Research Methods & Ethics

1

Outcome(s):2

Present and evaluate experiments on a particular assigned topic using the scientific method

Recognize the necessity of ethical behavior in all aspects of the science and practice of psychology

Agenda:3

1. Reading Quiz2. Experimental Design Presentations3. TED Talk: Zimbardo, Psychology of Evil4. Ethics PPT/Discussion5. A Rush to Judgment? Case Study

Reading & Analysis

Reading Quiz4

Experimental Design Presentations

5

TED Talk6

Zimbardo – The Psychology of Evil

http://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_on_the_psychology_of_evil.html

Research Methods & Ethics

7

Organizing the Data/Describing the Data with Descriptive Statistics8

Descriptive statistics: statistical procedures used to describe characteristics and responses of groups of subjects

Mean: the measure of central tendency most often used to describe a set of data—calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores

Median: a measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the sore that separates the upper half of the scores in a distribution from the lower half

Mode: a measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented b the score that occurs more often than any other

Range: the simplest measure of variability, represented by the difference between the highest and the lowest values in a frequency distribution

Standard deviation (SD): a measure of variability that indicates the average difference between the scores and their mean

Normal distribution: a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population

Research Methods9

Correlation: a relationship between variables, in which changes in one variable are reflected in changes in the other variable—as in the correlation between a child’s age and height

Correlation coefficient: a number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables Any r that is positive indicates a direct or positive relationship between two measured

variables. Negative r indicates indirect or inverse relationship. Inferential statistics: statistical techniques (based on probability

theory) used to assess whether they might be simply the result of chance. Inferential statistics are often used to determine whether two or more groups are essentially the same or different

Random sample: a sample group of subjects selected by chance (without biased selection techniques)

Representative sample: a sample obtained in such a way that it reflects the distribution of important variables in the larger population in which the researchers are interested—variables such as age, income level, ethnicity, and geographic location

Significant difference: psychologists accept a difference between the groups as “real,” or significant, when the probability that it might be due to an atypical sample drawn by chance is less than 5 in 100 (indicated by the notation p < .05)

Ethics and Research?10

Is “pure” research above ethics and morality?

Is ethics and morality to do with technology and politics (the appliance of research) not research itself?

The chain of discovery

Indus try in SOCIETY - POLIT IC S

Solving problems

Technology as INSTRU MENT - EC ONOMIC S

Application

K now ledge in ARCHIVE - HISTOR Y

P ublication

Discovery by METHOD - PHILOSOPH Y

Research

Sc ientis t w ith VOCAT ION - PSY C HOLOG Y

11

The Impact of Research on Values and Values on Research

12

Ethical considerations are to the fore with the development of new technologies and new social systems

Society is inherently conservative and seeks to set the limits of research activity

The scope of research ethics

Ethical considerations cover all aspect of research but they are fore-grounded when the subject of the research are humans or animals

13

Research involving human subjects in the Medical, Social and Behavioral Sciences poses complex ethical issues.

It requires careful thought and consideration on the part of both researchers and research participants.

Prospective participants must be given adequate information on both the possible risks and the potential benefits of their involvement to allow them to make informed decisions

14

It has its disadvantages

But it

pays well

Ethical Issues

Justification for the research

Access to participants/Privacy

Informed consent Potential harm

15

Summary of Steps in Ethics CascadeDess and Foltin (2005)16

I. Who should decide what is morally justifiable in the conduct of research?

II. Are controlled research studies ever necessary or appropriate?

III. Should all research have a foreseeable practical benefit?

IV. At whom should research be directed?V. What specific topics are worthy of research?VI. What particular research methodologies are

scientifically valid, as well as ethically appropriate?

VII. Of the valid methods, which should be used?

With research involving human subjects the risks and costs must be balanced against the potential benefits

Trivial or repetitive research is may be unethical where the subjects are at risk

17

After years of experimentation the scientist proved that children become addicted to nicotine

Autonomy

The ethical principle of autonomy means that each person should be given the respect, time, and opportunity necessary to make his or her own decisions.

Prospective participants must be given the information they will need to decide to enter a study or not to participate.

There should not be pressure to participate.

18

Vulnerable participants

Potentially vulnerable participants such as children, the elderly, the mentally ill may be incapable of understanding information that would enable them to make an informed decision about study participation.

Consequently, careful consideration of their situation and needs is required, and extra care must be taken to protect them.

For example, how will you assess the diminished capacity of an elderly individual, who will be the guardian, and how and when will you involve another individual as guardian in the process?

19

The process of obtaining consent

1. Identify participant population

2. Produce information sheet and consent document

3. Obtain permission from school’s ethics committee

4. Present research information to participant and discuss its contents – indicating that withdrawal at any time is possible

5. Answer participants questions

6. Give a copy of the consent document

7. Allow the participant time to consider

8. Meet participant and discuss documents, to answer any more questions and assess participants understanding

9. Obtain appropriate signed consent

10. Start research

20

The participants

The participants may not have the experience or educational background in order to fully understand the implications of the research (vulnerable patients)

They may be swayed because of their respect of and trust in the researcher who stands as an authority figure

If they are being paid for their participation they may be swayed by economic considerations from a free judgement of the risks

21

Peer pressure

The participants may be subject to social pressure of their peer group

This is particularly prevalent in research groups

22

Deception:Reasons for limiting information

The most common reason for limiting information is that valid data could not be obtained if the participants were fully informed about the purposes and procedures of the research.

Methodological requirements of the research may demand that the participants remain unaware of the specific hypotheses under investigation.

In other situations, incomplete information or misinformation may have to be provided to elicit the behavior of a naive individual or to create psychological reality under conditions that permit valid inference.

23

Consent Form

24

Might take the following form

I have read the Information Sheet and have had the details of the study explained to me. My questions have been answered to my satisfaction, and I may ask further questions at any time.

I understand I have the right to withdraw from the study at any time and decline to answer any particular questions.

I agree to provide information to the researcher(s) on the understanding that my name will not be used without my permission.

I agree/do not agree to the interview being recorded electronically.

I understand that I have the right to ask for the tape to be turned off at any time during the interview

I agree to participate in this study under the conditions set out in the information sheet

Signature – Name - Date

Research design Most research is sponsored

It is ethical behaviour for a researcher to use resources efficiently and

effectively to work hard to ensure the well-being of all

colleagues and participants

25

Minimising the risksMaximising the potential for valuable results

It is standard practise in research to carry out a preliminary small-scale project in order to enable more effective assessment of risks more efficient design of the main project

26

Whistle-blowing Researchers are in a privileged

position They may come across

information about wrong-doing or danger to the public

The reporting of this information may go against any confidentiality agreement

The reporting of such information is likely to damage their career

The Public Disclosure Act 1998 protects certain classes of workers from the consequences of whistle-blowing

27

Confidentiality

Confidentiality of electronically stored participant information.

Appropriate selection and use of tools for analysis of the primary data

Who has access to the data

Data protection act

28

29

THE NEGATIVE DATA PROBLEM

THE NEGATIVE DATA PROBLEM

Can negative results be important?

Are they publishable? Would journals full of negative

results sell? If they are not published are

they doomed to be repeated wastefully?

How can positive results be validated without knowing about negative ones?

30

When to publish?

There is intense pressure to publish early and often

For career progression For getting new grants For getting tenure For establishing

priority/primacy in an area of research

31

Scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours32

Peer review is not always entirely independent

Many areas of research are small and highly competitive

Some senior scientists are intolerant of criticism and dangerous to cross.33

Questions Science Cannot Answer

34

the scientific method is not appropriate for answering questions that cannot be put in an objective, empirical test.

A Rush to Judgment?35

Case Study Reading Case Study Analysis

1. What kinds of problems are inherent in Jolene’s research project?

2. How would these problems affect the research results?

3. How would you solve these problems?4. What should Stefanie do?5. What would the consequences of these actions

be for Jolene? For Dr. Lee? For Stefanie?[10 Marks]