused Group

Discussion (FGD)• Case Study • Emic approach in research: Ethnographic method

Unit IV: Data Processing and Analysis 12 hrs

• A. Quantitative Data• Quantitative Data Processing • One Variable Analysis (frequency, measure of central

tendency, measures of dispersion),• Two Variable Analysis (bivariate tables, measures of

association, regression analysis) • Introduction to Multiple regression analysis • B. Qualitative Data • Conceptualizing, (thematic) Coding, Organizing and

Categorizing qualitative data (verbal/illustration) • Interpretative Analysis• Writing Case studies

Unit V: Writing Research Proposal and Thesis/Dissertation: 8 hrs

• A. Proposal• Proposal Preparation • Components of a Research Proposal• B. Literature Review:• Introduction and Need for Literature Review

(reasons/justification, uses)• Identification and selection of relevant Literature • C. Scientific Writing (International Standard Format):• Thesis/Dissertation;• Reports (based on TOR given by

projects/clients/agencies/organizations, etc.)

Unit VI: Ethical Issues in Social Science Research 5 hrs• Code of Ethics (with reference to Nepal Health

Research Council)• Protection of Subject/respondent (anonymity,

confidentiality; informed consent, etc.) • Ethics in Scholarly Writings (plagiarism, giving

credit, etc.)• Ethical Dilemmas in Field Research

Suggested Readings

• Babbie, E. (1986). The Practice of Social Research, 4th edition, California, Wardworth Publishing Company.• Baker, T. L. (1990). Doing Social Research. Third Edition. New Delhi: McGraw-Hill College.• Gibaldi, J. (2004). MLA Handbook for Writers for Research Papers. Sixth edition. New Delhi: Affiliated East West Press Pvt. Ltd.• Gupta, S. C. (1999). Fundamental of Statistics. New Delhi: Himalayan Publishing House.• Galtung, J. (2006) “Peace and Conflict Research in the age of the Cholera: Ten Pointers to The Future of Peace Studies”. Speech delivered in IPRA

Conference, Canada.• Kanel, N. R. (2003). Guidelines to Format Theses and Dissertations. Kathmandu: New Hira Books Enterprises.• Gurr, T. R., & Marshall, M. G. (2005). Peace and Conflict 2005: A Global Survey of Armed Conflicts, Self-Determination Movements, and Democracy.

University of Maryland (College Park, Md.). Center for International Development and Conflict Management.• Reychler, L. (2006). Challenges of Peace Research. International Journal of Peace Studies, Volume 11, Number 1, Spring/Summer 2006.• Wallensteen, P. (2001). The Growing Peace Research Agenda. Kroc Institute Occasional Paper #21: OP: 4.• • Online Resources • Causes of War – www.sozialwiss.uni-hamburg.de/publish/Ipw/akuf• Correlates of War (COW) – www.correlatesofwar.org• GPPAC – www.gppac.net• International Alert – http://www.international-alert.org • International Crisis Group – http://www.crisisgroup.org• IPRA - http://www.human.mie-u.ac.jp/~peace/about-ipra• Minority At Risk Project – http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar• PRIO - http://www.prio.no• SIPRI - http://www.sipri.org• Swiss Peace – www.swisspeace.org• TRANSCEND – www.transcend.org• Uppsala Conflict Database – www.pcr.uu.se/database/index.php

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