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UUGGCC-- AACCAADDEEMMIICC SSTTAAFFFF CCOOLLLLEEGGEE
RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
BBHHAARRAATTHHIIDDAASSAANN UUNNIIVVEERRSSIITTYY KHAJAMALAI CAMPUS
TTIIRRUUCCHHIIRRAAPPPPAALLLLII--662255 002233
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Editor : Dr. A. Singaravel,
Director, i/c
UGC Academic Staff College,
Bharathidasan University, Trichy - 23.
Copy right : Bharathidasan University,
Trichy - 23.
First Edition : 2011
Paper used : 80 GSM TNPL
Size : 1 X 8 Demmy
Font Size : 10 Points Times New Roman
No. of Pages : 104
No. of Copies : 100
ISBN No. : 978-81-908078-4-5
Printed at : Sree Venkateshwara Power Printers,
Trichy - 10.
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CONTENTS
Page
No.
1. STEPS IN RESEARCH: AN
INTRODUCTION
- Dr. Venkatesh Athreya 1
2. CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN
SOCIAL SCIENCES
- Dr. M. Lakshmanan 5
3. IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
- Dr. S.Ramamurthy 14
4. LIBRARY RESOURCES FOR SOCIAL
SCIENCE RESEARCH
- Dr. A. Ganesan 19
5. SURVEY METHODS AND RESEARCH
TOOLS
- Dr. G. Karunanidhi 31
6. HISTORICAL MATERIALISM - Dr. Venkatesh Athreya 35
7. STATISTICS FOR RESEARCHERS
[INCLUDING SPSS]
- Dr.S. Iyyampillai 52
8. FUNDING OF RESEARCH
PROGRAMMES AND DOCUMENTATION
- Dr. K.G. Govindarajalu 60
9. WRITING A RESEARCH ARTICLE FOR
JOURNAL
- Dr. M.Selvam 84
10. RESEARCH DESIGN IN SOCIAL
SCIENCE
- Dr. T. Govindaraj 89
11. LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH REPORTING - Dr. S. Senthilnathan 95
12. FOLKLORE AS A SOURCE FOR
SUBALTERN STUDY.
Dr.G.Rengaraju 100
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STEPS IN RESEARCH: AN INTRODUCTION
Dr. Venkatesh Athreya
• First, identify broad area. This is determined by:
Researcher’s interests (Passion?)
Exposure to existing work in the broad field
Researcher’s Current Set of Skills
• Second, narrow down the topic of research from the broad area to a
very few research questions.
This entails conceptual clarity and an understanding of what is
doable within a given time frame and resource constraints
• It entails some serious study of the relevant literature and exploration of
data requirements and availability.
• Based on a study of the literature, research questions can be firmed up.
• This must then be followed up by using available secondary data sources
to examine whether primary data collection is necessary.
If so, the site of primary data collection can be decided by an analysis of
secondary data and subject to logistical constraints (accessibility, travel cost,
time etc.,)
• Examining secondary data is not a stand-alone exercise.
It must be done in the context of the questions framed and at the
appropriate levels of aggregation
• We look at secondary data to : Get an idea of the broader context
Demarcate regions by type Help in choice of research site
Identify issues for primary data collection Validate primary data
Adviser, M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai and Visiting Professor, Tata Institute of Social
Sciences, Mumbai.
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Help in refining concepts, definitions, questionnaires and data
collection methods in the primary survey
• The end result of this stage would be the determination of the site of
primary investigation.
Defining a village:
• What is meant by a “village”?
Hamlet/Habitation
Main Village
Revenue Village
Panchayat
• Relations between the village and the wider economy/society
Commodity Transactions
Labour Migration
Remittances
Values
Technology
Transport and Communications
The social formation in a village:
• Production and Reproduction of Material and Cultural Life
• Forces and Relations of Production and Reproduction
• Forces: Technology, Social Division of Labour, Knowledge and Skills of
People
• Relations: Organization of Production, Ownership and Control of
Productive Assets, Social and Political Power Structures, Ideology
BUT THE VILLAGE IS PART OF A LARGER SOCIAL FORMATION AS
WELL.
Rural Institutions:
• Traditional “Panchayats”, usually caste-specific
• Elected Local Bodies
• Cooperatives of various kinds: Credit, Milk, Weavers….
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• Government Line Departments: Agriculture, PWD, Education, Health,
Social Welfare, Revenue, Panchayat and Rural Development ….
• New: SHGs, Water Users‟ Associations, NGOs, CBOs…
• Peoples Movements: Kisan Sabha, Youth, Women and Agricultural
Workers‟ Organizations
• New Social Movements: Dalit, Tribal, Ecology….
Dimensions of Inequality:
• Village Society is heterogeneous
• In India, the three most important dimensions of inequality relate to class,
caste and gender
• Class status of a rural household is closely related to ownership and
control of productive assets, most importantly, land.
• Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes continue to be at the bottom of
the social and economic hierarchy in most parts of India
• Women face multidimensional inequality, especially in rural India
Steps in Research: An Introduction:
• After the site of primary data collection (village/urban settlement) has
been chosen, the first steps would include getting a map, identifying key
informants and informal discussions with a cross section of the
population. (Questions:Village? Urban Settlement?)
• Gaining acceptability and establishing rapport would be important. After
all, why should respondents spare the time to answer your questions?
• Then some issues arise:
Do we do a census type survey or a sample survey?
If sample, is bigger better?
How does one choose the sample?
Can we combine both census and a sample survey?
Is sample data alone important? (Type studies, field diaries )
Steps in Research: An Introduction
• Sampling Methods, Constraints, Limitations
• Analysing a quick census-stratification, case study ideas, mine of
information, esp. on demographic aspects
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• Questionnaire (s)-Preparation, Testing and Finalization: Look at NSS,
NFHS, Survey Reports of other scholars
• Some Guidelines on Questionnaires
• Data Analysis: Master Tables, Dummy Tables
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CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN SOCIAL SCIENCES
Dr. M. Lakshmanan
The object of this paper is to discuss one of the contemporary issues in
social science i.e. inequality of women in Indian Society. Status of women in
India is a problematic one. There is an idealistic view of women which portrays
them in glowing terms. In fact, since Vedic times there is no dearth of evidence
on the high status of women. But there is also rich evidence that shows a
demeaning level at which women were kept. We have evidence of Annie
Besant, Sarojini Naidu , Muthulakshmi Reddy as active political reformers in
the Colonial India while the western world was lagging behind. While
Shrimathi Indira Gandhi became Prime Minister of India in 1966, Margaret
Thatcher could become Prime Minister of Great Britain only two decades later.
This political development in India, so far as women are concerned, is not
matched by social advancement. Where lies the fault? Inequality between
women and men can appear in many different forms.
Legal status of women and their human rights is recognized both in
Municipal and International Law. The Preamble to the Charter of the United
Nations speaks of „faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth
of the human person in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large
and small … Article 8 of the Charter provides for equality of women with men;
Article 131 (b) for realization of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all
without distinction as to race, sex, language or religions.
Convention on All Forms of Discrimination against Women was adopted
by the General Assembly in 1979. The purpose of this Convention was to end
the discrimination that denied women equality in political, economic, social and
civic realms. The General Assembly also proclaimed 1975 as the International
Year of Women. Following this, the World Conference on Women, sponsored
Associate professor, Dept. of. History, Presidency College, Chennai.
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by the United Nations, was held. The Declaration of Mexico stressed the
equality of men and women and their contribution to development and peace.
The International Women‟s Year 1975 was developed into the Decade of
Women to help the implementation of the world plan of action, i.e. equality,
development and peace. The achievements of the United Nations Decade for
Women were reviewed in 1985 at the World Conference on Women. The result
was the creation of the United Nations Fund for Women, an autonomous
association meant for identification and study of issues relating to women, in
particular the issue of violence. The Fund is also more helpful to the refugee
women in Liberia where they were displaced by fighting and in Jordan,
Lebanon and Yemen where they were affected by economic disruption due to
the Gulf War.
The Fourth World Conference on Women Action for Equality,
Development and Peace was held in Beijing in China in 1995. One of the
biggest conferences of the world attended by 17000 representatives, the
Conference called for „look at the world through women‟s eyes”. Complete
partnership of women on the basis of equality in all fields of society and the
capacity of women for participation in the process of policy making as approach
to power were part of the Declaration.
The Beijing World Conference specified the decisive fields of concern for
women like women and their poverty, education and training, women and their
health, violence against women, women and armed conflicts, women and
ceremony, women in power and policy making, institutional process for
development of women, women and human rights, women and media, women
and atmosphere, and girl children. For all these areas, a comprehensive policy
has been suggested.
But implementation of the plans depends on the resources of the nation
which are signatories to the World Conference on Women. India is one of the
prominent countries, which has been promoting the cause of women‟s human
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rights through its various plans. India‟s policy makers, while drafting the Five
Year Plans (1951-56; 1956-1961) accepted the view that population size and
growth were major hurdles to the country‟s economic growth. The plan
documents reviewed the promotion of family planning as a step towards
improving the health of mothers and children. Beginning with the Third Five
Year Plan (1961-66), reducing population growth through Fertility Management
became the major thrust of population policy in India.
Along with these, emphasis on maternal and child health to reduce infant
and child mortality was given a new thrust. Sterilization, at times forced
sterilization during emergency, vasectomy, contraceptive advice, diaphragm and
jelly, vaginal foam tablets, condoms were the methods by which women as well
as men were persuaded or coerced to attain family planning. While the
Government was successful in implementing the schemes in some states, in
others like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, these have failed in their objectives.
But if we leave macro–level family planning, and come down to discuss
at micro-level problems women face in society every day, the gruesome reality
of patriarchy will be recognized. Women writer, Neera Desai, notes that vast
bulk of women today, of any denomination – Hindu, Muslim, Christian – are
leading a life of utter poverty and deprivation. In a male dominated society,
having values like patrilocality for women after marriage, husband considered
as the bread winner and supposed to be a protector, divorced husband not
finding it difficult to remarry, parents of the girls terminating their responsibility
after marriage and considering daughter as someone else‟s property
(parayadhar), how can a new legal provision shift the responsibility of providing
maintenance to the ex-wife from the husband to the relatives in the name of
protection of women‟s interests.
Can law protect the interests of women? Or oppress them? Or what is
the role of the court supposed to maintain principle of equality between sexes?
Answers to these questions will lead us to find anomalous situations in law.
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Examine the extreme case of Phoolan Devi in the Supreme Court of
India, popularly known as the “Bandit Queen”. Phoolan Devi petitioned the
Supreme Court challenging the order of the Additional District Sessions,
Kanpur and High Court of Allahabad which had dismissed the application
moved by the State of Uttar Pradesh for withdrawal of 55 cases against her,
including murder and dacoits. The State justified this as being in the public
interest. She had been in the Madhya Pradesh jail for 11 years when she
surrendered along with her arms.
Phoolan Devi belonged to the Dalit Community and the members of the
upper caste had inflicted atrocities on her and her family. She was the victim of
gang rape, which forced her to adopt a life of crime. Further, the members of
the upper castes had murdered her fiance. She surrendered on certain terms and
conditions offered to her by the Government of Madhya Pradesh and accepted
by the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The terms included that she would
be released from custody after eight years even for crimes committed in other
states. But the court rejected her submissions holding that no accused would
take law into her hands by way of retribution and revenge. The court overlooked
the fact that the state must abide by its solemn assurances.
There is also another case of Bhanwari Bai who was a government
servant and an activist against child marriages and was employed with the
Women‟s Development Programme of Rajasthan. She was gang raped by upper
caste men. Acquitting the five men of gang rape, the District and Sessions
Judge, Jaipur, made shocking observations. Teenagers usually commit rape.
The alleged rapists were middle aged and, therefore, respectable citizens. Since
the offenders were upper caste men including a Brahmin, the rape could not
have taken place because Bhanwari was from a lower caste.
These two cases of rape victims and their treatment in the court reflect the
status of women in society which treats them as commodities to be brought and
used.
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In 1980, the Government of India made a statement in Rajya Sabha on
how to behave with women arrested or kept for interrogation by the police.
That statement was in the nature of instructions issued to the State Governments
and Union Territories. (a) In case of arrest, no woman should be arrested
between sunset and sunrise. If arrest is necessary during night, superior
officer‟s permission is to be sought and reasons furnished; and (b) an arrested
woman must be kept in the female lock up, if not available, in a separate room
and not in the male lock-up. A male or female relative of the arrested woman
should be permitted to stay with her.
But these two guidelines were blatantly violated in the case of one
Padmini at Annamalai Nagar in Chidambaram District. She went to a police
station to enquire about her arrested husband in 1992, where she was gangraped
by the police. Recently one woman was raped in a Police Station at suburban
Valasaravakam and she committed suicide by hanging.
Besides these, there are many cases of violence and crime against women
in India today. The increasing use of communal, caste and ethnic identities in
the pursuit of political gains is the factor behind the rising crime against women.
One Scholar argues that increasing participation of women in work and politics,
especially at the grass roots level is making them more vulnerable to crime.
Attempts to control and intimidate women associated with decision-making
processes are also leading to violence against women as we have seen in the
Bhanwari Bai. Of course, there are innumerable laws assuring protection of life
and property and even modesty, but they are all, in many cases, ignored. The
majority of women are also illiterate and untouched by the Paper Laws.
In recent years, Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has opened the doors of
the courts to advance the interests and rights of the disadvantaged. Alert
women organizations drew the attention of the courts for swift and speedy
disposal of criminal cases, immediate registration and investigation of
complaints lodged in dowry death cases and other cases of sexual and
matrimonial violence. Any person, not stranger or intruder, could petition the
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courts on behalf of those who, due to their social and economic backwardness,
were unable to approach the court. Public Interest Litigation is cheap and swift.
The court‟s innovation has permitted access to justice at the highest court.
Women‟s organizations gained space in the courts. Even in criminal cases
where the State is the prosecutor, the courts permitted interventions by
recognized women groups. Innovative machineries like the Mahila Courts, Lok
Adalats, Family Courts and the National Commission for Women have been set
up to implement the law. But there is little political and administrative will.
Patriarchal, conservative and gender insensitive law enforcement machinery,
comes in the way of Gender Equality. Most property and succession laws are
founded on custom and religion and hence are discriminatory. This ownership
inequality has been perpetuated under the Hindu Succession Act in which only a
son acquires interest in joint family property or coparcener property at birth. No
woman member can be a coparcener in the property and cannot demand a
partition. But the States of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu have amended the
Hindu Succession Act to declare daughters as coparceners with a view to
eradicating the dowry system.
This may benefit only those who have wealth and property to partition
equally among sons and daughters. Evil of dowry practice is no longer confined
to upper classes. But it has now spread among the poorer sections of
society.This has resulted in what is called Natality Inequality .i.c., the choice of
child. Female child is considered a liability and frowned upon in certain
families of even the dominant communities. As a result, even Medical
Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 is misused as a technology to determine
the sex of the fetus in utero. One of the earliest studies in the 1990s on this
subject showed that 430 of 450 women in an urban clinic, who were told that
the sex of the baby was female, went on to abort the child. On the other hand,
in all 250 cases where a son was predicted, women carried their pregnancy even
in cases where there was a risk of genetic defects. Since then, several other
authors have highlighted the misuse of amniocentesis for sex selection.
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In recent years, ultrasound has replaced amniocentesis, as the prime sex
determination technique. Of course, this sex determination technique involves
certain cost, which only the upper and middle-income groups can afford.
Medical laboratories misuse this technology and thrive on prejudices the
families harbor against the female child. This “high –tech sexism”, has changed
the female –male ratios at birth.
In fact, MTP Act does not allow abortion on request. It provides for
termination of pregnancy when a pregnant woman‟s life is at risk and it there is
a grave injury to her physical or mental health; if there is abnormality in the
fetus, if the woman has been raped and if contraception used by a married
woman or husband for the purpose of limiting the number of children has failed
to prevent pregnancy. But the provisions are not followed in strict sense.
Women use and men acquiesce in the Amniocentesis Test.
If amniocentesis as a new technology available to the wealthy in urban
centers, where female fetus is killed, the rural poor, left with little resources to
undergo the test, use the traditional method of killing the female child by giving
doses of erukkam flower mixed with milk. This practice is common in areas
where female infanticide has been reported.
A comparative study of female infanticide in Rural Tamil Nadu was
made in 1992. That study showed that in North Arcot District from 1986 to
1990, there were 19 cases of female infanticide and 18 of them occurred within
the period of first seven days after birth.
These deaths occurred among the upper caste Gounders. But in a recent
systematic study of female infanticide in Tamil Nadu, it has been shown that the
horrifying practice of female infanticide is not confined to Piranmalai Kallars in
Madras region or upper caste Gounders alone. Female infanticide is widespread
among the poorer and socially disadvantaged communities, including Thevars,
Vanniars and Scheduled Castes. For instance, of 124 cases of female infanticide
in Dindugal District Health Unit, it has been shown that Piranmalai Kallars,
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other Kallars, Thevars, Parayar and Pallar household together account for two
thirds, i.e. 82 cases of female infanticide. Scheduled Caste like Pallar and
Parayar groups accounted for 46 of the deaths. In Salem , Vanniar households
account for nearly half of all female infanticides. Scheduled Caste and
Gounders account for around 10 percent each of all female infanticides. The
value systems of dominant peasant/landlord castes of region, and their norms of
ritual expenditure patterns, determine this horrible practice. Under pressure to
emulate, but unable to meet the perceived cost of bringing up female infants, the
poorer members of dominant castes in particular and all castes in general, resort
to female infanticide.
There appears to be something of a social divide at this time running right
across India and splitting the country effectively into two contiguous halves, in
the extent of anti-female bias in natality and post-natality mortality. This is
evident in the north and west, led by Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and Gujarat, where
the female –male ratio of children are substantially below the bench mark figure
(with ratios between 79.3 and 87.8). Other states in the regions also have ratios
significantly below the dividing line of 94.8 girls per100 boys, such as
Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh, Maharashtra,
Jammu and Kashmir and Bihar.
On the other side of the divide, States in the east and south of India tend
to have female-male ratios that are above the bench marlkline (that is, 94.8girls
per100boys, taken as uppercut of standard):with Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, West
Bengal and Assam (each between96.3 and 96.6 girls), and also Orissa,
Karnataka and the north-eastern states to the east of Bangladesh(Meghalaya,
Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland, Arunachal Pradesh).
A partial exception to this sharp pattern of two fold regional split is
provided by the southern state of Tamil Nadu, where female- child ratio is just
below 94. Yet, Tamil Nadu‟s female-child ratio is still higher than the ratio of
any state in the north and west.
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Before concluding this part, the result of Gender Inequality may be
analyzed under the following heads each of which needs separate treatment:
(1) High rate of maternal undernourishment;
(2) High incidence of underweight births;
(3) Widespread prevalence of undernourishment children;
(4) High incidence of cardiovascular diseases.
There is plenty of evidence that whenever social and economic
arrangements depart from the standard practice of male ownership, women can
seize business and economic initiative with much success. It is also clear that
the result of women‟s participation is not merely to generate income for women
but also to provide many other social benefits that come from women‟s
enhanced status, enterprise and independence. The remarkable success in
Bangladesh of organizations like the Grameen Bank directed particularly at the
economic and social roles of women and they illustrate how women‟s agency
can help to transform the lives of all human beings.
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IDENTIFICATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
Dr.S.Ramamurthy
Research Problem: A Broader Perception:
The term, research problem, has a broader connotation as against the
meaning generally assigned to it. It would be a misnomer if it is conceived in
simple terms as a problem solving exercise.
Research is basically human, for it is genre-specific, and it depicts the basic
human urge to inquire, comprehend, acquire knowledge of things and
phenomena and aspire for order.
It is a human sensuous activity, Praxis, for it reveals the prevailing state
of awareness of human beings regarding their existence and environment and
the direction of change implicit in conscious human intercourse.
Besides, venturing to solve an observed problem, fulfilling an urgent
demand, resolving a crisis, projecting an issue with precision and satisfying any
felt need, research may contribute to the prevailing collective knowledge of
humanity on various counts. In fact, the latter constitute the majority.
These categories of research, which encapsulate its classification, may
not strictly adhere to the definition of research as „problem solving‟ but in the
context of „problem of solving‟ wherein „solving‟ would refer to
comprehension. These areas are:
a. Gap – filling research;
b. Descriptive, analytical, comparative and evaluative research;
c. Re-insertive, re-defining, re-processing, re-interpretative, re-constructive
and re-evaluative research;
d. Personal quest – ridden research;
e. Agency – sponsored research;
f. Service obligation research;
g. Testing a hypothesis / revised hypothesis research;
Former Professor, T.B.M.L College, Porayar.
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h. Polemical ideological research;
i. Non-polemical supportive ideological research;
j. Structural – ideological critique;
Implications of the Broader Perception:
The broader definition of the research problem as the problem of
comprehension in terms of knowledge and wisdom has many implications for
research itself:
Pure-Applied Dichotomy would lose relevance.
Sublime – Trivia Dichotomy also loses relevance.
Utility – Non Utility criterion could be dispensed with.
Fossilized problems shall have to be negated.
Duplication is no sin.
Problems are no more discipline – specific.
Comprehensibility of the problem is basic.
Scope makes small beautiful.
Cogito ergo sum vis-a-vis ergo cogito sum.
Problem shall decide the methodology.
Identification of the Problem: A Process:
It shall not be a oral rhetoric but a concrete conscious exercise in precise
semantic and syntactic codifications known as the Statement of the Problem.
Whether guide-given, self-evolved or originated on need, objectivity must be
ensured in stating the problem. Ritualistic statement or statutory fulfillment after
completion is destined to cause the failure of the whole research. Due stress is
not often given to the Statement of the Problem. Oftentimes, owing to the
improper Statement of the Problem, data collection would remain jeopardised
and sectarian approach would result, hindering holistic approach. Identification
of the problem shall necessarily involve the following steps:
Preliminary reading in the area;
Preparation of preliminary bibliography of modern works in the area
specified;
Consultation of e-sources;
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Discussion with the Research Advisor, preferably in a group of experts,
to concretize the problem;
Pilot study, if needed;
Survey of secondary sources and review;
Ensuring the convertibility into a neat title;
Preparing a brief Statement of the Problem;
Forming hypotheses;
Methodological correlation;
Presentation of articles;
Finalizing the limitations of the Study.
Identification: Guidelines for the Guides:
There is nothing wrong in choosing contemporary issues. Research is a
human activity and hence the intellectual interventional role shall not be
undermined. Subjective prejudices shall be sidelined by investigative
objectivity.
Human mind is not a tabula rasa before one engages oneself in research.
The problems chosen might smack of ideological partisanship. Let
thousand flowers bloom strategy shall have to be adopted in guidling
research. Incorporation of negative hypothesis would provide the check
to subjective domination.
Adopting the „beaten track is safer‟ strategy shall be minimized.
Research in unexplored areas must be promoted with care.
The Guide evolves in guidance. Sharper perspective is the indicator of
involved guidance. The Advisor must evolve into an authority with
holistic perspective.
Before one becomes a cause, it is a consequence. This is the law of
dialectics, applicable in shaping the problem;
A real model must precipitate other models, not a replica.
No problem by itself is viable or non-viable.
Everything depends upon the potentiality of the researcher and access to
sources. Gender may not count in this context, provided nothing is
imposed.
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To avoid plagiarism and other unethical consequences, the Guides shall
have to clearly satisfy themselves regarding the aptitude of the scholar
and his or her exposure to the prevailing state of knowledge in the area
opted for research.
Ensuring successful completion largely vests with the Research Advisor
who has to correlate the study problem with the time frame of research
and prescribe the necessary limitations. Last minute editing, however
skilled one might be, could not restore the time wasted. Submission of
hotch-potches results from the failure in this regard.
Exposing the scholars to modern patterns of conceptualization is crucial
for the concretization of the research problem with perspective.
Identification: Who is Better Positioned?
The Guide identifying the Scholar and the Problem and the Scholar
identifying the Problem are the two sides of the same coin. Each has its
intrinsic merit and limitation.
Research Advisor identifying the Problem:
Safer Path; failure minimized as well as waste;
Scope well defined; subjective enthusiasm in excess on the part of the
researcher minimized;
Dynamic interaction; guidance easier;
Research progresses as desired;
Inadequate exposure of the scholar nullified;
More depth ensured;
Aptitude gets channelized;
Completion ensured;
Defense made easier;
Reputation of the Guide confers added significance.
For this:
Research Advisor shall be a continuous researcher himself, besides being
a person of repute and holding authority;
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Research Advisor should have had rapport with the researcher at least at
the P.G. level;
If not, he must thoroughly study the aptitude of the researcher and the
degree of exposure to the knowledge domain before assigning the area
himself;
He must have tolerance for a deviant path, if need be.
The researcher himself identifying the problem:
Ideal condition;
Inspiration makes challenges welcome;
Motivation provides sustainability;
Initiative inaugurates new avenues;
Objectives evolve, not ceremonise;
Guide also grows; guidance not dictatorial;
Guidance less exacting; research less cumbersome;
Guide‟s subjective excess minimized;
Editing acquires more attention;
More methodological objectivity possible
Provided:
o The ideal scholar could be identified;
o He is not driven by careerist ambitions;
o He does not resort to coercion;
o He does not engage himself in research by proxy; and
o He does not project individuality as apologia for unethics.
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LIBRARY RESOURCES FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH
Dr. A. Ganesan
The enormous growth of Social Science during the two centuries has
transformed human society not only as a result of new discoveries, the
examination of new phenomena, the application of more refined methods and
the borrowing of ideas from other disciplines but also as a result of constant re-
interpretation of existing concepts , techniques and models. Although the
tradition of teaching and research in Social Science in India is relatively recent,
there is concern with the outcome of rapid changes that have taken place and the
response of the Indian Academic Community to the development of Social
Science in the country as well.
Social Science Research Libraries:
Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), during its survey of
financing Social Science Research in India, identified about 400 institutions and
professional organizations. Though all these may not have Specialized
Libraries, yet seventy percent of these are expected to have good collections of
research materials. Besides these centers, National Social Science
Documentation Centre (NASSDOC), New Delhi, National Documentation
Center on Mass Communication (NDCMC), New Delhi., National
Documentation Center in Health and Family Planning (NDCHFP), New Delhi,
Small Enterprises National Documentation Centre (SENDOC), Hyderabad, and
Center on Rural Documentation (CORD), Hyderabad, have also been
established. Other Mission – Oriented Centers in the field of education
management, rural development, etc., are gradually emerging. The University
Grants Commission has also set up computerized national information centers
in Natural Science, Social Science and Humanities and also established
Documentation Research and Training Centre (DRTC),Bangalore.
Co-Ordinator & Head, PG Dept. of Library and Information Science, A.V.V.M. SRI PUSHPAM COLLEGE
(Autonomous) Poondi, Thanjavur Dist.
.
4..
23
Indian Dissertations in Social Sciences:-
Social Science subjects here include Commerce, Economics, Education,
Geography, History, Law, Management, Political Science, Psychology, Public
Administration and Sociology. The bibliographical tools encompassing all
disciplines, including Social Science and broader areas including India have
been covered. Dissertation and Theses, submitted to various universities and
institutions of advanced learning, constitute invaluable information sources to
research workers. They find in these dissertations the data and results already
arrived at and relevant to their research work. These reports show the scholars
grasp of a given subject and the research methodology involved. Sometimes
theses are published in amended form or appear in the form of articles which are
consulted and cited by the scholars, in the literature.
Bibliographical Control
A large number of doctoral degrees are awarded annually by Universities
and research institutions Deemed as Universities all over the world. An idea
about their number can be had from the bibliographical tools listing them under
“Comprehensive Dissertation Index by University Microfilms, which gives
information of over 5,70,000 dissertations approved by Universities in the USA
and Canada in all the disciplines. “ Index to theses” by ASLIB, lists above
10,800 items. In India, the Association of Indian Universities (AIU) took the
initiative towards bibliographical control of dissertations introduced in India
from 1934 onwards. British Library Lending Division (BLLD) has produced
about 70,000 doctoral theses in all disciplines.
Indian Council of Social Science Research:
Research Projects
Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), provides grants to
scholars to conduct research in various fields of Social Sciences which have a
theoretical, conceptual, methodological or policy orientation on the Subject of
their Choice. The research projects may belong to any one of the following
social science disciplines or may be interdisciplinary in nature : the recognized
disciplines are : (i) Economics / Commerce / Management / Business
24
Administration ; (ii) Sociology and Social Anthropology / Social Work /
Demography / Gender Studies; (iii) Political Science / International
Relations / Geography / Public Administration ; (iv) Psychology /
Education/ Criminology; (V) Other – Linguistics / Law etc.
International Collaboration:
The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), through its
International Collaboration Programme, invested significant time and energy
in developing collaborative links with social scientists, social science
organizations and academic institutions in India and overseas. Over the years,
the Council has built strong international links established through research
collaborations and professional leadership with scholars working in other
countries. The focus has been on developing close and continuing relationships
with social scientists and social science organizations, and other scholars
working in other countries. The focus has been on developing close and
continuing relationships with social scientists and social science organizations,
and other professional communities across the globe. These valued relationships
greatly enhance the relevance and performance of teaching and research. The
Council maintains an international focus and global presence that broadens the
International Opportunities available to social scientists in India.
Collaboration with Multilateral Organizations:
The ICCSR is also a member of the International Social Science Council
(ISSC), Paris, Association of Asian Social Science Research Council
(AASSREC), Science Council of Asia, Japan and International Federation of
Social Sciences Organization (IFSSO). The Council participates in the activities
of UNESCO‟S programme called Management of Social Transformation
(MOST). Research Institutes and Regional Centers Division (RI & RC) provide
maintenance and development grants to Research Institutes and maintain
Regional Centers in different regions of the country. The Research Institutes are
of all India character – outside the scope of the University Grants Commission
(UGC). The main objectives are:
25
1. Dispersal of talent from more developed to less developed regions,
especially to areas where social science research are under developed;
and
2. Development of quality of research and interdisciplinary research in
social sciences in order to improve the social science inputs into
development.
The Council is at present assisting 27 Research Institutes and 6
Regional Centers in different regions in India.
National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC)
The National Social Science Documentation Centre (NASSDOC) was set
up in 1970 by the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICCSSR).
Activities:
Documentation Library and Reference Service:
1. Unpublished doctoral theses approved by Indian Universities and
foreign theses on India
2. Research reports of the projects undertaken by ICSSR and other Social
Science Research Institutions assisted by ICCSSR
3. Working Papers presented at ICSSR funded seminars and conference
and
4. Periodicals of Research Standard in Social Sciences.
5. To provide bibliographical information about Indian Publication in
Social Science Disciplines to International Documentation Agencies.
NASSDOC has collaboration with several national, regional and
international organizations like International Committee for Social Science
Information and Documentation (Paris)
International Geographical Bibliography (Paris)
International Bulletin of Bibliography on Education (Madrid)
UNSECO and Asia – Pacific International Network in Social Sciences,
(APINESS) Bangkok etc.
26
The services of the Centre are based on its rich resources collection
consisting of Indian Doctoral Dissertations, research reports, working
papers and back files of social science periodicals etc.
Consultation Facility:
Fund is provided to research scholars visiting NASSDOC for their
research work and for writing papers. They can also access various online
databases such as Econlit, International Political Science Abstract, Socio file,
Psycinfo etc.
Literature Search:
NASSDOC has a good collection of bibliographic data, both in printed as
well as in digital format, including Online and CD-ROM database. The Centre
has also created its own database, both in printed and in electronic format.
These databases are useful for scholars for conducting literature search on
various topics in social sciences.
Directory of Social Science Libraries and Information Centres in India
(2001):
Provides details of 447 social science and allied disciplines, libraries and
information centres attached to government agencies, research and training
institutes under various ministries, Universities and Autonomous Bodies,
banks, industry and trade, etc. Libraries, having independent name, are provided
references from their parent institutions. Each entry provides address of the
library, e-mail, strength of the staff, type of collection, budget, subject coverage,
computerization details, facilities and services provided like photocopying,
bibliography services, inter-library loan, online databases, literature search,
translation, etc. The data contained in the Directory may enhance cooperation
and resource sharing among Indian Libraries and Information Centers.
Directory of Social Science Research and Training Institutions in India:
It has a comprehensive list of about 450 social science institutions
engaged in research and training in India. It contains details on areas of
research, important achievements, special facilities, current research projects,
27
publication, type of staff, library collection and services, relations with national
and international organizations, and complete postal address with telephone,
telex, fax and e-mail and provides multiple access points, Subject Index and
Location Indexes.
Directory of Asian Social Science Research and Training Institutes /
Organization in India (1997)
Provides information of about 42 teaching and research institutes on
Asian Studies in India. Each entry provides information about the name, address
of the institution, type of the organization, type of staff, aims and objectives,
activities, parent organization, publications, name and level of training courses,
library collection and services and facilities provided by the institution. Subject
Index and Location Indexes are appended.
Indian Social Science Periodicals Literature (INSSPEL)
NASSDOC has created and integrated and computerized database of
articles published in 119 Indian social science journals since their inception till
1970. It consists of 43, 272 issues of journals containing 979491 articles, thus
providing reasonable control over the literature published in Indian social
science periodicals during the last 100 years. This database is available in a CD-
ROM.
Exchange of Literature:
The Centre has also established exchange relations with SAARC (South
Asian Association for Regional Co-operation), International Institute of Asian
Studies (The Netherlands), ESCAP (Economic and Social Commission for Asia
and the Pacific), etc and it has been regularly receiving their publications on
exchange basis.
National Informatics Centre (NIC) ICT for Better Governance
We live in the age of Information Technology (IT) Revolution. The
universal acceptance of the power of IT to transform and accelerate the
development process, especially in developing economies, is indisputable. The
28
rapid advance of Communication Technologies, especially the Internet, has
enabled Governments all over the world to reach out to their most remote
constituencies to improve the lives of their most underprivileged citizens.
NIC has leveraged ICT to provide a robust communication backbone and
effective support for e-Governance to the Central Government, State
Governments, UT Administrations, Districts and other Government Bodies. It
offers a wide range of ICT services. This includes NICNET, a Nationwide
Communication Network with gateway nodes at about 53 Departments of the
Government of India, 35 State/UT Secretariats and 603 District collect rates to
service ICT Applications. NICNET has played a pivotal role in decentralized
planning, improvement in Government Services, wider transparency of national
and local Governments and improving their accountability to the people.
NIC assists in implementing ICT projects, in close collaboration with
Central and State Governments and endeavors to ensure that state-of the-art
technology is available to its users in all areas of ICT.
NICNET – A first of its kind in Developing Countries, using the state-of-
the-art VSAT Technology. Gateway for Internet/Intranet Access and Resources
Sharing in Central Government Ministries and Departments during 1980s and
1990s; IT in social Applications and Public Administration; Video-
Conferencing operations first commenced in the early 90s and now connect 490
locations.
INFLIBNET
Information and Library Network (INFLIBNET) Centre is an
autonomous Inter-University Centre of the University Grants Commissions
(UGC) of India. It is a major National Programme initiated by the UGC in 1991
with its Head Quarters at Gujarat University Campus, Ahmadabad. Initially
started as a project under the IUCAA, It became an independent Inter-
University Centre in 1996.
29
INFLIBNET is involved in modernizing university libraries in India and
connecting them as information centers in the country through a nation-wide
high speed data network using the state-of-the-art technologies for the optimum
utilization of information. INFLIBNET is set out to be a major player in promoting
scholarly communication among academicians and researchers in India.
INFONET
UGC is modernizing the university campuses with state-of-the-art campus
wide networks and setting up its own nationwide communication network
named UGC - INFONET.
1. It will become a vehicle for distance learning.
2. It will be a tool to distribution of education material and journals to remote
areas in the Country.
3. It will be a resource for researchers and scholars for tapping most up-to-
date information.
4. It will form a medium for collaboration among teachers and students, not
only within the country but all over the world.
5. It will be on Intranet for university automation.
6. It will establish a channel for globalization of education.
NISCAIR PUBLICATIONS
1. Indian Science Abstracts (ISA)
2. Annals of Library Science and Documentation
3. Directory of Indian Scientific Periodicals (1988)
4. Directory of Scientific Research Institutions in India
5. Directory of S&T Awards in India (1994)
6. Periodical Publications in India (1989)
7. National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India (1988)
8. Union Catalogue of Scientific & Technical Conference Proceedings;
Bangalore (1977-90)
9. Proceedings of the Seminar on Learned Periodicals in India (1989)
10. 49th FID Conference & Congress Publications, October 1998
11. SAARC Documentation Centre (SDC) Publications
30
NISCAIR SERVICES
1. Contents, Abstracts and Photocopy Service (CAPS)
2. Standing Order Abstracts Service (SOAS)
3. Full Text Journal Services (FTJS)
4. Document Copy Supply Service
5. Journal List Service (JLS)
6. Recent Books Service (RBS)
7. Bibliographic/Literature Search Service
8. Chemical Abstracts Keyword Index Service (CAKIS)
9. Foreign Languages Translation and Interpretation Service
10. Assignment of International Standard Serial Number (ISSN)
11. Bibliometric Analysis Service
12. Electronic Imaging, Slide Making, DTP and Bar Coding Serivice
13. Home Page Creation Service
PRODUCTS
1. National Union Catalogue of Scientific Serials in India (NUCSSI) on
CD-ROM
2. Indian Patents Database on CD-ROM
3. Granthalaya - a library automation package
4. Indian Science Abstracts on CD-ROM (from 1990 onwards)
Some significant Services:
Community Development:
The National Institute of Community Development (NICD), Hyderabad,
issues a monthly documentation list and a quarterly abstraction bulletin on
Community Development and Panchayat Raj. It also issues a half yearly
documentation bulletin on Behavioral Science and Community Development.
Economics:
In this field and allied subjects, the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of
Industry and Supply, National Council of Applied Economic Research, Delhi
School of Economics, Institute of Economic Growth, and Gawhati Institute of
31
Politics and Economics are engaged in documentation services and generally these
bodies issue documentation bulletins for current awareness for their clienteles.
Education:
In the field of education, the National Council of Educational Research
and Training is rendering good documentation service by bringing out and
abstracting and indexing bulletin. The Ministry of Education, Central Secretariat
Library, NISCAIR and Indian Adult Education are bringing out their own
indexing or abstracting bulletins.
Industry and Foreign Trade:
In the field of foreign trade, the Indian Institute of Foreign Trade and the
Ministry of Foreign Trade are issuing bulletins. Vaikunthabai Metha , Trust
Documentation Centre and Ministry of Industrial Development are issuing
Documentation Bulletins on Industry.
Management:
The Indian Institute of Public Administration brings out quarterly list of
abstracts and index of articles which cover all aspects of public administration,
in a monthly abstracting bulletin entitled Current Management Literature.
Politics and International Affairs:
In the fields of Politics and International Affairs, the Indian Council of
World Affairs and the Indian School of International Studies, New Delhi, have
been bringing out one of the best documentation services since 1956. These two
centers are bringing out annual bibliographies such as Documentation on India
and Documentation on Asia.
STANDARD REFERENCE MATERIALS
1. Sources of Words 5. Almanac
2. Encyclopedias 6. Biography
3. Directories 7. Hand book
4. Year book 8. Bibliography
9. Geographical Sources
32
The above Reference Books are consulted always by the readers for any
problem. But they are mostly consulted in the campus of the library as they are
costly and bulky and generally in volumes. These are read continuously and
consulted during general studies and research.
BIBLIOGRPHY
Systematic arrangement of information is a bibliography.
BOOKS IN PRINT
Indian Bibliographical Bureau, Delhi.
Vol – I Authors
Vol – II Titles
Vol – III Subject Guide
More than 80,000 titles have been brought out by 2,200 Indian Publishers.
Indian National Bibliography (INB)
It is India‟s most important bibliography and its publication is done by
Central Reference Library under the Ministry of Research and Cultural Affairs
at the National Library, Kolkata. It has two parts – Part 1 – General Publication
and Part – II Government Publication (with index)
Encyclopedia:
Encyclopedia is a book or set of books, giving information about all areas
of knowledge or about different areas of one particular subject, usually arranged
in alphabetical order. Similar collection of information on a CD – ROM is
available. It is called Wikipedia if it is on online.
Directory:
„World of Learning‟ is an international Directory which provides all
information related to Higher Education of the world. It covers more than 27,
000 Universities with their details, research and rules for admission etc. There is
an Index at the end.
Eg : University Hand book – AIU, New Delhi
33
Conclusion:
The rapid developments in computer technology, telecommunications,
printing reprography, etc. have important implications for the provision of
information by libraries to their users. Great advances have been made in the
automation of indexing and abstracting services. Despite such advances and
technological impacts, the actual search process and the end result remain the
same as in the traditional approach. Hence the reference significance of
reference sources on social science cannot be overemphasized. The sources
offered by the libraries enable the users and research scholars to obtain the
required information from the huge collection of libraries in no time.
************
34
SURVEY METHODS AND RESEARCH TOOLS
Dr. G. Karunanidhi*
Surveys
Surveys are chiefly used in studies that have individual people as unit of
analysis.
Surveys may be used for the following types of studies:
Descriptive
Explanatory
Exploratory
Descriptive
This approach describes situations and events based on what is observed.
Explorative
It typically occurs when a researcher examines a new interest or when the
subject of study itself is relatively new.
Explanatory
This approach explains things observed scientifically or basically.
Interview Survey
Role of Survey Interviewer: Establishing rapport with the respondents and
keeping himself/herself in an unbiased state, i.e. taking neutral stand with
respect to crucial issues of the study without letting himself/herself to be
ethnocentric, following research ethics.
Guidelines for Survey Interviewing: Keeping the convenience of respondents
in mind, making them understand the questions clearly, avoiding probing
questions, selecting suitable place for interview where both the interviewer and
interviewee can find privacy, not giving false hopes to the respondents.
Coordination and Control: While coordinating the interview, the researcher
should have complete control over it; otherwise there will be diversions and
wastage of time.
* Professor, Dept. of Sociology, M.S. University, Tirunelveli.
5..
35
Specific Guidelines for Survey Interviewing
Appearance and Demeanor
Familiarity with questions
Following question wording exactly
Recording response exactly.
Questionnaire Survey
Questionnaire & Mailed Questionnaire (Self Administered)
Mail Distribution and Return
Monitoring Return
Follow Up Mailings
Acceptable Response Rates
A Case Study
Guidelines for Formulating Questions for Questionnaire and Interview
Schedule
Precision (Make the item clear) and relevant
Open-ended and close ended questions
Avoiding double-barreled questions
Avoiding negative items.
Avoiding biased items and terms
Avoiding probing questions
Survey Methods
Telephone Survey
Computer Assisted Telephone Interviewing
Voice Capture
New Technologies and Survey Research
CAPI (Computer Assisted Personal Interviewing)
CASI (Computer Assisted Self-Interviewing)
CSAQ (Computerized Self-Administered Questionnaire)
TDE (Touchstone Data Entry)
VR (Voice Recognition)
36
Qualitative Tool to Collect Data
Case Study Method
The in-depth examination of a single instance of some social
phenomenon such as village, a family or a juvenile gang.
Focus Group Method
A group of subjects interviewed together, promoting a discussion. This
method is frequently used by marketing researchers who ask a group of
consumers to evaluate a product or discuss a type of commodity.
Comparison of Different Survey Methods
Self-administered Questionnaires are cheaper and quicker than face to
face interview surveys
Interview Surveys do achieve higher completion rates than self-
administered questionnaire surveys do.
Telephone Surveys are relatively cheaper and executed quickly
Online Surveys are likely to be cheaper if available software is developed
further.
Strengths and Weakness of Surrey Research
Surveys are particularly useful in describing the characteristics of a large
population.
A large number of cases are very important for both descriptive and
explanatory analyses, especially whenever several variables are to be
analyzed.
Surveys are flexible in a sense that several questions can be asked on a
given topic. But it is not possible for experimental design because the
researcher needs to commit himself to particular operational definition.
The questions addressed to the respondents have to be standardized
because they should be appropriate to many respondents.
The survey research seldom deals with the context of social life. It does
not consider the importance of new developments or changes in the field.
Survey method cannot measure social action
Survey methods are weak in validity but strong in reliability
37
Secondary Analysis
A form of research in which the data collected and processed by one
researcher are analysed by another for a different purpose.
Problem of Objectivity
The problem of impartiality or biaslessness is part of objectivity. In one
way or other, it is rather difficult for Social Scientists to keep this while
doing field work and preparing report. However, they need to follow this
to the extent possible to observe social phenomena from their point of
view. If they are able to establish themselves as impartial or unbiased
researchers, they remain to be objective while doing research. If they do
not do so, the social facts would be distorted, thereby arriving at
something against truth.
***************
38
HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
Dr. Venkatesh Athreya
Historical Materialism views social and historical development in terms
of the relationship of human beings with nature, and of the concomitant
relationships among human beings. The basic premise is that man's fundamental
activity is production. To quote Marx and Engels,
"Men begin to distinguish themselves from animals as soon as they begin
to produce their means of subsistence."*.
Thus members of human society necessarily engage in material,
productive activity to reproduce themselves. In the act of production, we
appropriate nature, and thus transform it. Equally important, we transform
ourselves by the process of material production. Most crucially, we learn.
Through productive activity, we acquire some control over our environment.
Human knowledge evolves through material practice. Marx and Engels put it in
these terms:
"Life involves before everything else, eating and drinking, a habitation,
clothing and many other things. The first historical act is thus of the production
of the means to satisfy these needs, the production of material life itself. "Also,
"as individuals express their life, so they are. What they are, therefore, coincides
with their production, both with what they produce and with how they produce.
The nature of individuals thus depends on the material conditions determining
their production”.
Production, of course, is never carried out in isolation by an individual. It
occurs in and through society, that is, production is necessarily social
production. Thus production in society is to be seen "as a double relationship:
on the one hand as a natural, on the other as a social relationship." Since
Adviser, M.S.Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai and Visiting Professor, Tata Institute of Social
Sciences, Mumbai.
6..
39
production is social, involving the cooperation of many individuals, such social
production always involves social relationships among the members of society.
In the process of production and reproduction of society, people enter into
specific social relationships with one another. In the study of a human society,
one must thus examine two aspects: first, the methods of production of material
life, which are the results of all past and current material practice, the sum total
of theoretical and practical knowledge and control over our natural environment
expressed through specific social forms, past and present; and secondly, specific
social relationships into which members of the society enter in the course of
their participation in social production. Marx calls the totality of the former
'productive forces‟, and the latter 'relations of production'.
To avoid possible misunderstanding, it needs to be emphasized that the
concept of "productive forces" is not the same as, nor reducible to, the notion of
'technology.' As Marx puts it, "an industrial stage is always combined with a
certain mode of cooperation or social stage, and this mode of cooperation is
itself a "productive force."'
As human beings engage in material production, learn and transform
themselves through practice, society acquires new productive forces. At any
given point, there is a particular state of development of productive forces in
society. This, in turn, implies specific forms of social cooperation, division of
labour, and social relationships among the members of society. To a given state
of development of 'productive forces', there corresponds a set of relations of
production, also called social relations. Thus in Feudal Europe, the predominant
role of land and agriculture in material production corresponded to the dominant
relation of production, also based on land, between the Feudal Lord and the
Serf. To capitalist, modern industry corresponds to the dominant production
relation of capitalism, between Wage Labour and the Capitalist. These are, of
course, just examples, and are not meant to suggest any simple or mechanical
one-to-one correspondence between the forces of production and the relations of
production.
40
While at a given point, there may exist in society a correspondence
between productive forces and relations of production, it is being constantly
undermined and upset through the very process of development of the society.
This is bound to happen because productive forces are developing constantly, as
society produces and reproduces itself materially and socially. Thus, there
emerges a contradiction between the forces and relations of production. With
further social development, this contradiction becomes increasingly acute, as the
existing relations of production-which can be 'summarized' (but only
summarized) in the property relations of the society-become less and less
compatible with the developing productive forces. The quantitative
accumulation of the contradiction between productive forces and relations of
production gives rise, at a certain stage, to a qualitative 'leap', to a new set of
production relations, more appropriate to the new stage of development of the
productive forces. A Social Revolution results, giving rise to a new constellation
of the forces and relations of production, to a new mode of production.
This is, of course, a highly schematic and very general account of the
historical materialist view of the dynamic of social change. Some qualifications
are in order. First, it needs to be recognized that the concept of the mode of
production is theoretical and thus an abstraction, though a valid one at that. It is
not meant to connote any historical society in its immediate actuality. The actual
society as such, the concrete entity, can properly be called a 'social formation'.
In any such social formation, a multiplicity of social relations coexist, some
characteristic of a certain mode of production, others of a different one and so
on. Thus in the Indian social formation, relations characteristic of the capitalist
mode coexist with those of precapitalist modes, including feudal and pre-feudal
elements.
The caste system, for instance, has existed in India ever since the break-
up of ancient tribal societies. It must also be recognized that the content of
social relations, of which the caste system has been the form, has changed
considerably over the long period of evolution of the Indian social formation. In
general, a concrete social formation is best seen as a specific combination of
41
two or more distinct modes of production. The distinction between concepts of
'mode of production' and 'social formation‟ is crucial. The specific manner in
which the various modes of production are combined in a given social
formation itself changes as the social formation evolves, and can be determined
only with reference to the concrete historical conjuncture at which the social
formation is examined. This 'conjuncture' is crucially determined by the state of
the class struggle (explained later) in the social formation.
Secondly, the fact that the historical materialist view emphasizes the
objective basis of social and historical development, it does not at all imply that
it subscribes to the notion that each and every human society must necessarily
go through an identical historical evolution on account of "inexorable historical
laws".
Thirdly, the motor of human history, from the Marxist viewpoint, is not
an 'abstractly' (one-sidedly) conceived contradiction between forces and
relations of production; but it is rather the contradiction between forces and
relations of production expressed concretely through the human agency: the
struggle between social classes.
Terms like 'feudal' 'capitalist' and 'classes' have been introduced and they
need clarification. In the initial stages of development of human societies, man's
control over nature was rather meagre, and the productive forces were very
poorly developed. At this stage, the general level of productivity of labour in
society must have been very low, and the entire labour time at the disposal of
society-that of all its able-bodied members-must have been taken up in just
making possible a bare subsistence level of living. With the further development
of productive forces, a point arises at which the productivity of labour in society
was high enough to render some of the available labour time 'surplus', or
equivalently, to allow the emergence of a surplus product, over and above the
social needs at the level of living then prevalent. The emergence of such a
surplus brings with it a logical possibility that some people in society now need
not work but can live off the labour of others. The possibility thus arises of a
class society: one in which a group of people, by virtue of a specific place in the
42
social organization of material production, can live off the labour of others. The
possibility appears to have first become a historical reality through conquest by
a relatively 'advanced' (in the sense of its productive powers) tribe of another
less so. The precise historical origin of class society is a complex issue that
cannot be gone into here. It may be merely noted that the most significant
change is in property relations: from common ownership of land and other
means of production to private ownership, at first of some of these, and
progressively, as different kinds of class societies emerge, of all means of
production.
The above account simply suggests two things: ( a ) initially, there was a
period of human history, characterized by poor productive forces, and a
classless society; and (b) with the emergence of a surplus, there arose class
societies wherein a class of people could, on account of their specific place in
the process of social production, live off the labour of others. The concept of
'class' can thus be seen as connoting (at a certain level of simplicity and
abstraction) a specific position in the social organization of the process of
production. A class society necessarily implies one with a developed social
division of labour (at the basic level, between those who work and those who do
not.) The relation between the class that does not work, and those that perform
surplus labour for this class is termed by Marx as one of exploitation. Thus the
term exploitation, in the Marxian framework, has a very specific analytical
content, and is not, as some people seem to argue, a moral one. Using the broad
framework of historical materialism, a fruitful periodization of West European
history has been developed- the modes of production which acquire dominance
successively in the social formations being 'primitive communism' (the stage of
negligible or zero surplus, tribal organization of life, and classless societies) 'the
slave mode' (resulting from conquest, based on the labour of slaves, with a
limited amount of production for exchange), the 'feudal mode' (based on
serfdom with, initially, labour-rent extracted by the feudal lords, subsequently
rent-in kind, and in the period of its decay, money-rent) and the 'capitalist mode'
(rise of modern industry, the dominant relation being that of industrial and later,
finance capital, on the one hand, and 'free' wage-labour on the other hand, 'free'
43
in contrast to the serf of the feudal mode who was tied to the land and, as Marx
points out, 'free' from his own means of subsistence, thus compelled to work for
the capitalist).
It is, however, not intended to go into the complex issues concerning the
transition from the dominance of one mode of production to that of another in
concrete social formations. But it may be noted here that the crucial forces in
the transitions are those of the struggle between social classes. Thus Dobb has
argued convincingly that the most important factor leading to the disintegration
of Feudalism in Europe was the intensification of the conflict between the
Feudal Lords and the Serfs, while the development of long-distance trade and of
money-commodity relations were also important. The transition from the
decline of the feudal mode of production in the European social formations to
the dominance of the capitalist mode in those formations was of course a long
drawn out process involving 'advances' and 'retreats'. The decisive factor in this
transition, as for instance the history of Britain demonstrates, was the struggle
between the emerging capitalist class and the ruling class of the feudal epoch,
the feudal landed aristocracy. From the events leading to the 'Glorious
Revolution' of 1688 to the repeal of the Corn Laws in the late 1840s, one can
see this struggle fought out on the economic, ideological and political levels.
The repeal of the Corn Laws was the final blow to the economic and political
power of precapitalist landed property, and the culmination of the seizure and
consolidation of state power by the British Bourgeoisie. While the development
of productive forces-the development of means of long distance transport
(advances in navigation) machinery and large scale modern industry, with their
associated forms of division of labour and cooperation-played a decisive role in
the origin and development of the capitalist mode in Britain, they did so not as
'technical' developments, but as part and parcel of the process of dialectical
interaction between productive forces and relations of production, that is, of the
process of class struggle. The preconditions of the capitalist mode-the presence
of a class of persons who possess nothing but their own 'labour-power' (ability
to work) on the one hand, and of a class of persons having a monopoly over the
ownership of means of production, and employing the propertyless workers to
44
produce things to sell and make profits therefrom, on the other hand-the
proletariat and the capitallst class, are themselves the products of the class
struggles that occurred during the decline and disintegration of the feudal order.
Thus the contradiction between forces and relations of production, which is the
basic dynamic of social change, concretely expresses itself in the struggle
between classes, through which the relations of production are transformed.
Many Marxist writers describe the forces and relations of production
together as the 'structure' or the 'economic base' of a society. By contrast, the
ideological, political, legal and other spheres are said to belong to the
'superstructure'. The viewpoint of historical materialism is then summed up by
saying that the 'economic base' determines the political, juridical and other
relations in society, or the 'structure' determines the 'superstructure'. It is, of
course, conceded that in some instances, the superstructure may also react on
the base, but that the dominant influence is from the base to the superstructure.
While all this is quite valid if carefully stated, we have avoided these terms
since they can be misleading. This is so for the following reasons: First, the
term 'economic' in popular parlance has a rather narrow meaning while the term
'economic base', in Marxian usage, represents nothing more nor less than the
totality of the material conditions of social production. Thus, not being fully
aware of the significance of the term 'economic' in Marx, people often
mistakenly identify Marxism and historical materialism with „economic
determinism.'
Secondly, historical materialism does not at all argue that the ideological
and political spheres are simply and mechanically determined by the economic'.
On the contrary, it explicitly recognizes that the ideological and political
spheres have considerable relative independence ('autonomy') and only argues
that the'economy' (understood in the broad sense stated above) is ultimately
determining.' Finally, the historical experience of transitional periods in
societies (for example, the Chinese transition to socialism) suggests that, in
these periods, the political and ideological factors become crucial.
45
In any event, the essential points of historical materialism-its emphasis on
social production, production relations and the class struggle as the motor of
history-must by now be fairly clear. Armed with this admittedly sketchy
understanding, we can now turn our attention to the method of Marxian Political
Economy.
Method of Political Economy
The object of investigation for Marxian Political Economy is 'material
production,' by which is meant not merely the production of things but social
relations as well. This is so since production is always necessarily social, hence
'material production' is production in and through society, and thus production
of society (in its specificity) as well. Thus, by production, is meant always
production at a definite stage of social development.
It is, of course, true that all epochs of production (societies at various
stages of development) have certain common elements or features. The method
of Marx stresses, however, that what are crucial to the study of a particular
society are those features of its social production that distinguish it from other
societies at different levels of social development. That is to say, the theoretical
categories that one utilizes to study any particular epoch must be historically
specific. To give an example: through most of human history, people have
fashioned and used instruments of production to produce things. It was
Benjamin Franklin who said that man is a tool-making animal. Thus the use of
instruments of production is common to all epochs of production. The sharp
stone fashioned by the savage is as much an instrument of production as the
lathe owned by a modern manufacturer. Both are essentially stored-up labour.
But while bourgeois economics equates 'the instrument of labour' with capital,
and regards the savage's stone and the modern lathe in the same manner, Marx
points out that what makes the lathe "capital" is not its character as an
instrument of production, but the specific social relation that it is the private
property of 'the manufacturer who hires wage labourers to work with it. The
first point, then, is that the marxist method recognizes the historical specificity
of social relations of production. To analyze a particular social epoch, it
46
develops theoretical categories specific to that epoch. Thus categories relevant
for the analysis of a society dominated by the capitalist mode of production,
such as capital, wage labour, surplus value and so forth are not to be used in
dealing with a society dominated by feudal or slave relations of production.
Recognizing that production is always both social and historical and specific,
one must consider in political economy the relationships between production,
consumption, distribution and exchange.
Production, Consumption and Distribution
Conventional Economics today views production in society as being
determined by the so-called „consumers‟ want. In other words, production is
assumed to be determined by consumption. The real relation between the two is
quite different, however. Production influences and determines consumption in
many ways. First, it provides the material for consumption. It also thus
determines the manner of consumption. Secondly, 'production‟ itself, from a
social viewpoint, is 'consumption' of the means of production, and the energy of
workers. Thirdly, through its historical development, and the changes thereof,
production itself generates new needs and thus determines new patterns of
consumption. A very simple example would be the automobile. Similarly it can
be seen that 'consumption' is also „production‟. For instance, of the worker
(reproduction of his labour-power occurs through his consumption of food).
Further, consumption provides the motive for production. The point of all this is
not that consumption and production are the same things, but rather that, "they
appear...as moments of one process, in which production is the real point of
departure, and hence also the predominant moment". This follows from the
viewpoint of historical materialism which accords primacy to the mode of
production of material life.
Thus in social production, the link between production and consumption
is not immediate for the individual. Distribution intervenes between production
and consumption. Among Conventional Economists, there are two views on the
determinants of distribution. A longstanding view is that while production is
determined by general natural laws, distribution is determined by man-made
47
laws. The other, more recent, view is that technical conditions of production
determine distribution. Thus in a capitalist economy, land, labour and capital are
said to be the factors of production, and each is alleged to receive an income
from production to the extent of its contribution to output. Thus wages, profit
and rent are all treated on an equal plane as 'factor incomes' determined by the
productivities of the respective 'factors'. Both these views are fundamentally
erroneous.
The Marxian view of the relations between production and distribution
may now be briefly stated. As Marx points out, distribution, before it can
become the distribution of final products, is „the distribution of the instruments
of production, and ...the distribution of the members of the society among the
different kinds of production‟. As Marx, also, adds, "The distribution of
products is evidently only a result of this distribution which is comprised within
the process of production itself and determines the structure of production.'"
If one considers capitalist society, for instance, the distribution of income
into wages and profits presupposes the existence of the wage labour and the
capitalist, and of the specific relations of production implied therein. The
Marxian view may be summed up in Marx's own words:
‘The structure of distribution is completely determined by the structure of
production. Distribution is itself a product of production, not only in its
object, in that only the results of production can be distributed, but also
in its form in that the specific kind of participation in production
determines the specific forms of distribution, that is, the pattern of
participation in distribution.'
Production and Exchange
The sphere of exchange or circulation is quite clearly dependent on
production in that ( a ) the very fact of exchange presupposes a certain
development of social division of labour and thus of a certain development of
social production, ( b ) that the specific features of exchange presuppose
48
specific features of production (for example, private exchange pre- supposes
private production) and (c) the intensity and the extent of exchange are
themselves determined by the structure of production (for example, limited and
local exchange in a self-sufficient village community as opposed to the well
developed and global exchange characteristic of developed capitalism.)
Having gone through the relations between production, consumption,
distribution and exchange, it is easy to see that these together constitute an
organic whole or totalitv- 'the mode of production in its totality'--within which
production plays a dominant role. What is important is to see that production,
consumption, distribution and exchange are not independent things but are
related in an organized way to each other . Marx sums this up: "A definite
production thus determines a definite consumption, distribution and exchange as
well as definite relations between these different moments." To avoid a possible
misunderstanding, production here must not be understood in a narrow, one-
sided manner. Marx notes, for example, that an extension of markets, or a
change in the sphere of exchange, deepens and further develops the division of
labour between different branches of production. Similarly, a change in the
distribution of wealth affects production in the narrow sense of the word.
A really deep discussion on the question of theory and abstraction is not
possible here but a few observations can be made. When analyzing a particular
society, it may seem natural to start with a few of its concrete (immediately
apparent) features like, say, population. This is however, misleading. The
concept of population is not helpful when one is trying to characterize the
relations of production. Thus one needs to identify the various social classes.
Pursuing this idea further, it follows that one analytically and repeatedly
subdivides a seemingly concrete whole into a number of basic analytical units
conceptually and arrives at what Marx calls "simple determinations." Thus the
early political economists arrived by means of such analysis at such concepts as
division of labour and exchange. Armed with the simple analytical
determinations, one can then reconstruct the concrete whole conceptually in a
systematic and scientific way. One arrives at the concrete by starting from
49
seemingly 'abstract' theoretical categories. Marx puts it thus: "The method of
rising from the abstract to the concrete is the only way in which thought
appropriates the concrete, reproduces it as the concrete in the mind."
Needless to say, reality is not the product of the human mind. Again,
Marx's formulation is helpful: "The real subject retains its autonomous
existence outside the head just as before; namely, as long as the head's conduct
is merely speculative, merely theoretical".
The significance of this position is as follows. While performing an
analysis of a given social reality, one must necessarily 'appropriate' that reality
through theoretical concepts. This is the only way the mind can grasp concrete
reality, by building it up mentally from a number of basic 'blocks' (the so-called
simple or abstract categories or 'determinations'.)
However, this theoretical process of comprehending the reality does not
by any means change the reality. The latter exists as before the process of
'theorizing' it occurred. Only by acting practically on the basis of the
comprehension achieved through theory can the reality itself be changed. This is
the fundamental meaning of the unity of theory and practice that defines
Marxism.
The above points, especially the need to analyze a concrete reality with
abstract, theoretical categories, need to be borne in mind, when it comes to
Marx's analysis of the capitalist mode of production. At the moment, the
consequences of the methodological position described above for Marx's
analysis can be best brought out by the following extract of Marx‟s own plan of
work:
The order [of study] obviously has to be 1) the general abstract
determinations which obtain more or less in all forms of society...2) the
categories which make up the inner structure of bourgeois society, and on
which the fundamental classes rest, capital, wage labour and landed property,
50
their interrelation, town and country, the three great social classes exchange
between them, circulation, credit system (private). 3) Concentration of
bourgeious society in the form of the state-viewed in relation to itself.
'unproductive' classes taxes, state debt, public credit, population, colonies,
emigration. 4) The international relations of production, international division of
labour, international exchange, export and import, rate of exchange. 5) The
world market and crises.'
While the plan is clearly sketchy, and while Marx did not live to complete
it, it shows the implications of Marx's method. Thus he begins his analysis of
the capitalist mode of production with the simple and fundamental analytical
categories of the capitalist mode of production. He proceeds to reproduce the
complex, concrete reality in thought by deriving the more concrete categories-
state, public credit, the international aspects of capitalist relations, world
market-from the 'unity' of the simpler categories. Marx's procedure has
sometimes been characterized as that of 'successive concretizations.' If it is
understood by this that Marx reproduces in thought the independently existing
concrete reality through a process of 'building up' complete categories from
simpler ones, it is indeed accurate. However, often the term is taken to mean
that Marx makes a number of simplifying assumptions and then gradually
'relaxes' them. For instance, it is argued that in volume I of Capital, Marx makes
the assumption of "equal organic composition of capital in all branches of
production" or that of there being only two classes in society. It will be seen
later that these conceptions are quite erroneous.
Summing Up
In providing a general statement of the Marxist approach to the study of
society, the abstract character of this presentation has been, to some extent,
inevitable. Nevertheless some 'results' have emerged, which may be briefly
restated.
1) In the Marxist approach to the study of society, the emphasis is on social
production. The two important analytical concepts here are: 'forces of
production' by which is meant not simply technology, but the social
51
division of labour and forms of cooperation associated with a given
industrial stage embodying a stock of theoretical and practical knowledge
of, and mastery over, the forces of nature; and 'relations of production',
which refer to the social relations between the members of society in the
process of social production (the relationships between different classes);
which are juridically expressed in the property relations of the society.
2) The dynamic of social change is the immanent contradiction between
forces and relations of production, concretely expressed in terms of the
struggle between social classes which occupy different places in the
scheme of social production. The contradiction is periodically resolved
through social revolution resulting in the dominance in society of a new
mode of production: a new constellation of forces and relations of
production.
3) Each society is characterized by the dominance in it of a specific mode of
production. Thus in analyzing a society, one must utilize categories
specific to it. At the same time, given the immanent contradiction
between the forces and relations of production, every society is transitory.
Thus the Marxist approach emphasizes the historico-relative character of
socio-economic systems, and insists on the use of historically specific
analytical categories in the study of societies.
4 ) While in some Marxist expositions, the 'economic base' (referring to the
set of production relations and forces of production) is said to determine
the 'superstructure' (referring to politics or ideology), it needs to be
emphasized that there is no mechanical one-to-one correspondence
between the 'economic', and the 'political' and 'ideological' spheres. The
latter two have a certain relative autonomy, and the uneven development
of these three spheres itself generates social contradictions. Thus the
Marxian view of society is not as a simple totality, but as a complex unity
within which there exists not a single, simple, universal contradiction, but
a complex of contradictions of which the 'economic' is ultimately
determining. It may also be noted here that the Marxian notion of
"ideology" is not simply that of a system of ideas (as is often
misunderstood, like conceptions of Fascism as an 'ideology') but rather
52
that 'ideology' is always embodied in a set of material practices, in which
certain ideas play a dominant role.
5) All this methodological elucidation does not by any means enable us to
answer immediately specific questions concerning a historical
conjuncture. To do that requires careful empirical study. The method is
only a guide to the proper manner in which the data can be appropriated
by the thinking mind, that is, how the 'concrete' can be understood as a
'concentration' of many simple analytical categories. By thus
reconstructing the real concrete in thought, one can eliminate the chaotic
mass that the immediate perception of concrete reality provides. To
change that reality, however, such theoretical comprehension is only a
necessary condition, not a sufficient one. It is through practical action
based on theory that reality can be purposefully changed. The unity of
theory and practice, the necessary and sufficient condition for purposive
social change, is the indispensable definition of Marxism, and is the only
way of avoiding the twin errors of theoreticism (scholasticism) and
pragmatism.
6) Finally, it may be noted that as we go further into the specifics of Marx's
political economy of capitalism, the exposition will get less abstract and
less difficult.
53
Footnotes
1 The dominant trends in contemporary bourgeois economics make a sharp
distinction between the sphere of 'economics' and those of 'politics' and
'society'. There are, however, other trends which follow the tradition of
the so-called British classical economists like Smith and Ricardo in
recognizing that the study of economics must necessarily involve politics
and society, and these trends may be said to work in political economy'
rather than economics. However, in Marx's case, it will be more accurate
to talk of the Marxian critique of bourgeois political economy.
2 I Mars and F Engels, "German Ideology", reprinted in R C Tucker (ed.)
The Marx- Engels Reader, p 114.
3 Ibid., p 120.
MARXIAN POLITICAL ECONOMY 57
4 Ibid., p 114.
5. Ibid., p 121.
6 Ibid.
The notion of a quantitative change turning into a qualitative change at a
certain stage is essential to dialectics. Marxist philosophy is often described as
'dialectical materialism'. Among many that use this term, the conception
prevails that Marx borrowed the 'dialectical method' from Hegel but imbedded it
in the philosophy of materialism as opposed to Hegel's idealism. It should be
pointed out, however that there are sharp differences between Hegel's dialectic
and Marx's. The very notion of 'dialectical materialism' is highly controversial,
and we have preferred not to use it. See, for instance, J Robinson, An Essay on
Marxian Economics; also her Economic Philosophy. Particularly harmful in
this context is the equating of production relations with the juridical form of
property relations.
O F Engels: "According to the materialist conception of history, the
ultimately deter-mining element in history is the production and reproduction of
real life. More than this neither Marx nor I have ever asserted ...The economic
situation is the basis, but the various elements of the superstructure: political
forms of the class struggle and its results ...juridical form ...also exercise their
54
influence upon the course of the historical struggles and in many cases
preponderate in determining their form.
7. Letter to J Bloch, 21-22 September 1890, reprinted in R C Tucker, op.
cit., p 640. " K Marx, Grzlndrirse. M Nicolaus (ed.), p 85.
8. Ibid., p 94.
9. Ibid., p 96.
10. Ibid. 96.
11. Ibid., p 95.
12. Ibid,. p 99.
13. Ibid., pp 99-100.
14. Ibid., p 101.
15. Ibid., pp 101-102.
16. Ibid., p 108.
55
STATISTICS FOR RESEARCHERS [INCLUDING SPSS]
Dr.S. Iyyampillai
Numbers, data, statistics [data, subject, sample characteristics],
information, details
Data: Qualitative, quantitative, discrete, continuous
Variables: Dependent, independent, censored, dummy, proxy, binary
Statistics and logic
Marks in the semesters
I II III IV
Anand 30 40 50 70
Babu 45 45 45 45
Chandru 60 50 40 30
David 100 100 100 100
[Passing minimum is 40 marks]
Which [measure of central tendency/dispersion] is appropriate?
-----------------------------
Income of two grooms
Day: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Groom I : 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Groom II : 100 200 000 -100 -200 000 300 400 500 000
Total income for Groom I : 1000
Total income for Groom II: 1200
Who is better? Use sd or cv.
Correlation [for raw data, grouped data, ranks] co-efficient for the
following data:
Year : 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Number of Ph D fellows
in Tiruchi [in 100] 5 6 7 8 10 12 14 18 20
Dr. S. Iyyampillai, Professor, Dept. of Economics, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli.
7..
56
Number of buffalos in
Tiruchi [in 1000] 0 12 14 16 19 20 25 29 35
----------------------------------------
Distributions: Frequency and Probability: Normal, Binomial, Poisson
Tests of Hypotheses
Statistical Decisions:
Very often, in practice, we are called upon to make decisions about
populations on the basis of sample information. Such decisions are called
Statistical Decisions. For example, we may have to decide on the basis of
sample data, whether liberalization policies in India have helped the Indian
farmers, whether the parent-financed educational institutions are superior to
government funded educational institutions, whether a given coin is loaded, etc.
Statistical hypotheses:
In attempting to reach decisions, it is useful to make certain tentative
statements about the population involved. Such statements, which may or may
not be true, are called Statistical Hypotheses.
For example, if we want to decide whether a given coin is loaded, we
formulate the hypothesis that the coin is fair, i.e., p = 0.5, where p is the
probability of heads. Similarly if we want to decide whether one economic
policy is better then another, we formulate the hypothesis that there is no
difference between the policies (i.e., if there are any differences observed, they
are merely due to fluctuations in sampling from the same population, or due to
chance). If we want to decide whether one variable (say, caste) is associated
with another variable (say, the size of landholding owned), then we formulate
the hypothesis that there is no association between those two variables. Such
hypotheses are called null hypotheses and are denoted by Ho.
Any hypothesis which differs from a given hypothesis is called an
Alternative Hypothesis; and, it is denoted by H1. If null hypothesis is p=0, then
alternative hypothesis could be p≠ 0.5 or p>0.5 or p = 0.8, p<0.5.
57
Tests of hypotheses and significance:
If we find the results observed in a random sample differ markedly from
those expected under the hypothesis on the basis of pure chance using sampling
theory, we would say that the observed differences are significant and we would
be inclined to reject the hypothesis or Ho. For example, if 20 tosses of a coin
yield 16 heads, we would be inclined to reject the hypothesis that the coin is
fair, although it is conceivable that we might be wrong. In this case we would
reject Ho, which states that p = 0.5.
Procedures, which enable us to decide whether to accept or reject
hypotheses or to determine whether observed samples differ significantly from
expected results, are called Test of Hypothesis, Tests of Significance or Rules of
Decision.
Type I and Type II errors:
If we reject a hypothesis when it should be accepted, we say that a Type I
Error has been made. If, on the other hand, we accept a hypothesis when it
should be rejected, we say that a Type II Error has been made.
Reduction of errors:
For a given sample size, an attempt to decrease one type of error is
accompanied in general by an increase in another other type of error. (Purchase
of a lottery ticket results in the loss of money at hand but increases the
probability of winning a prize. Choosing not to purchase the lottery ticket
results in not losing the money at hand but decreases the probability of winning
a prize). In practice, one type of error may be more serious than the other, and
so a compromise should be reached in favour of a limitation of the more serious
error. The only way to reduce both types of error is to increase the sample size,
which may or may not be possible.
Level of significance:
In testing a given hypothesis, the maximum probability with which we
would be willing to risk a Type I Error is called the level of significance of the
58
test. This probability, often denoted by “alpha”, is generally specified before
any samples are drawn, so that results obtained will not influence our choice.
In practice, a level of significance of 0.05 or 0.01 is customary, although
other values are used. If, for example, a 0.05 or 5 % level of significance is
chosen in designing a test of hypothesis, then there are about 5 chances in 100
that we would reject the hypothesis when it should be accepted, i.e., we are
about 95 % confident that we have made the right decision. In such a case, we
say that the hypothesis has been rejected at 0.05 level of significance, which
means that we could be wrong with the probability of 0.05.
One-tailed and two-tailed tests:
If we show interest in extreme values of the statistic or its corresponding
score on both sides of the mean, i.e., in both „tails‟ of the distribution, the tests
for such situation are called two-tailed tests or two-sided tests. Eg. One process
is different from the other.
If we are interested only in extreme values to one side of the mean, i.e., in
one „tail‟ of the distribution (Eg. Process A is better than process B), such tests
are called one-tailed or one-sided tests. In such cases, the critical region is a
region to one side of the distribution, with area equal to the level of
significance.
Table 1: Critical Values of „z‟ for one and two tailed tests at different levels
of significance.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Level of significance
(alpha) 0.10 0.05 0.01 0.005 0.002
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Critical values of z for -1.28 -1.645 -2.33 -2.58 -2.88
One-tailed tests or 1.28 or 1.645 or 2.33 or 2.58 or 2.88
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Critical values of z for -1.645 -1.96 -2.58 -2.81 -3.08
Two-tailed tests and 1.645 and 1.96 and 2.58 and 2.81 and 3.08
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
59
Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests:
When the sample statistics [for instance, mean and standard deviation of
sample] are used to estimate and test the differences between the population
parameters, they are called Parametric Tests. If tests are used in the absence of
these statistics/parameters, then they are called Non-Parametric Tests.
Types of Tests:
If the samples are sufficiently larger [greater than 50 in some cases or
greater than 30], if samples are drawn with replacement, if population is
normally distributed, then ”z” test could be used for:
1. Testing the difference between the sample mean [x bar] and population
mean [mu]
2. Testing the difference between the sample proportion [p] and population
proportion [P]
3. Testing the difference between means of two population by using two
sample means
4. Testing the difference between two population proportions by using two
sample proportions
If the samples are small [smaller than 30 or smaller than 50], and if
population is normally distributed for all the above four cases, „t‟ test is used.
There shall be small difference in the calculation of standard deviation. Instead
of s, s-cap will be used. The variance will have to be multiplied by „n‟ and
divided by n-1. For looking at the „t‟ table, degrees of freedom has to be used.
Chi-Square Test is used to test [1] if the theoretical distribution is significantly
different from the observed frequency; and [2] if there is any significant
difference between the sample standard deviation [s] and population standard
deviation [sigma].
„F‟ test is used to test [1] the difference between variance of two populations
and [2] the difference between means of more than two groups.
60
How to Work with SPSS Package?
In ordinary statistical parlance, we hear of various statistical packages
like Statistical Analysis System (SAS), Stata, STATISTICA, XLSTAT, SPSS,
etc. These are actually nothing but the extended and somewhat complicated
version of excel about which most of us are well acquainted. So what is
actually a statistical package? A statistical package is nothing but a set of
computer programs that are specialized for statistical analysis. It has in a way
replaced long hours of tedious manual calculations and enables researchers to
obtain the results of standard statistical procedures and statistical significance
tests within a fraction of a second.
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) is one such statistical
package which is very widely used by the researchers nowadays. It is to be
reminded that this software is not an in-built software, but has to be installed in
the PCs or laptops. It is recommended that the installed package is located either
in the Start Menu or in the C: drive. Once it is installed, one has to check if the
Start menu has an option as „SPSS windows‟ or in case of C: drive, the SPSS
folder should be having a file called „spsswin‟. This is the one, i.e. SPSS
windows or spsswin, that has to be opened. So how to work with SPSS? The
following are the steps that have to be followed systematically.
i. Once the SPSS windows‟ option is opened by clicking on the „Open‟
option, a spreadsheet will appear, over which a box will also appear as
„SPSS for Windows‟. In this box, the researcher has to choose one of the
given options, like whether the analysis has to be performed with the help
of tutorial, or from some existing data source or to type an entirely newer
data. Either one can select the option called „type a data‟ and then give
„Ok‟ option or can directly give „Cancel‟ so as to get rid of this box and
be ready to type a new data into the available spreadsheet.
ii. The spreadsheet that is in front of us will have options called „Data View‟
and „Variable View‟. The „Data View‟ shows a view of the cases (rows)
and variables (columns). The „Variable View‟ is nothing but a
dictionary where each row represents a variable and shows the variable
name, variable label, value label (s), print width, measurement type and a
61
variety of other characteristics. Cells in both views can be manually
edited, defining the file structure and allowing data entry. This may be
sufficient for small datasets. Larger datasets such as statistical surveys
are more often created in data entry software, or entered during computer-
assisted personal interviewing, by scanning and using optical character
recognition and optical mark recognition software, or by direct capture
from online questionnaires. These datasets are then read into SPSS.
iii. In the variable „name‟ (can accommodate only eight characters), first, the
serial number as S. No. has to be written (mandatory), followed by the
variables, both the dependent and independent variables. The variable
„type‟ will be asking for the type of the variable i.e. whether the serial
number has to be in the numeric form, or scientific notation form, or
dollar form, etc. So accordingly we have to choose our option. The
variable „decimal‟, will be asking for the number of decimal points for
the variables, and suppose there is no need for a decimal point for the
variable then we can choose zero, meaning that there would be no
decimal point to the variable. The variable „label‟, comes into play when
the characters in the variable name, need to be properly defined.
iv. Now, whatever has been filled in the „Variable View‟ will appear in the
„Data View‟ as rows. For example, in the option S. No. we need to fill
the numbers, or in the option say, advertising expenditure, we feed the
data for the advertising expenditure, and so on.
v. After feeding all the variables in the relevant cells, the next step is to
perform the statistical analysis. At the top there will be an icon called
„Analyze‟. Under this, there are options like reports, descriptive
statistics, correlate, regression, tables, etc. The option „correlate‟ will
give the correlation coefficient of the variables. In the option
„regression‟, there will be another sub-option called „linear‟. Here it is to
be remembered that this option is used not only for linear regression
analysis (one dependent variable and one independent variable) but also
for multiple regression analysis (one dependent variable and more than
two independent variables).
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vi. So, for example, the variables, S. No, advertising expenditure
(independent variable), market share (independent variable) and profits
(dependent variable) are present. Then on clicking the option „linear‟, a
box will appear. The option S. No. should be kept aside, and since in our
example, profit is a dependent variable, so „profit‟ should be selected and
then the arrow beside the „dependent‟ box should be clicked. The result
is that the „profit‟ goes and sits in its appropriate place, i.e., „dependent‟
box. In the similar way, the independent variable is also made to sit in
the „independent‟ box. If there are more than one independent variable,
like in our example, then the two variables, advertising expenditure and
market share can either be selected one by one or can be selected
simultaneously and then click the arrow beside the „independent‟ box.
The two independent variables will go and sit in the „independent‟ box.
And if we want to go for tests like D-W test, then we can click the option
„statistics‟ at the bottom of the box; and if the results are to be represented
by graphs, then the option „plot‟ (although there is separate option for
graphs) will be helpful. Then finally the „Ok‟ option is to be clicked.
vii. Finally, the statistical results – mean, standard deviation, R, R2, F and t
value, the coefficients of the dependent variable as well as the
independent variable are displayed within a fraction of a second. And
once the statistical results are there before us, it is we who have to
interpret and make the figures speak.
**********
63
FUNDING OF RESEARCH PROGRAMMES AND
DOCUMENTATION
Dr.K.G.Govindarajalu
Introduction:
Higher Education has long been recognized as a major contributing factor
to the social, cultural and intellectual life of society by improving the quality of
human life. According to the latest statistics available, there are 493 Universities
in India today: (42 Central Universities; 256 State Universities, 60 Private
Universities, 130 Deemed to be Universities and 5 Institutions established under
state list) and over 31,000 colleges, including 1,798 colleges for women. In
addition to this, there are 1173 polytechnic institutes. Research Funding by the
Government of India comes from a number of sources. For basic science and
technology research, the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR),
Department of Science and Technology (DST), and University Grants
Commission (UGC). For medical research, these include the Indian Council for
Medical Research (ICMR), CSIR, DST and Department of Biotechnology
(DBT). For applied research, CSIR, DBT and Science and Engineering
Research Council (SERC), provide the funds. Other funding authorities are the
Defence Research Development Organization (DRDO), the Indian Council of
Agricultural Research (ICAR), the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO),
the Department of Ocean Development (DOD), the Indian Council for Social
Science Research (ICSSR), and the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF)
etc.
What is Funding Agency? :
Government or Non-Government Agency providing monetary grants for
scientific research
Areas- Science and Technology, Social Sciences, etc.
Professor, Department of Economics, Bharathiyar University, Coimbatore. E-mail:[email protected].
.
8..
64
Which are different funding agencies? :
All India Council for Technical Education(AICTE)
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
Defence Research and Dvpt. Org. (DRDO)
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE)
Department of Ayurveda, Yoga & Naturopathy, Unani, Siddha and
Homoepathy (AYUSH)
Department of Biotechnology (DBT)
Department of Coal (DOC)
Department of Ocean Development (DOD)
Department of Science and Technology (DST)
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR)
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)
India Meteorological Department (IMD)
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)
Ministry of Earth Science (MoES)
Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
Ministry of Comm. & I. T. (MOCIT) Dept. of I.T.
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF)
Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MFPI)
Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES)
Ministry of Power, Central Power Research Institute (CPRI)
Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment (MOSJE)
Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR)
Petroleum Conservation Research Association (PCRA)
University Grants Commission (UGC)
Indian Council of Social Science Research(ICSSR)
65
AICTE Schemes/Fundings :
Research Promotion Schemes
Scheme Funds
Dvpt. of End Product / research
infrastructure to enhance research
activity
Rs.5-10 lakhs
Faculty member with PG for doctoral
work
Rs. 10-12 lakhs
Dvpt of new research facility Rs. 20 lakhs
Nationally Coordinated Projects
By the networking with IIT/IISc/IIM/NIT or nationally reputed
institution
(Rs. 5-10 lakhs)
Scheme for Modernization & Removal of Obsolescence in Tech.
Education (MODROB) up to Rs 15 lakhs.
National Doctoral Fellowship Scheme
a. - Scholarship @ Rs.12,000/- per month per candidate.
b. - Contingency Grant of Rs.25,000/- per annum –
c. Overhead Charges of Rs.20,000/- per annum to host institution
Only in recommended institutions
d. Career Award for Young Teachers Upto 10,50,000/-
e. Scheme of Entrepreneurship Dvpt. Cell Upto 2.5 lakhs
f. Staff Dvpt. Programme – upto 7.5 lakhs
g. Seminar Grants
h. Travel Grants
AYUSH Schemes/Fundings :
Development of AYUSH Institutions
Quality Control of AYUSH Drugs
Development of AYUSH Hosp. & Dispensaries
Up gradation of Centers of Excellence
Public Health Initiatives Scheme
66
Promotion of International Co-op. in AYUSH
Extra Mural Research Projects on Indian Systems of Medicine
Assistance for Exchange Programme / Seminar / Conference / Workshop
on AYUSH
ICMR schemes/Fundings:
Short Term Visiting Fellowships
Ad-hoc Research Schemes
Task-Force Projects
Research Fellowships/ Associateships
- Junior Research Fellowships
- Senior Research Fellowship/Research Associate
Emeritus Medical Scientist Scheme
Centres for Advanced Research
ICMR Postdoctoral Research Fellowship
DST Schemes/Fundings:
Pharmaceuticals Research and Development Support Fund (PRDSF)
Programme
Soft Loan for Pharma Industrial R&D Projects
Science & Engineering Research Council
Intensification of Research in High Priority Areas (IRHPA)
Nanoscience & Technology Initiative (NSTI)
Ramanujan Fellowship
JC Bose National Fellowship
Ramanna Fellowships
Swarnajayanti Fellowships
Fund for Improvement of S&T Infrastructure in Universities and other
Higher Educational Institutions (FIST)
Fast Track Scheme for Young Scientists (FTYS)
Better Opportunities for Young Scientists in Chosen Areas of Science and
Technology (BOYSCAST)
67
Women Scientists Programs
Kishore Vaigyanik Protsahan Yojana
Assistance for Conferences Abroad
Seminar/Symposia Grants
Drugs & Pharmaceutical Research
UGC schemes/Fundings:
Junior Research Fellowship
Research Associateship (RA)
Part-Time Research Associateship For Women
Funding for Major and Minor Research
Travel Grant Scheme
P G Scholarship and Post Doctoral Fellowship For SC/ST Candidates
Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship for SC/ST
Research Fellowship in Sciences
Major Research Project in Sciences including Engineering &
Technology, Medical, Pharmacy Agriculture etc. - Rs. 12 lacs.
Major Research Project in Humanities, Social Science, Languages,
Literature, Arts, Law and allied disciplines - Rs. 10 lacs.
Minor Research Project - Rs. 1 lac.
DBT Schemes/Fundings
Tata Innovation Fellowship
Eligibility:
i. Ph.D degree in Life Sciences, Agriculture, Veterinary Science or a
Master‟s degree in Medical Sciences, Engineering; or an equivalent degree
in Biotechnology/related areas
ii. Fellowship: Rs. 20,000/- in addition to regular income +
iii. Rs. 5,00,000/- contingency
Ramalingaswami Re-Entry Fellowship
68
Eligibility:
i. Ph.D. degree or equivalent in life sciences/ agriculture,
bioinformatics or M.Tech. in engineering or technology/ medicine
etc. and have adequate professional experience
Nature of support:
i. Fellowship: Rs.75,000/- (consolidated) p.m.
ii. Contingency: Rs.500, 000 p.a.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)
I. Introduction
The major functions of CSIR include promotion, guidance and
coordination of scientific and industrial research in India; establishment or
development of and assistance to existing special institutions or departments for
scientific study of problems affecting particular industries and trades; award of
fellowship; utilization of Council‟s R&D results for industrial development;
collection and dissemination of S&T information; and technology generation,
absorption and transfer. The Human Resource Development (HRD) Group of
Council of Scientific & Industrial Research(CSIR) has a mandate to develop
and nurture S&T manpower at the national level. It also promotes, guides and
co-ordinates scientific & industrial research through research grants to
Scientists/Professors working in Universities/R&D Institutes of Higher
Learning.
II. Name of Scheme(s) & Objective(s)
1. Research Schemes
To promote research work in the field of S&T including agriculture,
engineering and medicine. Multi-Disciplinary Projects, which involve inter-
organisational cooperation (including that of CSIR Laboratories), are also
considered. Preference is given to Schemes which have relevance to research
programmes of CSIR Laboratories.
69
2. Sponsored Schemes
The Directors of CSIR Laboratories may invite applications for
research grants in specific areas of interest to their respective Laboratories.
They will forward these to the CSIR HRD Group. The Scheme enables the
CSIR Laboratories to interact with University System, so that the CSIR
Laboratory can take the help of the faculty there to undertake part of the work of
its core programme, for which it either does not have the time and /or expertise.
3. Emeritus Scientist Scheme
To provide support to superannuated outstanding scientists to pursue
research in their respective field of specialization and having relevance to the
programmes of CSIR.
4. Research Fellowships/Associateships
Shyama Prasad Mukherjee Fellowship
Senior Research Associateship
Recognition of Excellence
Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize
CSIR Young Scientist Award
5. Other Science and Technology Promotion Programmes
CSIR Programme on Youth Leadership in Science
CSIR Diamond Jubilee Research Interns Award Scheme
Visiting Associateship Scheme
Partial Financial Assistance for holding National/International
Conferences/ Symposium/ Seminar/ Workshops in India
Partial Travel Grants to Research Scholars
Entrepreneurship Support to Research Scholars
Faculty Training Programme and Adoption of Schools and Colleges by
CSIR Laboratories
70
Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO)
I. Introduction
DRDO is dedicatedly engaged in the formulation and execution of
programmes of scientific research, design and development, testing and
evaluation leading to induction of state-of-the-art weapons and equipment
which would compete and compare favorably with its contemporary systems
available elsewhere in the world. It consists of a chain of
laboratories/establishments situated all over the country, pursuing assigned
scientific goals with delegated powers under the policy direction provided by
the Headquarters in New Delhi. DRDO also supports a substantial amount of
extramural research in academic institutions and other laboratories on defence
related problems through various grants -in-aid schemes and other sponsored
projects.
II. Name of scheme(s)
1. Extramural Research Scheme
Research sponsored in academic institutions under the Extramural
Research (ER) Scheme focuses on research on phenomena or
observations that are not understood, and that lack of understanding is
recognized as an obstacle to scientific or technological progress in the
broad topic area of relevance to military R&D. The knowledge base so
generated is embodied in high-quality technical manpower and with the
help of new understanding, techniques and design-tools are developed.
Such new knowledge can also provide pathways to significant advances
in the mission-effectiveness of traditional military roles.
Collaterally with the expanded knowledge-base created, a primary end-
result of the research that is funded under the ER Programme is a
networked group of qualified people whose expertise resulting from the
research can be drawn upon to build an exploitable area of new
technology that has potential military applicability.
The ER Scheme also supports the instrumentality of Memoranda of
Collaboration (MoC) between DRDO Laboratories & Establishments and
Academia. These MoC invariably involve more than DRDO
71
establishment and cover explorations and investigations on a range of
topics within a broad subject arena that generically cross-link the
research activities of the Collaborating Laboratories & Establishments
and the research-disciplines of the selected collaborating academic
institution. Such institutional cross-linking is organic, not episodic, and is
made operational in an MoC through a management structure which
includes in its standing arrangements representation of Directors of the
Collaborating DRDO Institutions.
Department of Biotechnology (DBT)
I. Introduction
The setting up of a separate Department of Biotechnology (DBT), under the
Ministry of Science and Technology in 1986, gave a new impetus to the
development of the field of modern biology and biotechnology in India. In more
than a decade of its existence, the Department has promoted and accelerated the
pace of development of biotechnology in the country. Through several R&D
projects, demonstrations and creation of infrastructural facilities, a clear visible
impact of this field has been seen. The Department has made significant
achievements in the growth and application of biotechnology in the broad areas
of agriculture, health care, animal sciences, environment, and industry.
II. Name of Scheme(s)
· Agriculture
· Bioinformatics
· Biotech Product and Process Development
· Basic Research
· Human Resource Development
· Infrastructure Facilities
· International Cooperation
· Medical Biotechnology
· Bioresources
· Plant Biotechnology
· Societal Developments
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III. Areas of Research Support
· Animal Biotechnology
· Aquaculture and Marine Biotechnology
· Basic Research in Biotechnology
· Biofuels
· Bioinformatics
· Biological Control of Plants Pests, Diseases and Weeds
· Bioprospecting and Molecular Taxonomy
· Biotech Process Engineering and Industrial Biotechnology
· Biotechnology of Medicinal and Aromatics Plants
· Biotechnology of Silkworms and Host-plants
· Crop Biotechnology
· Environment & Conservation Biotechnology
· Food Biotechnology
· Medical Biotechnology (Vaccines, Diagnostics, Drug
Development, Human Genetics & Genome Analysis, Seri
Biotechnology, Stem Cell Biotechnology)
· Microbial Biotechnology
· Plant Tissue Culture
· Human Resource Development
· Nano Biotechnology
· Women Biotechnology & Programme for Rural Areas and
SC/ST Population
· Jai Vigyan National S&T Missions
· Patent Facilitation
Department of Ocean Development (DOD)
I. Introduction
The development in Ocean Science & Technology is linked with achievements
in other scientific and technological areas. The research efforts should lead to
fundamental understanding and ensure predictive capabilities. An important
component of the development programme is technology. To be self reliant,
such will have to be commercialized and made cost effective.
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II. Name of Scheme(s)
1. Assistance for Research Projects (ARPs) in Ocean Sciences (MRDF)
2. Manpower Training for Ocean Research & Management (MMDP)
III. Objective(s)
To encourage research in newly emerging and front-line areas of Marine
Geology and Geophysics, Marine Coastal Ecology, Marine Biology, Marine
Microbiology, Coastal Marine Culture Systems, Marine Benthos, Beach
Placers, Ocean Engineering and Under Water Robotics.
Subjects considered for support under the programme include physical and
chemical oceanography, marine biology, marine geology, marine
geophysics, ocean engineering, marine ecology, meteorology, marine
instrumentation etc. Besides purely scientific projects, assistance is also
extended to projects which have politico-geographic or social dimensions of
the Indian Ocean and Antartica.
Under the MMDP Scheme, only fellowships & contingencies are provided
for.
To encourage Research Organizations, Institutions, IITs, Universities to
undertake projects with industrial tie-ups.
To generate reliable data and information system.
To strengthen / create infrastructure facilities in Universities / Institutions /
Organizations to generate manpower in the field of Marine Science and
Technology.
IV. Areas of Research Support
Newly emerging and front-line areas of Marine Geology and Geophysics,
Marine Coastal Ecology, Marine Biology, Marine Microbiology, Coastal
Marine Culture Systems, Marine Benthos, Beach Placers, Ocean Engineering
and Under Water Robotics.
74
Department of Science and Technology (DST)
I. Introduction
The Department of Science & Technology plays a pivotal role in promotion of
Science & Technology in the country. Science & Technology Policy-2003 states
that “Special emphasis will be placed on equity in development, so that the
benefits of technological growth reach the majority of the population,
particularly the disadvantaged sections, leading to an improved quality of life
for every citizen of the country.” The Department has wide ranging activities
ranging from promoting high end basic research and development of cutting
edge technologies on one hand to service the technological requirements of the
common man through development of appropriate skills and technologies on the
other. The Department supports research through a wide variety of schemes
specifically carved out to meet the requirements of different sections of the
scientific and engineering community.
II. Name of Scheme(s):
Deep Continental Studies (DCS)
Himalayan Glaciology (HG)
Indian Climate Research Programme (ICRP)
Instrument Development Programme (IDP)
International S&T Cooperation (ISTC)
Joint Technology Projects under STAC/ISTAC
Monsoon and Tropical Climate (MONTCLIM) & Agrometeorology
Natural Resources Data Management System (NRDMS)
Pharmaceuticals Research & Development Support Fund (PRDSF)
Programme
Programme Advisory Committee on Earth Sciences (PAC-ES): R&D
Projects Scheme
Science & Engineering Research Council (SERC)
Science & Society Programmes (SSP)
Seismology Programme (SP)
State Science & Technology Programme (SSTP)
75
Technology Development Programme (Joint Technology –Technology
System Programme)
Utilization of Scientific Expertise of Retired Scientists (USERS)
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR)
I. Introduction
The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) is a part of the
Ministry of Science and Technology, which was announced through a
Presidential Notification, dated January 4, 1985. The Department of Scientific
and Industrial Research (DSIR) has a mandate to carry out the activities relating
to indigenous technology promotion, development, utilization and transfer.
The Technology Promotion, Development and Utilization (TPDU) Programmes
are directed towards meeting the specific needs of industry and are of particular
relevance in the present context. Programmes and activities under the scheme
are centered around promoting industrial R&D, development and
commercialization of technologies, acquisition, management and export of
technologies, promotion of consultancy capabilities, etc.
II. Name of Scheme(s)
Technology Promotion, Development and Utilization Programmes & its
Components.
Objective(s)
Promote and support industry efforts towards R&D.
Encourage R&D system-industry cooperation.
Support industry for technology development, demonstration and
absorption of imported technology.
Build indigenous capabilities for development and commercialization of
contemporary products and processes of high impact.
Evaluate the status and performance of technology in selected
sectors/areas.
Facilitate effective transfer and management of technology.
76
Promote international technology trade including export of technology
projects, services and technology intensive products.
Promote and strengthen consultancy capabilities for domestic use and
export requirements. Support and use mechanisms, both national and
international, towards transfer of technology, both within and outside the
country.
Generate endogenous capacities for the development and utilization of
digital information resources for providing inputs to scientific &
industrial research in the country. These objectives are implemented
through the following six component schemes:
- Industrial R&D Promotion Programme
- Technology Development and Demonstration Programme
- Technopreneur Promotion Programme
- Technology Management Programme
- International Technology Transfer Programme
- Consultancy Promotion Programme
- Technology Information Facilitation Programme
Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)
I. Introduction
The primary aim of the ICMR is to promote research in the country in the fields
of medicine, public health and allied areas. The Council promotes biomedical
research in the country through intramural research (through Institutes totally
funded by ICMR) and extramural research (through grants -in-aid given to
projects in non- ICMR Institutes).
II. Name of the scheme(s)
Ad-hoc Research Schemes : Open-ended Research (Ad-hoc Projects) on
the basis of applications for grants-in-aid received from scientists in non-
ICMR Research Institutes located in different parts of the country
Senior Research Fellowship/Research Associate
Junior Research Fellowships
77
Emeritus Medical Scientist Scheme (for retired medical scientists and
teachers, the Council offers the position of Emeritus Scientist to enable
them to continue or take up research on specific biomedical topics.)
Other Research Activities:
Short Term Research Studentship (for undergraduate medical students to
encourage them to familiarize themselves with research methodologies
and techniques)
National Task Force Projects : which emphasise a time-bound, goal-
oriented approach with clearly defined targets, specific time frames,
standardized and uniform methodologies, and often a multicentric
structure
Centres for Advanced Research : setting up Centres for Advanced
Research in different research areas around existing expertise and
infrastructure in selected departments of Medical Colleges, Universities
and other non-ICMR Research Institutes
Guidance for International Collaboration for Research in Biomedical
Sciences
ICMR International Fellowships for Biomedical Scientists from
Developing Countries
ICMR International Fellowships for Indian Biomedical Scientists
ICMR Financial assistance to MD/MS/DM/MCH thesis programme
Grant-in-aid for organising Seminars/Symposia/Workshops
India Meteorological Department (IMD)
I. Introduction
IMD was established in 1875. It is the National Meteorological Service of
the country and the principal government agency in all matters relating to
meteorology, seismology and allied subjects.
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II. Name of Scheme(s)
Research in meteorology and allied disciplines
The India Meteorological Department (IMD) entertains research projects,
in the field of meteorology and atmospheric sciences, received from scientists
working in universities / institutions and government organizations for their
funding under its grants-in-aid programme.
III. Areas of Research Support
Topics related to advancement of knowledge in the fields of meteorology
and atmospheric sciences, with particular reference to the Indian region.
Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) - Department of Space
I. Introduction
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) was established in 1969. The
Indian Space Programme has the primary objective of developing space
technology and application programmes to meet the developmental needs of the
country. Indian Space Programme includes development of operational systems
in the areas of satellite based remote sensing, telecommunications, broadcasting,
meteorology and development of suitable launch vehicles for putting the
satellite in various low earth orbits and geostationary orbits.
II. Name of Scheme(s)
1. ISRO Sponsored Research Programme (RESPOND)
2. Space Science Promotion (SSP)
Objective(s)
To conduct research and development activities in the relevant areas of
space science, application and technology at the universities and academic
institutions in the country. Also, to establish interactions between scientists
working at ISRO and academic institutions to carry out joint research and
educational activities of interest to the Indian Space Programme.
79
III. Areas of research support
Space science, application, technology, space communication, earth
resources survey, meteorology and satellite geodesy.
Ministry of Communications & Information Technology (MOCIT)
Department of Information Technology
I. Introduction
Department of Information Technology (DIT), since its inception, has
been giving importance to research and development. Promotion of research &
development efforts in electronics and related fields in the country has been one
of the major activities of Department of Information Technology.
II. Name of Scheme(s)
1. Microelectronics & Nanotech Development Programme
2. Technology Development Council
3. Convergence, Communication & Strategic Electronics
4. Components & Material Development Programme
5. Electronics in Health
6. Human Computer Interface - TDIL
7. E- Commerce & Info-Security
8. IT for Masses (Telemedicine)
9. Media Lab Asia
10. Photonics Development
11. Industrial Applications
III. Areas of research support
Information Technology (Hardware/Software)
Convergence, Communication & Broadband Techniques
Micro-electronics & Photonics
Industrial Electronics
E-Commerce & Information Security
Nanotechnology
Electronic Components & Material
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Strategic Electronics
Rural Application
Health & Biotechnology
Materials and Components including Microwaves & Millimeter waves
Emerging Areas of Information Technology
Human Computer Interface/Language Technology
Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF)
I. Introduction
The Ministry of Environment and Forests is the Nodal Agency in the
administrative structure of the Central Government for planning, promotion and
coordination of environmental and forestry programmes. The main activities of
the Ministry are conservation and survey of flora, fauna, forests and wildlife;
prevention and control of pollution, afforestation and regeneration of degraded
areas and protection of environment. These tasks are being fulfilled through
environmental impact assessment, eco-regeneration, assistance to organizations
implementing environmental and forestry programmes; promotion of
environmental and forestry research, extension, education and training to
augment the requisite manpower; dissemination of environmental information;
international cooperation and creation of environmental awareness among all
sectors of the country‟s population.
II. Name of Scheme(s) (Under revision)
1. Environmental Research Programme (ERP)
2. Ecosystems Research Scheme (ERS)
3. Eastern and Western Ghats Research Programme (E&WRP)
4. Biosphere Reserves
5. Mangroves and Coral Reefs
6. Wetlands
7. National Natural Resources Management System (NNRMS)
8. Ganga Action Plan/National River Conservation Programme
9. Research and Consultancy Projects in Wildlife
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Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MFPI)
I. Introduction
The Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MFPI) was set up in July,
1988 to give impetus to development of food processing industries in the
country. The Ministry is concerned with formulation and implementation of the
policies & plans for the food processing industries within the overall national
priorities and objectives. The Ministry acts as a catalyst for bringing in greater
investment into this sector, guiding and helping the industry, encouraging
exports and creating a conducive environment for healthy growth of the Food
Processing Industry.
II. Name of Scheme(s)
Research & Development in Processed Food Sector
Objective(s)
Update processing, packaging and storage technologies for all major
processed food products so that they meet International Standards.
Standardization of various factors such as bacteriological standards,
preservation standards, additives, pesticide residue etc., of meat and meat
products, development of value added products of commercial
importance.
Development of processing technology for the production of intermediate
and finished food product/production including design and building of
prototype equipment/pilot plants.
Fortification of cereals/cereal products for enhancing the nutritional level
of our population, especially women and children.
Traditional Foods of various regions of the country.
Development of new cost effective technologies for preservation and
packaging for food products based on traditional foods, common food
grains, dairy products etc., for both domestic and export purposes.
Development and design of equipment for manufacture of such products,
development of new inexpensive packaging techniques and equipments,
analysis of existing packaging methods, materials processes, quality
82
control norms, studies about improvement in the currently used systems,
studies about newer packaging possibilities.
Ministry may engage reputed research institutions/universities for
directed research & development of low cost indigenous technology for
preservation/processing, which will result in value addition to various
foods.
III. Areas of research support
Proposals related to the areas mentioned under the “Objectives” will be
considered for support.
Ministry of Power, Central Power Research Institute (CPRI)
I. Introduction
Ministry of Power, Government of India has empowered the Central
Power Research Institute as the Nodal Agency to manage the Research Scheme
on Power [RSOP], including the funding for the Research Programme. Techno-
economic evaluation, monitoring and optimal utilization of resources are the
major responsibilities of CPRI. This was earlier carried out by CBI&P and is
now being managed by CPRI, since April 2001.
II. Name of Scheme(s)
Research Scheme on Power (RSOP)
The Scheme basically aims at providing fund for carrying out need based
research projects in power sector, including solving of power system operational
problems in the country.
III. Areas of Research Support
The research areas include but not limited to:
Power system planning, improvement, studies
Diagnostic and monitoring of power system equipments.
Reliability enhancement of power station equipment etc.
However, pertinent projects in the power sector on specific case will also
be considered.
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Ministry Of Water Resources (MOWR)
I. Introduction
Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR) provides financial assistance to
promote research work in the field of Water Resources Engineering. The
assistance is provided by way of grants to academicians/experts in the
Universities, IITs, recognized R&D laboratories, Water Resources/ Irrigation
departments of the Central and State Governments and NGOs. Research
proposals of applied nature as well as basic research are considered for MOWR
support.
II. Name of Scheme(s)
Research & Development for Water Resources Management
To find practical solutions to the country‟s water resources related
problems, to improve available technology and engineering methods and
procedures.
To maintain a lead in the latest technology so as to enable export of
expertise from India, in competition with other developed nations, to
countries that import such expertise, in order to earn foreign exchange,
increase GDP and provide employment opportunities for Indians abroad.
To review the different branches of the subject area by collecting relevant
information from national and international organizations and publish
report.
To prepare and maintain a comprehensive documentation, preferably
using IT, of R&D done so far at national as well as international level.
To prepare, co-ordinate and recommend funding of research programmes
to be taken up by the institutions in the country on basic and applied
research, action research, and other areas related to research in the subject
field.
To review the R&D programme in the subject area, identify topics which
need immediate attention and encourage the national institutions to take
up research on these topics.· To disseminate information and stimulate
thinking related to the subject field by publishing journals, research
84
news/digests, arranging and conducting seminars/ conferences/
workshops and supporting mass awareness programmes.
To provide support for the infrastructure development of research
institutions working in the Water Resources Sector.
To encourage indigenous industry to take up technology development in
the subject area.
To promote and co-ordinate effective participation of India in the
International programmes related to the water resources.
To promote educational, training and Human Resources Development
programmes in the subject area.
Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR)
The Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established
in 1969. It provides financial support, by way of grants and fellowships, to
social science research projects in selected areas and topics by individuals,
institutions, and university teachers; encourages international collaboration in
research; organizes and supports research methodology and assists in the
formulation of research projects and programmes; develops and supports
documentation, maintenance and supply of data, inventory of current social
science research and preparation of national register of social science; and
provides financial assistance to disseminate the findings through conferences,
seminars, workshops, and publication of digests, periodicals and journals
devoted to such reasons.
Research Project Schemes
Research Assistance to Young Scientists
Study Grant to Senior Social Scientist
Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), provides grants to
scholars to conduct research in various fields of social sciences which have a
theoretical, conceptual, methodological or policy orientation on the subject of
their choice. The research projects may belong to any one discipline or it may
be interdisciplinary in nature. Recognized disciplines are:
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(i) Economics / Commerce / Management / Business Administration; (ii)
Sociology and Social Anthropology / Social Work / Demography / Gender
Studies; (iii) Political Science / International Relations / Geography / Public
Administration; (iv) Psychology / Education /Criminology; (v) Other-
Linguistics / Law etc.
INTERNATIONAL FUNDING AGENCIES
International Foundation for Science
Third World Academy of Sciences ( TWAS)
Third World Network of Scientific Organizations
World Bank
World Health Organization.
Ford Foundation.
Research Documentation
Documentation in Research Paper is a proof of all the research work
carried during the writing of the assignment. Proper documenting of the sources
makes the term paper free of plagiarism. Masterpapers.com, which is one of the
best research paper writing companies, pays great attention to this aspect of
assignment writing. There are different styles of documenting the sources. All
you will have to do is to place an order with masterpapers.com, along with
detailed instructions and paper would be written exclusively for you. The
overall standard of the term paper, including the documentation, would stand
out due to its high quality.
While giving the topic of your assignment, if your tutor has not
specifically mentioned the style in which he wants the sources of your term
paper to be documented, then it is advisable to consult him at once. Before
beginning your work you should make this important aspect of essay writing
very clear. Otherwise you might have to re-do it if your tutor says that he
wanted the referencing to be done in some other way.
Documentation consists of information about the sources in the text
citations, footnotes or endnotes and in the bibliographic entry. Getting
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information about how these references should be written is not difficult these
days. You can consult specific stylebooks in your library. Apart from these, you
can even consult the various websites that are meant to guide you on how to
write the citations, footnotes or endnotes and bibliography. Since in each style
of documentation, there are different ways of referencing different sources like
the books, journals, websites etc., you should study all the guidelines minutely.
The way information from a journal is cited, is different from that of a book or
website. Not only this, the information about the same quotation would be
written differently in the text citation, footnotes and bibliography. Until and
unless one studies all aspects of a particular documentation style in detail, one is
bound to make mistakes.
Normally, doing the documentation of research paper is more
difficult than writing the actual paper. Researching is a time taking activity.
Arranging one‟s ideas and findings in a logical manner and giving it the shape
of essays takes lots of time too. If the deadline is short, then apart from these,
studying the documentation style minutely and then referencing the sources
becomes impossible. If a student tries to rush in any one aspect, then the final
product gets negatively affected. To avoid this, you can contact reputed writing
services like masterpapers.com to produce a term paper for you which is perfect
from all angles. Along with the term paper, you would get the bibliography free
of charge. If you want changes in some places, then you can also get your paper
revised for free and that too within the time limit set by you.
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WRITING A RESEARCH ARTICLE FOR JOURNAL
Dr.M.Selvam
The research work is communicated by publishing it. The research task
remains incomplete till the article has been written and published. The purpose
of research is not well served unless the findings are made known to others.
Under these circumstances, the main objectives of this write up are to explain
the need for writing research article, describing the format of writing research
article and publishing the same.
Key Words: Research Article, Format, Review, Methodology
Introduction:
Articles can be written on topics related to a variety of fields depending
upon one's interests and liking. General sciences, medicine, sports,
entertainment, politics, business, literature, philosophy, astronomy are some of
the diverse subjects on which articles can be written. The main aim behind
writing research articles is to convey new information and findings to the
readers in a systematic and precise manner. The articles are published either in
the newspapers, on the Internet or in books and magazines/journals.
Importance of Writing Research Article:
The importance of research paper is that it gives its authors or researchers
a chance to put forth their work, which adds value to the already established
knowledge. It can lead to further deeper exploration into an existing area of
study or it could be an exploration of a completely new, unexplored, never
known area. The skill of writing research article is considered as superior skill.
Associate Professor &Head, Dept.of Commerce & Financial studies, Bharathidasan University,
Tiruchirappalli..
9..
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Why to Publish?
Publishing is an important part of research communication. The foremost
reason for publishing research results is to communicate the findings to
fellow researchers.
Publishing assures that new findings get known as widely as possible
among a group of researchers dealing with a certain topic.
Researchers are evaluated according to the number of publications they
have produced. Funds for research projects and travel grants are allocated
based on publication records. Career promotion is also dependent on
publishing.
Once research results are published, they are disclosed to the academic
community and can be evaluated and judged by other experts. This helps
to test the validity and reliability of research results.
The research paper will actually help in building the successful career of
the writer.
Writing research paper is the best way to prove the capabilities and hard
work of the teacher.
Where to Publish? :
Impact Factor Journal – refers to the average number of citations per
paper.
Professional Magazines
Academic Journals
Referred Journal – peer referred journal
Journal with ISSN
Online Journal (eISSN) and Websites like SSRN.
Local Journals / Magazines without ISSN
Format for Writing Articles:
The article writing format plays an important role in deciding the quality
of the article. The writer of the article should be well aware of the audience, and
understand the readers‟ expectations who would be reading the journal article.
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Before writing an article on any topic, it becomes essential to undertake
adequate research on the topic using all the sources available to avoid any kind
of factual errors. The article writing format, along with the useful article writing
tips, are given below.
Headline or Article Title:
Writing a relevant and proper headline or the title of the article is one of
the most important features of the article writing format. It is on reading the
headline of the article, that the reader decides to read the entire article. The
headline should be short, not necessarily grammatically correct and catchy to
arouse the interest of the reader. Bigger and bolder font for the headline than
the rest of the article can be used to grab the attention of the reader. The
headline, in a single sentence or a phrase, should describe what the article is
about and thus give the reader an idea of whether he/she will get the answers for
his/her questions after reading the article.
Abstract and Key Words:
An abstract is a statement summarizing the important points of a text. The
keywords are words or phrases that describe the content. They can be used as
metadata to describe images, text documents, database records, and web pages.
Introduction of the Article:
The introduction of the article should give the reader, a brief idea of the
subject of discussion and analysis of the article. In the introduction, one can
simply define some important terms or concepts which would be discussed in
detail in the main body of the article. The introduction should ideally be a few
sentences and should be in a font smaller than the title or the headline.
Review of Literature:
A literature review may be purely descriptive, as in an annotated
bibliography, or it may provide a critical assessment of the literature in a
particular field, stating where the weaknesses and gaps are, contrasting the
views of particular authors, or raising questions. Such a review will evaluate
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and show relationships between different materials, so that key themes emerge.
Even a descriptive review should add comment and bring out themes and trends.
Methodology of the Study:
The methodology of the study is important for research article and it may
include statement of the problem, objectives of the study, hypothesis, sample
selection, data collection, period of the study, tools used and limitations.
Main Body of the Article:
The main body of the research article is a very vital part of the article
writing format because it is supposed to answer all the questions of the reader.
The main body of the research article is that it should be relevant to the subject
or the title of the article. There are many ways of writing the body of the
research article. It depends largely on the topic of the article. One can write the
body of the article in a research question and answer format which can act as a
questionnaire for the reader.
This is one of the most popular, widely used and a rather systematic way
of formatting the article. The body of the article can have multiple paragraphs
and ideally one should have a subtitle for each of the paragraphs. This will
enable the reader to know at a glance what a particular paragraph is talking
about.
Tables and Figures:
The collected data / information are to be grouped to achieve the
objectives of the study. Such a group of data are normally given in Tables and
Figures, with appropriate title, to facilitate deeper interpretation. Tables and
Figures are generally given at the end of the research article.
Summary of the Article:
In the summary of the article, which appears at the bottom of the body in
the ideal article writing format, the writer should give a summary of the article
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in brief. The writer can also give some references and links in the case of online
articles for the reader to receive more relevant information on the subject.
Scope for Further Research:
While undertaking research on any specific topic, researcher usually
might experience the finding to be related to the topic. In addition, in some
cases, the researcher may also expose some finding not related to the topic.
Such experience / findings are to be listed under the scope for further research
for the benefit of future researchers to make a detailed study.
Reference:
Reference stands for acknowledgement of sources from which
information, statement etc were collected for research. Reference of various
sources consulted / used in the research should be prepared and attached.
Submission Fee:
Once the article is accepted for publication in reputed journals, the author
needs to pay a fee (process fee) for publication. The fee differs from journal to
journal.
Undertaking Letter:
The author / co authors, once the article is accepted for publication, need
to send an Undertaking Letter to the Editor of the journal stating that the paper
is original and it has not been published earlier nor submitted for publication
elsewhere.
Conclusion:
It is important that every teacher should develop the skills of writing and
publishing research articles in reputed journals for professional development
and satisfaction. The researcher can use simple language, without fancy
expressions or sophisticated style. Clearer and more logical a paper is
structured, the better it serves its academic purpose.
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RESEARCH DESIGN IN SOCIAL SCIENCE
Dr. T. Govindaraj
The selection of research topic is the first problem that the researcher
faces. As soon as the problem is selected, the researcher hastily leaps forward,
with the work of collection of data or writing the plan for the thesis and even
sometimes writing the initial introductory chapters in the thesis. This shows
that the researcher is not devoting considerable time in thinking about the
future work. The smooth sailing in the field of research is possible only when
the researcher thinks considerably about the problem under study and about
the various aspects of the problem. He should think about the way in which he
should proceed in attaining his objective in his research work. Without this,
the research will become futile and result in waste of time and resources
which are very precious for a researcher. It is because of such importance,
the Research Design occupies a vital place in the research work.
An attempt has been made in this short paper to explain the steps that are
normally necessary in formulating a Research Design. These are not rigid but
flexible and can be adopted to suit the problem under investigation.
Research Design:
An architect prepares a blue print before he starts construction. An army
prepares a strategy before launching an attack. An artist makes a design before
he executes his ideas. Any prudent man makes a plan before he undertakes
work. So also the research scholar makes a plan before he undertakes his
research work. This will enable the researcher to save time and resources. Such
a plan of study is called Research Design. This will help him to attain his
ultimate goal.
It is a plan for the collection and analysis of data. It is a tentative plan
which undergoes many modifications as the study progresses. It presents a
series of guide posts to enable the researcher to move in the right direction.
Dr.T. Govindaraj, Head (Rtd.), Dept. of Economics, A.V.V.M. Sri Pushpam College, Poondi, Thanjavur.
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According to Mrs. Pauline Young, a Research Design is the logical and
systematic planning and directing of a piece of research. The design, according
to her, results from translating a general scientific model into varied research
procedures. It gives an outline of the structure and process of the research
programme. Without such a plan of study, no scientific study is possible.
Kinds of Research Design:
The research problem may be formulated in different forms and it may be
formulated for different purposes. The nature of Research Design depends on
the way in which the problem is formulated.
If the problem is an explanatory one, it requires Explanatory Design.
If the problem is to describe character study of groups or situations, a
Descriptive Design is necessary.
If the problem involves historical analysis, it calls for a Historical Design.
If the study aims at the solution of a particular problem, a Diagnostic
Design is necessary.
If the researcher wants to test a hypothesis of relationship between
variables, an Experimental Design is necessary.
Whatever may be the nature of research problem, all research designs
contain answers to the following questions. What the study is about? And types
of data that are needed? Why the study is being made? Where the required data
can be found? In what area, the study will be carried on? When and what
periods of time the study will conclude? How much material or how many
cases will be needed? What basis of selection will be used? What techniques of
gathering data will be adopted?
Thus the considerations, which enter into making decisions regarding the
what, where and when, how much, by what means, constitute a plan of study or
a Research Design.
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Major Steps in the preparation of Research Design:
Reviewing the literature related to the area of research is a preliminary
step before attempting to plan the study. It is essential to review all the relevant
materials connected with the problem chosen. It is necessary to show how the
problem under study relates to previous research studies. It is also equally
important to show how this work differs from the existing literature. After going
through the relevant works, one will get an insight into the problem and thus
will be able to formulate a correct plan for his future investigation. The
following steps are generally considered while preparing any type of Research
Design.
Source of Information:
The source of information to be tapped, varies with the interests of the
researcher and the type of his study. The sources are divided into documentary
and field sources. The latter include living persons who have a fund of
knowledge about or have been in intimate contact with social conditions and
changes over a considerable period of time. These persons are regarded as
Personal Sources or Direct Sources. Documentary Sources of Information are
those which are contained in the published and unpublished documents, reports,
statistics, manuscripts, letters, diaries and so on. These sources are either
primary or secondary. Primary Sources of Information include data gathered at
first hand and the responsibility for their compilation and presentation
remaining under the same authority. For example, census Reports. Data from
primary sources may be gathered by participant observation, personal interview,
correspondence, conference and other devices.
As soon as the consultation of available source is begun, the development
of bibliography, preferably with annotations, should be undertaken. Each
reference should appear on a separate card or sheet with the last name of the
author first, his initials and then the title of the reference, publisher‟s name and
the date of publication.
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Nature of Study:
The next step in formulating Research Design is to ascertain the nature of
study. Whether it is a statistical study, case study or comparative study or an
experimental study or a combination of these and other types should be decided.
Since research study is complex, the specific nature of study should be
determined early and precisely.
Objectives of Study:
The objectives of research study should be spelt out in clear cut terms.
The objectives, of course, differ with the nature of studies and goals to be
attained. Some research studies propose to gather descriptive data or
explanatory data or data from which theoretical constructs could be deduced or
data which promote administrative changes or comparisons. Sometimes
hypotheses may be formulated and tested. These should be clearly stated.
Socio - Cultural Context of the Study:
If the problem under investigation relates to human beings, then it is
necessary to ascertain the socio-cultural behaviour patterns of the persons. It is
necessary to understand whether the persons adhere to, deviate or even
withdraw from them completely is ascertained.
Geographical Areas and Periods of Time to be covered:
It is equally essential to determine the geographical area to be covered in
connection with research study. Therefore physical boundaries of the area are to
be specified in the Research Design. In the case of historical studies, it is
necessary to determine the period to be encompassed so that exploration of the
problem will be made easier and clear. This will help the researcher to attribute
the conclusions to a particular period in question.
Dimensions of Study:
It is necessary to make certain assumptions in every study. Wherever
these are made, they should be stated clearly. Sometimes certain limitations may
have to be imposed while making the study. The limits of the proposed
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investigation should be clearly mentioned in the Research Design. New
concepts should be defined. Precision in research can be attained with greater
care by defining even the common words in usage. It was also realised that
dictionary definitions do not suffice for scientific studies. The interpretation of
the findings of a study depends in part by the way the terms were originally
defined. For example, the statement that the cost of living of the people in India
increased by 10 percent during 2010, depends upon its meaning on the
definition of cost of living.
The factors of time and cost are usually important considerations in social
research. It is more economical and efficient to use studies based on samples
rather than to study the universe. Instead of studying every case which might be
included in an investigation logically, only a small portion is selected for
analysis. From this analysis, useful conclusions which are equally applicable to
the universe, can be drawn. Great care is to be taken in drawing the sample
which should be closely representative of the universe. Relatively small samples
properly selected may be much more reliable than large samples poorly
selected. Statistician, Margaret Hagood, suggests the following criteria as a
guide in the choice of a sample:
The sample must represent the universe (that is, it must be unbiased).
The sample must be of adequate size to produce reliable results (that is, as
measured in terms of specific range of error)
The sample must be designed in such a way as to be efficient (that is, in
comparison with alternate designs)
Techniques of Study:
The last stage in the preparation of Research Design is the determination
of suitable techniques for collecting the necessary data. Here also the techniques
that are normally used will differ on the basis of the nature of the study. If the
study requires close attention of the researcher, the observation method will be
used. If the subject matter for the study is scattered, then Questionnaires may
be used for collecting the data. Sometimes these techniques may be used
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collectively in the collection of data relating to the study. Observation
techniques, schedules and questionnaires, the interview, statistical and case
study are the main techniques. Appropriate method is selected and studied in
depth before attempting to collect the data.
All the steps taken together give the most general characterizations of
Research Design.
Reference:
1. Pauline V. Young, Scientific Social Surveys and research, Prentice Hall
India Ltd., New Delhi.
2. Ghosh. B.N. Scientific Method and Social research, sterling Publishers.
Pvt Ltd. Banglore,
3. Satyanarayana Rao, Seminar on Research Methodology, University of
Madras.
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LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH REPORTING
Dr. S. Senthilnathan
Introduction:
Social Science Research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing
and conceptualizing human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge
of human behavior and social life. In other words, Social Science Research
“seeks to find explanations to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify the
doubtful, and correct the misconceived facts of social life.” The fields of social
science research are virtually unlimited, and the materials of research, endless.
Every group of social phenomena, every phase of human life, and every stage of
past and present development are materials for the social scientists. The subject
matter of research in social sciences, viz., human society and human behavior,
is too complex, varied and changing to yield to the scientific categorization,
measurement, analysis and prediction. When the complexity of the field of
research is high, the language of research also assumes greater complexity.
In fact, any research involves an eclectic blending of an enormous range
of skills and activities. To be a good social researcher, you have to work well
with a wide variety of people, understand the specific methods used to conduct
research, understand the subject that you are studying, be able to convince
someone to give you the funds to study it, stay on track and on schedule, speak
and write persuasively, and on and on. Of all the research skills, the one which
remains constantly elusive (and nightmarish to many a researcher) is the
language skills that are required for a customized research report writing. The
reasons are too obvious in the Indian context in which English language, which
is the predominant language of research reporting across all disciplines, is
taught and learnt as a Second Language. And hardly one can find a university
offering a course on academic writing or language for research to its research
scholars.
Assistant Professor, Department of Educational Technology, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli.
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Language of Research
It is pertinent here to find out what exactly is the language of research and
how does it differ from the language of day-to-day communication. The
following will answer these vital questions:
The researcher leaves both the god and the angel out of his description
because it should be business-like, unornamented, and to a fellow researcher or
a specific target audience to whom it is addressed, it is absolutely clear. In fact,
people use language for various purposes such as self-expression, transmission
of information, persuasion, identification with a group, and sheer delight in the
sound of words. To the researcher, language is the first and foremost, perhaps
solely, a tool for exchange of information related to his or her research and to
communicate to the world the knowledge that the research creates, modifies or
advances. The language of research and science has to be looked at as a
„language apart‟, making statements that are free from any kind of ambiguity,
and aiming at the precision and clarity of scientific equations. Emotion and
humour have no place in the language of science and research. It is free from
associations that come in the way of clear and candid communication.
Research Reporting:
Research has little value if it is not put together into some form of report.
Research represents a scientific method of establishing knowledge that is
“What a piece of work is man! How noble in reason! How infinite in faculty!
In form and moving, how express and admirable! In action, how like an angel! In
apprehension, how like a God! The beauty of the world! The paragon of animals!”
- Shakespeare
“Man is a metazoan, triploblastic, chordate, vertebrate, pentadactyle,
mammalian, eutherian primate.” - From a research article
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cumulative. Therefore, scientific findings must be properly documented and
reported through appropriate media. Effective communication of research
findings, both to scientist and to the general audiences, is a very important
component of the research process. Decisions on writing style and method of
presentation must depend on the intended purposes and prospective readers.
Any researcher, who hopes to do an effective report, should have some idea of
his probable readers or audience, some understanding of the needs, interests and
capability and it will help him decide which points to stress in his or her
presentation.
Effective writing is a tool that helps to ensure understanding and use of
the results of the study. It is helpful to have an outline to work with in preparing
a research report. It will assure order in the finished work and it will help to
hold down repetition and guard against omissions. The various points to be
included should be given careful thought before actual writing is started.
Findings should be reported in terms of the objectives and/or hypotheses
of the study. Whenever results are not conclusive, some explanation should be
made. When a researcher feels he or she should express a personal opinion, it
must be declared. A researcher has the obligation to make some comments as to
what the findings mean. Data do not “speak for themselves” but must be
analyzed and interpreted. The researcher must draw conclusions from the
analysis and in the end, make recommendations. Conclusions and
Recommendations must be made on the basis of the data at hand because that is
the best information that is available within the resource restrictions. The
researcher must assume that his or her knowledge is vital and that he or she
knows more about the subject studied than anyone else. The limitations of the
study should also be pointed out, in all fairness to the reader. In short, the style
and form of a research report should be based upon clarity of organization and
presentation as practised in academic circles.
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Features of Scientific Research Reporting:
Writing is first and foremost analyzing, revising, and polishing the text.
Research writing is never simple writing because it is always rewriting. Higher
the number of revisions, better the quality. It is unusual for anyone to produce
ready-made text right away. In the process of writing, the researchers learn from
their mistakes and comments/ advices they get from peers, reviewers, or
supervisor. These are very essential during the writing process. Nevertheless,
the writers must assume responsibility and keep confidence in their own
experience and knowledge about the problem they studied.
Also writing a research report is not something left to the end of the
research work. Rather, it is a continuous process. Hence researchers should start
writing whenever they have something to write. The list of contents should be
prepared at an early stage and continually revised as need be. It will assure order
in the finished work and it will help to hold down repetition and guard against
omissions. The various points to be included should be given careful thought
while preparing the Table of Contents.
The key to scientific reporting is clarity. Researchers are required to write
in clear and simple terms. Ideas should be explained in simple language and
short, coherent sentences. Simplicity and Brevity are certainly virtues in writing,
but should not be pursued at the expense of reason or complexity in the
researcher‟s assertions. Assertions in academic communication generally need
to be longer than in everyday communication because the standards we set for
accuracy and reasonableness are much higher.
The personal pronouns like I, we, you, my, our and us, are avoided by the
use of such expressions as the Researcher or the Investigator. Use of jargons
and imprecise words must be minimized. Concepts and definitions must be
sufficiently described depending upon the type and capability of the target
audience. The past tense should be used in describing research procedures that
have been completed.
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Use of non-sexist language is always expected in research reporting.
Instead of "man", use "people", "humans", "human beings", or "human species",
depending upon the meaning to be conveyed. Instead of "he" and "his", plural
("they" and "theirs") may be used. Tense is kept parallel within and between
sentences (as appropriate). Sentence Structure and Punctuation should always
be correct. Incomplete and run-on sentences should be avoided. Spelling and
use of words should be appropriate. Words are capitalized and abbreviated
correctly. The research document is neatly produced in order to facilitate easy
reading.
Conclusion:
In this era of Grey Revolution, the Information Superhighway has opened
up a plethora of opportunities for the researchers to have access to the world‟s
best research literature, available in the form of e-resources. There is eventually
a need for increased Information Literacy among the researchers. This has also
triggered serious discussion across the academia on the vital issue of
„plagiarism‟. In this context, a customised dissertation or thesis or research
report is a costly one, involving the researcher‟s time, money, energy,
commitment and academic honesty. Interestingly, the same web resources offer
the researchers lots of opportunities for enhancing their research writing skills in
the form of tutorials, formats, style guides and style sheets.
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FOLKLORE AS A SOURCE FOR SUBALTERN STUDY
Dr. G.Rengaraju
Till recently historical research has moved around the matters of the elites,
their politics, diplomacies and palaces. For many decades the historical writings
were totally involved in praising very few eminent personalities particularly the
ruling class. The common man who participated in productive activities and
nation building found no place in historical writings. Marxist historiography
aimed at socio-economic aspects encountered the limitations of political history
of elitist point of view, started reconstructing history in the perspective of a
common man. Since the early Marxist historiography emphasized on class
struggle and economic aspects, the issues and identities of down trodden,
tribals, peasants and woman were relegated.
By questioning the gaps in socio- economic historiography of the Marxist
scholars the new trend called subaltern historiography was initiated in 1982.
The term "Subaltern" was first coined by the Italian Marxist Philosopher
Antonio Gramsci in his popular work, "The Prison Dairy". Oxford dictionary
defines "subaltern" as "of inferior rank in terms of caste, class and gender". The
other terms like 'people', 'primitive rebels', 'bondsman' and 'working class' are
being used equivalent to the term 'Subaltern'.1 The project entitled 'Subaltern
Studies; Writing on South Asian history and society" is aimed at reconstructing
the past in the perspective of dalits, adivasis, peasants, women, trade unions,
famines and epidemics etc. They deny the dominant paradigms of nationalist
and Marxist historians. They even question the drawbacks of the national
leaders like Gandhi and Nehru. They argue that the whole strata and women
were totally neglected. The main objective of the subaltern historiography is de-
elitizing history. Ranajit Guha, Gyan Pande, David Arnold etc. are the important
scholars of this School.
The recent subaltern in history is following new methods in searching for the
tools and interpretation. .Since the previous historical sources like the
inscriptions, literature and monuments were produced and created by the upper
Assistant Professor, Department of History, Government Arts College (MEN), Krishnagiri – 635 001..
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strata of the society, naturally they furnish information regarding their patrons
and the people around them. Though they are considered as an authentic source
material by many historians they contain very little information regarding the
people at lower levels.
The Ancient Tamil Literature is said to have started with the Sangam
Works.These works do not promote any kind of brahmanical values but
promote human values Majority of the Tamil texts also seem to be translated
from the original Sanskrit versions of epics and other classical works.2 But still
the versions of the Ramayana, (Kamba Ramayana) the Mahabharata and the
other works like Kumarsambhavam, Manucharitra, Sarangadhara Charitra,
Srungara Sakuntalam etc, are being considered as the greatest creative works
in Tamil literature. Most of these works are limited to romanticise .the facts and
there is no scope for discussing the issue of the ordinary folk. In these
circumstances folklore and oral sources found place in reconstructing the
people's history and their culture.
Folklore consists of folk songs, folk tales, proverbs, dance, verbal art forms,
Kummi Paadal, kula puranas, their customs, traditions, implements, foods
habits, folk medicine, village deities and their jataras etc. All these forms were
created by the persons of non-literary societies at rural and low origin. Hence,
one can say that they reveal the true socio-cultural history of the existing society
with flesh and blood. Since there are no learned people in these societies all
these sources provided by them are in oral form and have been flowing on the
tongues of the people through the ages. Though no one knows the original cre-
ators of these folklore and various verbal art forms the information provided by
them are valuable and bringing the unknown issues which were kept in the
darkest corners into known.
Folk songs not only provide recreation for the people and reduce the burden
of work, but they furnish valuable information about the common people in
rural areas. Work songs and pastoral songs reveal the nature of work and the
circumstances of the workers of their work place. Folk tales or narratives
contain the direct information regarding various historical events. The stories of
many subaltern heros were brought to light through these oral narratives from
the popular memory. At the global level Flex Haly's popular novel, 'The Roots'
on historical background of the blacks i.e. the predecessors of the author was
reconstructed beautifully on the basis of oral narratives, provided by certain
generations of people. Likewise there are many events came to light through
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these sources at local level. The eighteenth century heroes of Tamil Nadu,
Oondi Veeran, Periya Kalan, Kattakaruppan, Sundaralingam, Potti Pagadai,
Potti Madigan, Kulasekarapattanam Moopan, Nallamadan, Chinna Veeriyan
and the other downtrodden community members fought against the oppressive
measures of the Nawabs of Arcot and the Colonial British authority valiantly
and sacrificed their lives for the cause of the local chieftains like Puli Thevar,
Khan Sahib, Kattabomman, Oomaithurai and Marudhu brothers in the Southern
Tamil Nadu. They furnished valiant fighters in many capacities right from the
ordinary soldiers to military generals and trust-worthy second rung leaders.3 The
role played by the downtrodden leaders through armed struggle were brought
into focus through the folklore narratives only.
Another interesting source material is provided by the kula puranas or
Vamsavali Charitha which deal the origin of various local communities and
their ancestors. Palayappattukalin Vamsavali in three volumes published by the
Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology generally are said to be explained
by the origin and ancestors of the downtrodden local chieftains of the erstwhile
palayams and Zamins of the eighteen and nineteenth centuries.4 As the major
caste groups like the Brahmana, Kshastriya, Vaisya and the Sudras i.e. the
Reddy, Vellala, Naidu are having the bards to explain the stories of their
communities, the lower social groups like Parayar, Pallar, Valluvar,
Arundatiyar, , Madiga, Mangali, Lambada, Gond, Yadava, Shanar or Nadar,
also have the dependent castes to explain the background of their origin.5
Generally the kula puranas of the lower caste groups propagate the self
respect of these groups in the process of their narration. The bards of Kummi
Paadals of Puli Tevan Sindhu, Puli Tevan Kummi, Khan Sahib Sandai,
Kattabomman Kummi-p-Paadal, Kattabomman Koothu, Panjalamkurichi
Azhivu Charitra Kummi, Sivagangai Charitra Kummi explain the previous
situation of those people as equal to that of the other communities and criticize
social inequality imposed by the colonial administrators based on the principle
of divide and rule.6 The kulapurans oppose the so called Brahmanical versions
of the epics and the puranas. Their art forms like Jamba Puranam, Mala
puranam, Chindubhagavatam etc., give an alternative versions of the prevailed
Sanskritic versions.7
Proverbs, the another form of the folklore also furnish us information
regarding the issues of caste. Proverbs indicate the social status of various
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communities. They often degrade the down trodden communities and praise the
privileged classes of the society.
Besides the folk tales, songs, kula puranas and proverbs various practices of
the villagers, their customs, traditions, village deities and festivals i.e. jataras
reveal the existing social situation.8 The village jataras to various local gods
and goddesses like Mariamma, Kaliamma, Pidariamma, Essakiamma, Ellamma,
Pochamma, Maremma, Ganganima, Sunkulamma, Ayyanar, Karuppasamy etc.,
shows the alternative and non-Sanskritic modes of worship offered by them.9
Thus the De-Sanskritization involves the process of retaining and keeping
indigenous identity of subaltern and subterranean classes.10
And the role of
various communities in these contexts also indicates the existing social order
and belief system. Generally people from lower communities in the villages
only participate in these festivals at large number and they do not practice the
brahmancial methods like chanting the slokas during these occasions. Since
many of the goddesses are related to the nature they never attribute any
supernatural merits to those goddesses and construct certain huge temples and
gopuras for worship.11
The folklore or the oral source from the popular memory give a ray of hope
to understand and reconstruct the history of the downtrodden which has been
buried and unsung for the ages. Since, the chronology occupies an important
place in historical writing the question arises in the minds of the recent
historians who are very much curious about the folklore/ oral sources whether
these alternative sources are sufficient for their analysis? Because even though
the folklore or oral narratives provide us an interesting and strange information
which is absent in the so called inscriptions and literature, they are not clear
about the chronology, sometimes they provide vague dates to certain events in
history which are not suitable when compare with the other sources. Hence the
historian of the recent days who would like to reconstruct the subaltern history
or history from below requires to supplement his oral folklore sources with the
other sources like the judicial records of the colonial government, vernacular
literature, kaifiyats and other archaeological data. Then only the actual picture
of history and culture of the 'people' will come to light. 12
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End Notes:
1. Ranajit Guha, Subaltern Studies-I, Writings on South Asian History
and Society, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1982; Lalitha, K., Susie
Tharu, Vasantha Kannabhiran, Rama Melkote, Uma Maheswari and
Veena Satrugna, (ed.), We were making history, life stories of women in
Telangana peoples struggle, Shree Shakti Sanghatana, Kali for Women,
New Delhi, 1989.
2. Tirumala Rao, J. „Moukhika Adharalu - Janapada Samskruti - Charitra
Rachana‟, in Proceedings of Andhra Pradesh History Congress,
Tirupati, 1993, pp.124-135.
3. Selvamuthu Kumarasami, L., „The Depressed Classes and Early
Freedom Movement in Tamil Nadu‟ in Journal of Indian History and
Culture, Chennai, March 2004, pp.66-67
4. Nagaswamy, R., Palayappattukalin Vamsavali,(Tamil) (Three
Volumes),Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology, Madras, 1981.
5. Siva Prasad, A., „Ballads as Historical Source: A Brief Review of Telugu
Folklore‟ in Proceedings of South Indian History Congress, Warangal,
2000, pp.375-381.
6. Selvamuthu Kumarasami, L., loc.cit., p.67; Subbachari, P., Telugulo
Kula Puranalu, Asrita Vyavastha (A study of caste myths and dependant
caste system of Telugus), Prajasakti, Hyderabad, 2000.
7. Jamba Puranam (Chindu Bhagotham), Janapada Kala Parishodhana
Vedika, Hyderabad., 1999; Premalatha. Ravi, „Jamba Puranam‟ (Book
review) in Moosi, May, 1999. Pp.61-62.; Premalatha Ravi Telugu
Janapada Sahityam Puragadhalu, Hyderabad, 1983.
8. Donappa, T., Janapada Kala Sampada, Navodaya, Hyderabad, 1987.
9. Xavier, S., „Religious Beliefs and Practices of Tamil Folk Tradition – An
Anti-Thesis to Brahmanism‟ in Indian Historical Studies, Vol.III,
Issue.1, Tiruchirappalli, October 2006, pp.42-43
10. Selvamuthu Kumarasami, L.,‟De-Sanskritization : Dravidian and Non-
Brahmin Identity in Late Colonial Tamil Nadu‟, in Shodhak, Vol.39,
Jaipur, September-December 2009, p.119
11. Pratapa Reddy, S. , Andhrula Sanghika Charitra, Hyderabad, 1982 .
12. Singaravel.A.Dr., Popular CultureIn Ancient Tamilagam, Bharathidasan
University, Tiruchirappalli, 2006.pp.152,154.
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