Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
RESEARCH Open Access
Eating from the wild diversity of wild edibleplants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la regionYunnan ChinaYan Ju1 Jingxian Zhuo2 Bo Liu1 and Chunlin Long13
Abstract
Background Locally harvested wild edible plants (WEPs) provide food as well as cash income for indigenouspeople and are of great importance in ensuring global food security Some also play a significant role inmaintaining the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems Shangri-la region of Yunnan Province SWChina is regarded as a biodiversity hotspot People living there have accumulated traditional knowledge aboutplants However with economic development WEPs are threatened and the associated traditional knowledge is indanger of being lost Therefore ethnobotanical surveys were conducted throughout this area to investigate anddocument the wild edible plants traditionally used by local Tibetan people
Methods Twenty-nine villages were selected to carry out the field investigations Information was collected usingdirect observation semi-structured interviews individual discussions key informant interviews focus groupdiscussions questionnaires and participatory rural appraisal (PRA)
Results Information about 168 wild edible plant species in 116 genera of 62 families was recorded and specimenswere collected Most species were edible greens (80 species) or fruits (78) These WEPs are sources for local peopleespecially those living in remote rural areas to obtain mineral elements and vitamins More than half of the species(70) have multiple use(s) besides food value Some are crop wild relatives that could be used for cropimprovement Several also have potential values for further commercial exploitation However the utilization ofWEPs and related knowledge are eroding rapidly especially in the areas with convenient transportation andbooming tourism
Conclusion Wild food plants species are abundant and diverse in Shangri-la region They provide food andnutrients to local people and could also be a source of cash income However both WEPs and their associatedindigenous knowledge are facing various threats Thus conservation and sustainable utilization of these plants inthis area are of the utmost importance Documentation of these species may provide basic information forconservation possibly further exploitation and will preserve local traditional knowledge
Keywords Wild edible plants Traditional knowledge Biodiversity Ethnobotany Shangri-la region
Correspondence chunlinlonghotmailcom1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China3Kunming Institute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming650201 PR ChinaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article
copy 2013 Ju et al licensee BioMed Central Ltd This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons Attribution License (httpcreativecommonsorglicensesby20) which permits unrestricted use distribution andreproduction in any medium provided the original work is properly cited
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 2 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
BackgroundWild edible plants (WEPs) refer to species that areharvested or collected from their wild natural habitatsand used as food for human consumption [1-3] Theyprovide staple food for indigenous people serve as sup-plementary food for non-indigenous people and are oneof the primary sources of cash income for poor commu-nities [4-6] WEPs play an important role in ensuringfood security and improve the nutrition in the diets ofmany people in developing countries [15] They are po-tential sources of species for domestication and providevaluable genetic traits for developing new crops throughbreeding and selection [78]Although domesticated plants are the main source of
food and income for people in rural areas they are notable to meet the annual food requirements [9-11] Thusthe collection and consumption of wild edible plants hasbeen ldquoa way of liferdquo to supplement dietary requirementsfor many rural populations throughout the world [512]However due to social change and acculturation pro-cesses indigenous knowledge (or traditional knowledge)about the use of wild edible species is declining and evenvanishing with modernization and increasing contactswith western lifestyles [13] Meanwhile the loss of trad-itional knowledge has also been recognized as one of themajor factors that have negative effects on the conserva-tion of biological diversity [14] Thus it is becomingurgent to document and revitalize traditional knowledgeof WEPs to preserve genetic and cultural diversity[121516] China is renowned for its wide use of wildharvested resources in the human diet and many studieshave focused on wild edible plants [17-28] These ethno-botanical surveys not only play an important role in con-serving traditional knowledge associated with WEPs butalso contribute to nutritional analysis of the most widelyused species [113] Nutritional analyses may provide sig-nificant information for the utilization of those speciesthat have the best nutritional values thus helping tomaintain dietary diversity and improve local food secur-ity [1215]Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan
Province commonly known as the Shangri-la region be-longs to the world-famous area called Three Parallel Riv-ers (Nujiang River Lancang River and Jinsha River) It isthe core of the eastern Himalayas and is regarded as abiodiversity hotspot [29] Because of its complex topog-raphy and high diversity of climates abundant plant andanimal species are distributed in this area [3031] Al-though Tibetans account for about 3236 of the totalpopulation of the whole prefecture and have a relativelywell-preserved and distinct cultural identity there arealso Lisu Han Naxi Yi as well as Bai populationsamong whom mutual cultural influences have existed fora long time [3031] Furthermore the diet of local
Tibetan people differs somewhat from that of Tibetansin Xizang Autonomous Region People living in theTibetan Plateau have a limited range of food choicesThe staple traditional diet includes Tsampa (made fromhull-less barley) yak meat mutton buttered tea sweettea barley wine and yogurt [32] They seldom eat ve-getables or fruits On the other hand because plantresources in Diqing Prefecture are more plentiful andlocal Tibetans are influenced by other nationalitiesthey not only cultivate various crops but also collectwild edible plants as supplementary food These WEPsprovide various microelements and are also an import-ant feature of local agrobiodiversity in which Tibetanshave traditionally lived However the ecology of DiqingTibetan Autonomous Prefecture is very fragile andagrobiodiversity is being rapidly lost due to many naturaland human caused factors [33-35] Many precious plantresources that may have potential for future sustainabledevelopment are vanishing before they have been discov-ered The reduction of plant diversity also leads to theextinction of the associated indigenous knowledge [36]Thus documentation and evaluation of edible plantsand relevant local knowledge is urgently needed Thiswork may guide proper conservation and sustainableutilization of those wild food plants and related indigen-ous knowledgeAlthough there are several ethnobotanical studies
concerning wild food plants used by ethnic minoritiessuch as Mongolians [1819] Miao in Hunan Province[21] and various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province[51726-28] to our knowledge information on WEPs ofthe Shangri-la region used by Tibetans has not previouslybeen documented In order to fill this gap ethnobotanicalsurveys were conducted throughout the prefecture Scien-tific and local names plant parts used modes of prepar-ation seasonality patterns in collection and use andcommercialization possibilities of the WEPs are presentedin this paper
MethodsStudy areaThe study was carried out in Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture northwest Yunnan situated in the south of theQinghai-Tibet Plateau of the eastern Himalayas at thejunction of Yunnan Tibet and Sichuan Provinces (be-tween 98deg35rsquo-100deg19rsquo E and 26deg52rsquo-29deg16rsquo N) (Figure 1)Three counties Shangri-la Deqin and Weixi are adminis-tered by the prefecture with a total area of 23870 squarekilometers and a population of about 400000 The terrainis higher in the north and lower in the south The lowestaltitude 1480 m is at the junction of the Biyu andLancang Rivers in Weixi County and the highest altitude6740 m is Kawagebo Peak of the Meili Snow MountainsThe climate of Diqing is divided into five zones 1)
Figure 1 Location of the area covered in an investigation into the wild edible plants used by Tibetans in the Shangri-la regionYunnan China
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 3 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
northern subtropical and warm temperate (below2500 m) 2) temperate (2500ndash3000 m) 3) cold tem-perate (3000ndash4000 m) 4) frigid (4000ndash5000 m) and5) glacier (above 5000 m) Abundant plant resources aredistributed in this area because of its unique geographicallocation and climate diversity [31]
Field survey and data collectionPrior to our field work relevant literature was consultedto obtain information on the topography climate andlocal culture of Diqing Prefecture this was helpful inchoosing the specific study sites [31] Field studies werecarried out during three visits in March July and Au-gust 2012 After considering the terrain and climatecondition 29 villages belonging to three counties (8 inShangri-la 3 in Weixi and 18 in Deqin) and located inhigh mountains as well as lower river valleys were ran-domly selected to carry out ethnobotanical investigation
(Table 1) Two-hundred and eighty-two randomly se-lected households (eight to ten people per village) weresurveyed Ethnobotanical data were collected throughdifferent interview methods (participatory rural appraisal(PRA) direct observation semi-structured interviewskey informant interviews individual discussions focusgroup discussions and questionnaires) [37-40]During our survey the local Tibetan pronunciations
parts used collection period and preparation methodsplants were recorded Because local Tibetan pronuncia-tions differ from the formal Tibetan pronunciation ofXizang Autonomous Region and the names of somespecies were even pronounced the same as in MandarinChinese we recorded the names phonetically exactly asthey were spoken to us Most Tibetans in Diqing Prefec-ture especially the official workers students and traderscan speak basic Mandarin therefore our interviews werein Mandarin and did not use interpreters
Table 1 Villages surveyed in investigations of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region YunnanProvince China
No Name of village Latitude (north) Longitude (east) Altitude(m)
1 Laza Village Shangri-la County 27deg45rsquo396rdquo 99deg40rsquo228rdquo 3320
2 Jiefang Village Shangri-la County 27deg51rsquo468rdquo 99deg41rsquo564rdquo 3280
3 Nishi Village Shangri-la County 27deg47rsquo218rdquo 99deg40rsquo595rdquo 3290
4 Kaisong Village Shangri-la County 27deg53rsquo496rdquo 99deg38rsquo215rdquo 3270
5 Dala Village Shangri-la County 27deg31rsquo12rdquo 99deg57rsquo36rdquo 3370
6 Xiaozhongdian Village Shangri-la County 27deg34rsquo12rdquo 99deg47rsquo59rdquo 3260
7 Xingfu Village Shangri-la County 28deg8rsquo276rdquo 99deg25rsquo588rdquo 2230
8 Nixi Village Shangri-la County 28deg4rsquo12rdquo 99deg29rsquo348rdquo 3170
9 Laohao Village Weixi County 27deg10rsquo541rdquo 99deg17rsquo204rdquo 2260
10 Gongyuan Village Weixi County 27deg21rsquo5035rdquo 99deg5rsquo1145rdquo 1690
11 Biluo Village Weixi County 27deg25rsquo228rdquo 99deg1rsquo588rdquo 2630
12 Feilaisi Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo312rdquo 98deg52rsquo444rdquo 3390
13 Wunongding Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo564rdquo 98deg54rsquo468rsquo 3530
14 Mingyong Village Deqin County 28deg28rsquo84rdquo 98deg47rsquo42rdquo 2270
15 Adunzi Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo136rdquo 98deg54rsquo389rdquo 3290
16 Gusong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo377rdquo 98deg54rsquo101rdquo 3590
17 Adong Village Deqin County 28deg45rsquo468rdquo 98deg39rsquo144rdquo 2690
18 Hongpo Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo24rdquo 98deg54rsquo18rdquo 2810
19 Guonian Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo1671rdquo 98deg51rsquo4961rdquo 2130
20 Jiulongding Village Deqin County 28deg20rsquo42rdquo 98deg53rsquo132rdquo 2570
21 Sinong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo918rsquo 98deg47rsquo3342rsquo 2320
22 Badong Village Deqin County 27deg57rsquo396rdquo 98deg54rsquo0rdquo 2240
23 Cizhong Village Deqin County 28deg01rsquo1644rsquo 98deg54rsquo1614rsquo 1970
24 Gongka Village Deqin County 28deg35rsquo276rdquo 98deg52rsquo12rdquo 3080
25 Jiunong Village Deqin County 28deg43rsquo2877rdquo 98deg41rsquo476rdquo 3160
26 Luwa Village Deqin County 28deg40rsquo30rdquo 98deg41rsquo384rdquo 2290
27 Xiaruo Village Deqin County 27deg48rsquo377rdquo 99deg18rsquo511rdquo 2040
28 Tuoding Village Deqin County 27deg46rsquo109rsquo 99deg25rsquo372rsquo 1940
29 Benzilan Village Deqin County 28deg14rsquo3683rdquo 99deg18rsquo743rdquo 2150
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 4 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
Specimens were examined and identified by the authorsand other taxonomists and will be deposited in theHerbarium of the Minzu University of China (Beijing)
Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently utilized speciesThe study area is floristically rich and has a large num-ber of useful WEP species The 168 species documented
Table 2 Taxonomic distribution of wild edible plants used by
Plant group Number of species
Angiosperm 153
Gymnosperm 4
Pteridophyte 4
Algae 2
Lichen 5
Total 168
include angiosperms (153 spp) gymnosperms (4) pteri-dophytes (4) algae (2) and lichens (5) (Table 2) of which411 are endemic to China and 119 endemic tonorthwestern Yunnan Province Details of utilization aregiven in Table 3 (plants mentioned only by one informantare not documented in this list) The average number ofspecies mentioned per informant is around ca 8 speciesPlants belonging to 62 families and 116 genera are
Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Number of genera Number of families
101 47
4 4
4 4
2 2
5 5
116 62
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Latin name Local name Family name Distribution Parts used Local use (edible only) Collectionperiod Additional local use(s) Frequency
Actinidia arguta(Siebold et Zucc)Planch ex Miq
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia pilosula(Finet et
Gagnep) Stapfex Hand-Mazz
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia venosaRehder
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Adenophorakhasiana (Hook fet Thomson)
Collett et Hemsl
Zheibamiedu CampanulaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-Sept
Flowers and stems used forweisang Aerial parts used asfodder Roots used to treatcough and clearing heat
Alectoria sulcataNyl
Shuhua UsneaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sep
Allium hookeriThwaites varmuliense Airy-
Shaw
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium ovalifoliumHand-Mazz
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium trifurcatum(F T Wang et TTang) J M Xu
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Amaranthuscaudatus L
Yani AmaranthaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amaranthushypochondriacus
LYani Amaranthaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amygdalus mira(Koehne) Ricker
YemaotaoKamu
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugSeeds used to relieve a coughand cure injuries
Anemone rivularisBuch-Ham ex
DCHuzhangcao Ranunculaceae Weixi Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-Sept
Roots used to treat bronchitisWhole plant used asornamental
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
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3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 2 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
BackgroundWild edible plants (WEPs) refer to species that areharvested or collected from their wild natural habitatsand used as food for human consumption [1-3] Theyprovide staple food for indigenous people serve as sup-plementary food for non-indigenous people and are oneof the primary sources of cash income for poor commu-nities [4-6] WEPs play an important role in ensuringfood security and improve the nutrition in the diets ofmany people in developing countries [15] They are po-tential sources of species for domestication and providevaluable genetic traits for developing new crops throughbreeding and selection [78]Although domesticated plants are the main source of
food and income for people in rural areas they are notable to meet the annual food requirements [9-11] Thusthe collection and consumption of wild edible plants hasbeen ldquoa way of liferdquo to supplement dietary requirementsfor many rural populations throughout the world [512]However due to social change and acculturation pro-cesses indigenous knowledge (or traditional knowledge)about the use of wild edible species is declining and evenvanishing with modernization and increasing contactswith western lifestyles [13] Meanwhile the loss of trad-itional knowledge has also been recognized as one of themajor factors that have negative effects on the conserva-tion of biological diversity [14] Thus it is becomingurgent to document and revitalize traditional knowledgeof WEPs to preserve genetic and cultural diversity[121516] China is renowned for its wide use of wildharvested resources in the human diet and many studieshave focused on wild edible plants [17-28] These ethno-botanical surveys not only play an important role in con-serving traditional knowledge associated with WEPs butalso contribute to nutritional analysis of the most widelyused species [113] Nutritional analyses may provide sig-nificant information for the utilization of those speciesthat have the best nutritional values thus helping tomaintain dietary diversity and improve local food secur-ity [1215]Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture of Yunnan
Province commonly known as the Shangri-la region be-longs to the world-famous area called Three Parallel Riv-ers (Nujiang River Lancang River and Jinsha River) It isthe core of the eastern Himalayas and is regarded as abiodiversity hotspot [29] Because of its complex topog-raphy and high diversity of climates abundant plant andanimal species are distributed in this area [3031] Al-though Tibetans account for about 3236 of the totalpopulation of the whole prefecture and have a relativelywell-preserved and distinct cultural identity there arealso Lisu Han Naxi Yi as well as Bai populationsamong whom mutual cultural influences have existed fora long time [3031] Furthermore the diet of local
Tibetan people differs somewhat from that of Tibetansin Xizang Autonomous Region People living in theTibetan Plateau have a limited range of food choicesThe staple traditional diet includes Tsampa (made fromhull-less barley) yak meat mutton buttered tea sweettea barley wine and yogurt [32] They seldom eat ve-getables or fruits On the other hand because plantresources in Diqing Prefecture are more plentiful andlocal Tibetans are influenced by other nationalitiesthey not only cultivate various crops but also collectwild edible plants as supplementary food These WEPsprovide various microelements and are also an import-ant feature of local agrobiodiversity in which Tibetanshave traditionally lived However the ecology of DiqingTibetan Autonomous Prefecture is very fragile andagrobiodiversity is being rapidly lost due to many naturaland human caused factors [33-35] Many precious plantresources that may have potential for future sustainabledevelopment are vanishing before they have been discov-ered The reduction of plant diversity also leads to theextinction of the associated indigenous knowledge [36]Thus documentation and evaluation of edible plantsand relevant local knowledge is urgently needed Thiswork may guide proper conservation and sustainableutilization of those wild food plants and related indigen-ous knowledgeAlthough there are several ethnobotanical studies
concerning wild food plants used by ethnic minoritiessuch as Mongolians [1819] Miao in Hunan Province[21] and various ethnic groups in Yunnan Province[51726-28] to our knowledge information on WEPs ofthe Shangri-la region used by Tibetans has not previouslybeen documented In order to fill this gap ethnobotanicalsurveys were conducted throughout the prefecture Scien-tific and local names plant parts used modes of prepar-ation seasonality patterns in collection and use andcommercialization possibilities of the WEPs are presentedin this paper
MethodsStudy areaThe study was carried out in Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture northwest Yunnan situated in the south of theQinghai-Tibet Plateau of the eastern Himalayas at thejunction of Yunnan Tibet and Sichuan Provinces (be-tween 98deg35rsquo-100deg19rsquo E and 26deg52rsquo-29deg16rsquo N) (Figure 1)Three counties Shangri-la Deqin and Weixi are adminis-tered by the prefecture with a total area of 23870 squarekilometers and a population of about 400000 The terrainis higher in the north and lower in the south The lowestaltitude 1480 m is at the junction of the Biyu andLancang Rivers in Weixi County and the highest altitude6740 m is Kawagebo Peak of the Meili Snow MountainsThe climate of Diqing is divided into five zones 1)
Figure 1 Location of the area covered in an investigation into the wild edible plants used by Tibetans in the Shangri-la regionYunnan China
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 3 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
northern subtropical and warm temperate (below2500 m) 2) temperate (2500ndash3000 m) 3) cold tem-perate (3000ndash4000 m) 4) frigid (4000ndash5000 m) and5) glacier (above 5000 m) Abundant plant resources aredistributed in this area because of its unique geographicallocation and climate diversity [31]
Field survey and data collectionPrior to our field work relevant literature was consultedto obtain information on the topography climate andlocal culture of Diqing Prefecture this was helpful inchoosing the specific study sites [31] Field studies werecarried out during three visits in March July and Au-gust 2012 After considering the terrain and climatecondition 29 villages belonging to three counties (8 inShangri-la 3 in Weixi and 18 in Deqin) and located inhigh mountains as well as lower river valleys were ran-domly selected to carry out ethnobotanical investigation
(Table 1) Two-hundred and eighty-two randomly se-lected households (eight to ten people per village) weresurveyed Ethnobotanical data were collected throughdifferent interview methods (participatory rural appraisal(PRA) direct observation semi-structured interviewskey informant interviews individual discussions focusgroup discussions and questionnaires) [37-40]During our survey the local Tibetan pronunciations
parts used collection period and preparation methodsplants were recorded Because local Tibetan pronuncia-tions differ from the formal Tibetan pronunciation ofXizang Autonomous Region and the names of somespecies were even pronounced the same as in MandarinChinese we recorded the names phonetically exactly asthey were spoken to us Most Tibetans in Diqing Prefec-ture especially the official workers students and traderscan speak basic Mandarin therefore our interviews werein Mandarin and did not use interpreters
Table 1 Villages surveyed in investigations of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region YunnanProvince China
No Name of village Latitude (north) Longitude (east) Altitude(m)
1 Laza Village Shangri-la County 27deg45rsquo396rdquo 99deg40rsquo228rdquo 3320
2 Jiefang Village Shangri-la County 27deg51rsquo468rdquo 99deg41rsquo564rdquo 3280
3 Nishi Village Shangri-la County 27deg47rsquo218rdquo 99deg40rsquo595rdquo 3290
4 Kaisong Village Shangri-la County 27deg53rsquo496rdquo 99deg38rsquo215rdquo 3270
5 Dala Village Shangri-la County 27deg31rsquo12rdquo 99deg57rsquo36rdquo 3370
6 Xiaozhongdian Village Shangri-la County 27deg34rsquo12rdquo 99deg47rsquo59rdquo 3260
7 Xingfu Village Shangri-la County 28deg8rsquo276rdquo 99deg25rsquo588rdquo 2230
8 Nixi Village Shangri-la County 28deg4rsquo12rdquo 99deg29rsquo348rdquo 3170
9 Laohao Village Weixi County 27deg10rsquo541rdquo 99deg17rsquo204rdquo 2260
10 Gongyuan Village Weixi County 27deg21rsquo5035rdquo 99deg5rsquo1145rdquo 1690
11 Biluo Village Weixi County 27deg25rsquo228rdquo 99deg1rsquo588rdquo 2630
12 Feilaisi Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo312rdquo 98deg52rsquo444rdquo 3390
13 Wunongding Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo564rdquo 98deg54rsquo468rsquo 3530
14 Mingyong Village Deqin County 28deg28rsquo84rdquo 98deg47rsquo42rdquo 2270
15 Adunzi Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo136rdquo 98deg54rsquo389rdquo 3290
16 Gusong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo377rdquo 98deg54rsquo101rdquo 3590
17 Adong Village Deqin County 28deg45rsquo468rdquo 98deg39rsquo144rdquo 2690
18 Hongpo Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo24rdquo 98deg54rsquo18rdquo 2810
19 Guonian Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo1671rdquo 98deg51rsquo4961rdquo 2130
20 Jiulongding Village Deqin County 28deg20rsquo42rdquo 98deg53rsquo132rdquo 2570
21 Sinong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo918rsquo 98deg47rsquo3342rsquo 2320
22 Badong Village Deqin County 27deg57rsquo396rdquo 98deg54rsquo0rdquo 2240
23 Cizhong Village Deqin County 28deg01rsquo1644rsquo 98deg54rsquo1614rsquo 1970
24 Gongka Village Deqin County 28deg35rsquo276rdquo 98deg52rsquo12rdquo 3080
25 Jiunong Village Deqin County 28deg43rsquo2877rdquo 98deg41rsquo476rdquo 3160
26 Luwa Village Deqin County 28deg40rsquo30rdquo 98deg41rsquo384rdquo 2290
27 Xiaruo Village Deqin County 27deg48rsquo377rdquo 99deg18rsquo511rdquo 2040
28 Tuoding Village Deqin County 27deg46rsquo109rsquo 99deg25rsquo372rsquo 1940
29 Benzilan Village Deqin County 28deg14rsquo3683rdquo 99deg18rsquo743rdquo 2150
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 4 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
Specimens were examined and identified by the authorsand other taxonomists and will be deposited in theHerbarium of the Minzu University of China (Beijing)
Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently utilized speciesThe study area is floristically rich and has a large num-ber of useful WEP species The 168 species documented
Table 2 Taxonomic distribution of wild edible plants used by
Plant group Number of species
Angiosperm 153
Gymnosperm 4
Pteridophyte 4
Algae 2
Lichen 5
Total 168
include angiosperms (153 spp) gymnosperms (4) pteri-dophytes (4) algae (2) and lichens (5) (Table 2) of which411 are endemic to China and 119 endemic tonorthwestern Yunnan Province Details of utilization aregiven in Table 3 (plants mentioned only by one informantare not documented in this list) The average number ofspecies mentioned per informant is around ca 8 speciesPlants belonging to 62 families and 116 genera are
Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Number of genera Number of families
101 47
4 4
4 4
2 2
5 5
116 62
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Latin name Local name Family name Distribution Parts used Local use (edible only) Collectionperiod Additional local use(s) Frequency
Actinidia arguta(Siebold et Zucc)Planch ex Miq
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia pilosula(Finet et
Gagnep) Stapfex Hand-Mazz
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia venosaRehder
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Adenophorakhasiana (Hook fet Thomson)
Collett et Hemsl
Zheibamiedu CampanulaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-Sept
Flowers and stems used forweisang Aerial parts used asfodder Roots used to treatcough and clearing heat
Alectoria sulcataNyl
Shuhua UsneaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sep
Allium hookeriThwaites varmuliense Airy-
Shaw
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium ovalifoliumHand-Mazz
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium trifurcatum(F T Wang et TTang) J M Xu
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Amaranthuscaudatus L
Yani AmaranthaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amaranthushypochondriacus
LYani Amaranthaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amygdalus mira(Koehne) Ricker
YemaotaoKamu
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugSeeds used to relieve a coughand cure injuries
Anemone rivularisBuch-Ham ex
DCHuzhangcao Ranunculaceae Weixi Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-Sept
Roots used to treat bronchitisWhole plant used asornamental
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
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22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
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24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Figure 1 Location of the area covered in an investigation into the wild edible plants used by Tibetans in the Shangri-la regionYunnan China
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 3 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
northern subtropical and warm temperate (below2500 m) 2) temperate (2500ndash3000 m) 3) cold tem-perate (3000ndash4000 m) 4) frigid (4000ndash5000 m) and5) glacier (above 5000 m) Abundant plant resources aredistributed in this area because of its unique geographicallocation and climate diversity [31]
Field survey and data collectionPrior to our field work relevant literature was consultedto obtain information on the topography climate andlocal culture of Diqing Prefecture this was helpful inchoosing the specific study sites [31] Field studies werecarried out during three visits in March July and Au-gust 2012 After considering the terrain and climatecondition 29 villages belonging to three counties (8 inShangri-la 3 in Weixi and 18 in Deqin) and located inhigh mountains as well as lower river valleys were ran-domly selected to carry out ethnobotanical investigation
(Table 1) Two-hundred and eighty-two randomly se-lected households (eight to ten people per village) weresurveyed Ethnobotanical data were collected throughdifferent interview methods (participatory rural appraisal(PRA) direct observation semi-structured interviewskey informant interviews individual discussions focusgroup discussions and questionnaires) [37-40]During our survey the local Tibetan pronunciations
parts used collection period and preparation methodsplants were recorded Because local Tibetan pronuncia-tions differ from the formal Tibetan pronunciation ofXizang Autonomous Region and the names of somespecies were even pronounced the same as in MandarinChinese we recorded the names phonetically exactly asthey were spoken to us Most Tibetans in Diqing Prefec-ture especially the official workers students and traderscan speak basic Mandarin therefore our interviews werein Mandarin and did not use interpreters
Table 1 Villages surveyed in investigations of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region YunnanProvince China
No Name of village Latitude (north) Longitude (east) Altitude(m)
1 Laza Village Shangri-la County 27deg45rsquo396rdquo 99deg40rsquo228rdquo 3320
2 Jiefang Village Shangri-la County 27deg51rsquo468rdquo 99deg41rsquo564rdquo 3280
3 Nishi Village Shangri-la County 27deg47rsquo218rdquo 99deg40rsquo595rdquo 3290
4 Kaisong Village Shangri-la County 27deg53rsquo496rdquo 99deg38rsquo215rdquo 3270
5 Dala Village Shangri-la County 27deg31rsquo12rdquo 99deg57rsquo36rdquo 3370
6 Xiaozhongdian Village Shangri-la County 27deg34rsquo12rdquo 99deg47rsquo59rdquo 3260
7 Xingfu Village Shangri-la County 28deg8rsquo276rdquo 99deg25rsquo588rdquo 2230
8 Nixi Village Shangri-la County 28deg4rsquo12rdquo 99deg29rsquo348rdquo 3170
9 Laohao Village Weixi County 27deg10rsquo541rdquo 99deg17rsquo204rdquo 2260
10 Gongyuan Village Weixi County 27deg21rsquo5035rdquo 99deg5rsquo1145rdquo 1690
11 Biluo Village Weixi County 27deg25rsquo228rdquo 99deg1rsquo588rdquo 2630
12 Feilaisi Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo312rdquo 98deg52rsquo444rdquo 3390
13 Wunongding Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo564rdquo 98deg54rsquo468rsquo 3530
14 Mingyong Village Deqin County 28deg28rsquo84rdquo 98deg47rsquo42rdquo 2270
15 Adunzi Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo136rdquo 98deg54rsquo389rdquo 3290
16 Gusong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo377rdquo 98deg54rsquo101rdquo 3590
17 Adong Village Deqin County 28deg45rsquo468rdquo 98deg39rsquo144rdquo 2690
18 Hongpo Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo24rdquo 98deg54rsquo18rdquo 2810
19 Guonian Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo1671rdquo 98deg51rsquo4961rdquo 2130
20 Jiulongding Village Deqin County 28deg20rsquo42rdquo 98deg53rsquo132rdquo 2570
21 Sinong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo918rsquo 98deg47rsquo3342rsquo 2320
22 Badong Village Deqin County 27deg57rsquo396rdquo 98deg54rsquo0rdquo 2240
23 Cizhong Village Deqin County 28deg01rsquo1644rsquo 98deg54rsquo1614rsquo 1970
24 Gongka Village Deqin County 28deg35rsquo276rdquo 98deg52rsquo12rdquo 3080
25 Jiunong Village Deqin County 28deg43rsquo2877rdquo 98deg41rsquo476rdquo 3160
26 Luwa Village Deqin County 28deg40rsquo30rdquo 98deg41rsquo384rdquo 2290
27 Xiaruo Village Deqin County 27deg48rsquo377rdquo 99deg18rsquo511rdquo 2040
28 Tuoding Village Deqin County 27deg46rsquo109rsquo 99deg25rsquo372rsquo 1940
29 Benzilan Village Deqin County 28deg14rsquo3683rdquo 99deg18rsquo743rdquo 2150
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 4 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
Specimens were examined and identified by the authorsand other taxonomists and will be deposited in theHerbarium of the Minzu University of China (Beijing)
Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently utilized speciesThe study area is floristically rich and has a large num-ber of useful WEP species The 168 species documented
Table 2 Taxonomic distribution of wild edible plants used by
Plant group Number of species
Angiosperm 153
Gymnosperm 4
Pteridophyte 4
Algae 2
Lichen 5
Total 168
include angiosperms (153 spp) gymnosperms (4) pteri-dophytes (4) algae (2) and lichens (5) (Table 2) of which411 are endemic to China and 119 endemic tonorthwestern Yunnan Province Details of utilization aregiven in Table 3 (plants mentioned only by one informantare not documented in this list) The average number ofspecies mentioned per informant is around ca 8 speciesPlants belonging to 62 families and 116 genera are
Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Number of genera Number of families
101 47
4 4
4 4
2 2
5 5
116 62
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Latin name Local name Family name Distribution Parts used Local use (edible only) Collectionperiod Additional local use(s) Frequency
Actinidia arguta(Siebold et Zucc)Planch ex Miq
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia pilosula(Finet et
Gagnep) Stapfex Hand-Mazz
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia venosaRehder
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Adenophorakhasiana (Hook fet Thomson)
Collett et Hemsl
Zheibamiedu CampanulaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-Sept
Flowers and stems used forweisang Aerial parts used asfodder Roots used to treatcough and clearing heat
Alectoria sulcataNyl
Shuhua UsneaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sep
Allium hookeriThwaites varmuliense Airy-
Shaw
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium ovalifoliumHand-Mazz
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium trifurcatum(F T Wang et TTang) J M Xu
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Amaranthuscaudatus L
Yani AmaranthaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amaranthushypochondriacus
LYani Amaranthaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amygdalus mira(Koehne) Ricker
YemaotaoKamu
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugSeeds used to relieve a coughand cure injuries
Anemone rivularisBuch-Ham ex
DCHuzhangcao Ranunculaceae Weixi Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-Sept
Roots used to treat bronchitisWhole plant used asornamental
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
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3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 1 Villages surveyed in investigations of wild edible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region YunnanProvince China
No Name of village Latitude (north) Longitude (east) Altitude(m)
1 Laza Village Shangri-la County 27deg45rsquo396rdquo 99deg40rsquo228rdquo 3320
2 Jiefang Village Shangri-la County 27deg51rsquo468rdquo 99deg41rsquo564rdquo 3280
3 Nishi Village Shangri-la County 27deg47rsquo218rdquo 99deg40rsquo595rdquo 3290
4 Kaisong Village Shangri-la County 27deg53rsquo496rdquo 99deg38rsquo215rdquo 3270
5 Dala Village Shangri-la County 27deg31rsquo12rdquo 99deg57rsquo36rdquo 3370
6 Xiaozhongdian Village Shangri-la County 27deg34rsquo12rdquo 99deg47rsquo59rdquo 3260
7 Xingfu Village Shangri-la County 28deg8rsquo276rdquo 99deg25rsquo588rdquo 2230
8 Nixi Village Shangri-la County 28deg4rsquo12rdquo 99deg29rsquo348rdquo 3170
9 Laohao Village Weixi County 27deg10rsquo541rdquo 99deg17rsquo204rdquo 2260
10 Gongyuan Village Weixi County 27deg21rsquo5035rdquo 99deg5rsquo1145rdquo 1690
11 Biluo Village Weixi County 27deg25rsquo228rdquo 99deg1rsquo588rdquo 2630
12 Feilaisi Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo312rdquo 98deg52rsquo444rdquo 3390
13 Wunongding Village Deqin County 28deg26rsquo564rdquo 98deg54rsquo468rsquo 3530
14 Mingyong Village Deqin County 28deg28rsquo84rdquo 98deg47rsquo42rdquo 2270
15 Adunzi Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo136rdquo 98deg54rsquo389rdquo 3290
16 Gusong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo377rdquo 98deg54rsquo101rdquo 3590
17 Adong Village Deqin County 28deg45rsquo468rdquo 98deg39rsquo144rdquo 2690
18 Hongpo Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo24rdquo 98deg54rsquo18rdquo 2810
19 Guonian Village Deqin County 28deg17rsquo1671rdquo 98deg51rsquo4961rdquo 2130
20 Jiulongding Village Deqin County 28deg20rsquo42rdquo 98deg53rsquo132rdquo 2570
21 Sinong Village Deqin County 28deg29rsquo918rsquo 98deg47rsquo3342rsquo 2320
22 Badong Village Deqin County 27deg57rsquo396rdquo 98deg54rsquo0rdquo 2240
23 Cizhong Village Deqin County 28deg01rsquo1644rsquo 98deg54rsquo1614rsquo 1970
24 Gongka Village Deqin County 28deg35rsquo276rdquo 98deg52rsquo12rdquo 3080
25 Jiunong Village Deqin County 28deg43rsquo2877rdquo 98deg41rsquo476rdquo 3160
26 Luwa Village Deqin County 28deg40rsquo30rdquo 98deg41rsquo384rdquo 2290
27 Xiaruo Village Deqin County 27deg48rsquo377rdquo 99deg18rsquo511rdquo 2040
28 Tuoding Village Deqin County 27deg46rsquo109rsquo 99deg25rsquo372rsquo 1940
29 Benzilan Village Deqin County 28deg14rsquo3683rdquo 99deg18rsquo743rdquo 2150
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 4 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
Specimens were examined and identified by the authorsand other taxonomists and will be deposited in theHerbarium of the Minzu University of China (Beijing)
Results and discussionWild food plant diversity and frequently utilized speciesThe study area is floristically rich and has a large num-ber of useful WEP species The 168 species documented
Table 2 Taxonomic distribution of wild edible plants used by
Plant group Number of species
Angiosperm 153
Gymnosperm 4
Pteridophyte 4
Algae 2
Lichen 5
Total 168
include angiosperms (153 spp) gymnosperms (4) pteri-dophytes (4) algae (2) and lichens (5) (Table 2) of which411 are endemic to China and 119 endemic tonorthwestern Yunnan Province Details of utilization aregiven in Table 3 (plants mentioned only by one informantare not documented in this list) The average number ofspecies mentioned per informant is around ca 8 speciesPlants belonging to 62 families and 116 genera are
Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Number of genera Number of families
101 47
4 4
4 4
2 2
5 5
116 62
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Latin name Local name Family name Distribution Parts used Local use (edible only) Collectionperiod Additional local use(s) Frequency
Actinidia arguta(Siebold et Zucc)Planch ex Miq
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia pilosula(Finet et
Gagnep) Stapfex Hand-Mazz
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia venosaRehder
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Adenophorakhasiana (Hook fet Thomson)
Collett et Hemsl
Zheibamiedu CampanulaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-Sept
Flowers and stems used forweisang Aerial parts used asfodder Roots used to treatcough and clearing heat
Alectoria sulcataNyl
Shuhua UsneaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sep
Allium hookeriThwaites varmuliense Airy-
Shaw
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium ovalifoliumHand-Mazz
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium trifurcatum(F T Wang et TTang) J M Xu
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Amaranthuscaudatus L
Yani AmaranthaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amaranthushypochondriacus
LYani Amaranthaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amygdalus mira(Koehne) Ricker
YemaotaoKamu
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugSeeds used to relieve a coughand cure injuries
Anemone rivularisBuch-Ham ex
DCHuzhangcao Ranunculaceae Weixi Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-Sept
Roots used to treat bronchitisWhole plant used asornamental
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China
Latin name Local name Family name Distribution Parts used Local use (edible only) Collectionperiod Additional local use(s) Frequency
Actinidia arguta(Siebold et Zucc)Planch ex Miq
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia pilosula(Finet et
Gagnep) Stapfex Hand-Mazz
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Actinidia venosaRehder
Zhemenkoubu ActinidiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits ripe fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Adenophorakhasiana (Hook fet Thomson)
Collett et Hemsl
Zheibamiedu CampanulaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-Sept
Flowers and stems used forweisang Aerial parts used asfodder Roots used to treatcough and clearing heat
Alectoria sulcataNyl
Shuhua UsneaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Whole plant stir-fried Jul-Sep
Allium hookeriThwaites varmuliense Airy-
Shaw
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium ovalifoliumHand-Mazz
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Allium trifurcatum(F T Wang et TTang) J M Xu
Rijiucai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial parts stir-fried or added to soups May-Aug
Amaranthuscaudatus L
Yani AmaranthaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amaranthushypochondriacus
LYani Amaranthaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Amygdalus mira(Koehne) Ricker
YemaotaoKamu
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugSeeds used to relieve a coughand cure injuries
Anemone rivularisBuch-Ham ex
DCHuzhangcao Ranunculaceae Weixi Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-Sept
Roots used to treat bronchitisWhole plant used asornamental
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Juet
alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
edicine2013928
Page15
of22
httpwwwethnobiom
edcomcontent9128
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
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of22
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
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Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
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13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
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22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
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24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
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38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
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40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
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49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Aralia chinensis L Gege AraliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngleaves andleaf buds
stir-fried or eaten fresh Apr-May Bark used for weisang
Arctium lappa L Baomujicigen AsteraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-AugFruits leaves and roots used torelieve fever and treat measlesdysentery and gastropathy
Arisaemaerubescens (Wall)
SchottReduo Araceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngleaves
stir-fried Jun-JulTubers used to relieve coughand treat hemoptysis andpneumonia
Aristolochiadelavayi Franch
Ricaoko Aristolochiaceae Shangri-laWholeplants
stir-fried and used as spice Aug-SeptWhole plants used asstomachic tonic
Armeniaca mumeSiebold
Kangjue RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh AugUsed as rootstock forArmeniaca vulgaris
Arundinaria faberiRendle
Sunzi PoaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
New shoots boiled or stir-fried Jul-AugAerial parts used as fodder andto make bamboo wares
Berberis amoenaDunn
Qiesi BerberidaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstemsleaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants
Berberisjamesiana Forrestet W W Sm
Qiesi BerberidaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstemsleaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants
Berberis pruinosaFranch
Qiesi BerberidaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstemsleaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants
Berberis weisiensisC Y Wu ex S Y
BaoQiesi Berberidaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstemsleaves andfruits
eaten fresh May-SepWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants
Berchemia hirtellaTsai et K M Feng
Zhila Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sep
Berchemia hirtellaTsai et K M Feng
Zhila Rhamnaceae DeqinYoungleaves
used for making tea Apr-Jun
Berchemia sinicaC K Schneid
Zhila Rhamnaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sep
Berchemia sinicaC K Schneid
Zhila Rhamnaceae DeqinYoungleaves
used for making tea Apr-Jun
Boehmeriapenduliflora
Wedd ex LongSejia Urticaceae Deqin
Youngstems andleaves
boiled or stir-fried Jun-Jul
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Boehmeriatricuspis (Hance)
MakinoSejia Urticaceae Deqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Broussonetiapapyrifera (L)LHeacuter ex Vent
MoraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Sep-OctLeaves used as fodder Barkused for papermaking
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L)Medik
Zijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
CardamineyunnanensisFranch
Lijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Cephalotaxusfortunei Hook
var alpina H L LiMiyou Cephalotaxaceae Weixi Deqin Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct
Plants used as fuel-woodSeeds used to expel parasite
Cerasusconadenia
(Koehne) T T Yuet C L Li
Xumumiedu RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugFlowers and leaves used forweisang
Cerasustomentosa
(Thunb) WallNuosi Rosaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept
Chaenomelesspeciosa (Sweet)
NakaiSuomugua Rosaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruitsstewed with meat as spice and used to prepare localwine
Sept-Oct
Chenopodiumalbum L
Hui ChenopodiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Cinnamomumglanduliferum(Wall) Meisner
Xiangzhangzi LauraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits stir-fried and used as spices Aug-SeptFruits used to treatstomachache
Cirsiumjaponicum
(Thunb) Fisch exDC
Baimaci AsteraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-AugYoung stems and leaves usedas fodder
Codonopsispilosula (Franch)
Nannf varhandeliana(Nannf) L T
Shen
Dangshen CampanulaceaeDeqin andWeixi
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-SeptAerial parts used as fodderRoots used to invigorate thespleen
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Boehmeriatricuspis (Hance)
MakinoSejia Urticaceae Deqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Broussonetiapapyrifera (L)LHeacuter ex Vent
MoraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Sep-OctLeaves used as fodder Barkused for papermaking
Capsella bursa-pastoris (L)Medik
Zijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
CardamineyunnanensisFranch
Lijisuona BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Aerial part stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Cephalotaxusfortunei Hook
var alpina H L LiMiyou Cephalotaxaceae Weixi Deqin Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct
Plants used as fuel-woodSeeds used to expel parasite
Cerasusconadenia
(Koehne) T T Yuet C L Li
Xumumiedu RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-AugFlowers and leaves used forweisang
Cerasustomentosa
(Thunb) WallNuosi Rosaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Sept
Chaenomelesspeciosa (Sweet)
NakaiSuomugua Rosaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruitsstewed with meat as spice and used to prepare localwine
Sept-Oct
Chenopodiumalbum L
Hui ChenopodiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul Aerial parts used as fodder
Cinnamomumglanduliferum(Wall) Meisner
Xiangzhangzi LauraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits stir-fried and used as spices Aug-SeptFruits used to treatstomachache
Cirsiumjaponicum
(Thunb) Fisch exDC
Baimaci AsteraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jun-AugYoung stems and leaves usedas fodder
Codonopsispilosula (Franch)
Nannf varhandeliana(Nannf) L T
Shen
Dangshen CampanulaceaeDeqin andWeixi
Roots stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Jul-SeptAerial parts used as fodderRoots used to invigorate thespleen
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Cornus capitataWall
Jisuo Jisuziguo CornaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptFruits stems and leaves usedas veterinary medicine
Cornusmacrophylla Wall
Dengtaishu CornaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood
Cornus schindleriWangerin
Saisaizi CornaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
seeds used for making vegetable oil Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood
Cornus ulotrichaC K Schneid et
WangerinDengtaishu Cornaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
seeds used for making vegetable oil Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood
Corylus chinensisFranch
Jilizi BetulaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making pastries Sept-OctWood used for construction orfurniture
Corylusyunnanensis
(Franch) CamusShanbaiguo Betulaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making pastries Sept-OctWoods used for constructionor furniture
Cotinus coggygriaScop var
glaucophylla C YWu
Jiade Anacardiaceae Shangri-laYoungleaves
boiled or stir-fried May-JunWhole plants used asornamental
Crataeguschungtienensis W
W SmLubu Rosaceae
Weixi andShangri-la
Fruits eaten fresh SeptWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants
Crataegus oresbiaW W Sm
Lubu RosaceaeWeixi andShangri-la
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptWhole plants used as fenceand hedge plants
Cynanchumforrestii Schltr
Babeda AsclepiadaceaeDeqin andWeixi
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-OctRoots stewed with meat andeaten to treat rheumatism
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Duchesnea indica(Andrews) Focke
Dihongpao RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Jul
Elaeagnusmultiflora Thunb
Cibie ElaeagnaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Jul
Elaeagnusumbellata Thunb
Yangnaiguo ElaeagnaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Aug
EriobotryasalwinensisHand-Mazz
RosaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Aug Plants used as fuel-wood
Eutremadeltoideum(Hook f et
Thomson) O ESchulz
Limo BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Eutremaheterophyllum (WW Sm) H Hara
Limo BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
EutremahimalaicumHook f etThomson
Limo BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Fagopyrumdibotrys (D Don)
H HaraWanao Polygonaceae Deqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Fargesiamelanostachys(Hand-Mazz) T
P Yi
Sunzi PoaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
New shoots boiled or stir-fried May-AugAerial parts used as fodder andto make bamboo wares
Ficus pumila L Dongshili MoraceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making bean jelly Jul-Aug Leaves used as fodder
Ficus sarmentosaBuch-Ham ex
Smdongshili Moraceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making bean jelly Jul-Aug Leaves used as fodder
Foeniculumvulgare Mill
Asi ApiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jul
Fragariamoupinensis
(Franch) CardotGasuo Rosaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jun-Jul Whole plants used as fodder
Galinsogaparviflora Cav
Nawabijia AsteraceaeDeqin andWeixi
Youngstems andleaves
boiled or stir-fried Jun-Aug Whole plants used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Ginkgo biloba L Baiguo Ginkgoaceae Deqin Weixi Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct Seeds used to treat asthma
Gnaphaliumaffine D Don
Qingmincai Asteraceae WeixiYoungleaves
grounded with sticky rice to make rice cake Apr-MayLeaves used to treat cuts andgun shot wounds
Herminiumlanceum (Thunbex Sw) Vuijk
Lianxiongde Orchidaceae Shangri-la Whole plant stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Aug-Sep Whole plant used as fodder
Hippophaerhamnoides L
subspyunnanensis
Rousi
Xiju ElaeagnaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Fruits eaten fresh or used to make beverage and wine Aug-OctFruits used to treat cough andinvigorate the circulation ofblood
Houttuyniacordata Thunb
Zhergen SaururaceaeWeixiShangri-la
Leaves androots
eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-Jul
Juglans regia L Daiga JuglandaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seedseaten fresh or stir-fried and used for making vegetableoil
Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood
Kalopanaxseptemlobus
(Thunb) KoidzCilaobao Araliaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Lethariellacladonioides (Nyl)
KrogGangge Parmeliaceae Deqin Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-Oct
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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httpwwwethnobiom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Ginkgo biloba L Baiguo Ginkgoaceae Deqin Weixi Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sep-Oct Seeds used to treat asthma
Gnaphaliumaffine D Don
Qingmincai Asteraceae WeixiYoungleaves
grounded with sticky rice to make rice cake Apr-MayLeaves used to treat cuts andgun shot wounds
Herminiumlanceum (Thunbex Sw) Vuijk
Lianxiongde Orchidaceae Shangri-la Whole plant stewed with meat and eaten as tonic Aug-Sep Whole plant used as fodder
Hippophaerhamnoides L
subspyunnanensis
Rousi
Xiju ElaeagnaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Fruits eaten fresh or used to make beverage and wine Aug-OctFruits used to treat cough andinvigorate the circulation ofblood
Houttuyniacordata Thunb
Zhergen SaururaceaeWeixiShangri-la
Leaves androots
eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-Jul
Juglans regia L Daiga JuglandaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seedseaten fresh or stir-fried and used for making vegetableoil
Aug-Sept Plants used as fuel-wood
Kalopanaxseptemlobus
(Thunb) KoidzCilaobao Araliaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Lethariellacladonioides (Nyl)
KrogGangge Parmeliaceae Deqin Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-Oct
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Juet
alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
edicine2013928
Page15
of22
httpwwwethnobiom
edcomcontent9128
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
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Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
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22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
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24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
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38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
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40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
MahoniaduclouxianaGagnep
Jisa Berberidaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SepWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Maianthemumatropurpureum
(Franch)LaFrankie
ZhuyecaiNibai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Maianthemumforrestii (W W
Smith) LaFrankieZhuyecaiNibai Liliaceae
Shangri-laand Weixi
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Maianthemumhenryi (Baker)LaFrankie
ZhuyecaiNibai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Maianthemumoleraceum (Baker)
LaFrankieZhuyecaiNibai Liliaceae
WeixiShangri-la
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Maianthemumpurpureum(Wallich)LaFrankie
ZhuyecaiNibai LiliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngshoots andleaves
stir-fried or added to soups May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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andEthnom
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
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13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
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21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
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24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Menthacanadensis L
Qiubi LamiaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Jun-Aug
NostocsphaerioidesKuumltzing
Shuimuer Nostocaceae Shangri-la Whole plant eaten fresh or added to soups Jun-JulWhole plant used to treatburns and scalds
Metapanaxdelavayi (Franch)J Wen et Frodin
Araliaceae Deqin WeixiYoungleaves
used for making tea Apr-MayWhole plants used as hedgeplants
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
PinelliapedatisectaSchott
Luoa Araceae DeqinYoungleaves
stir-fried Jun-JulCorms used to treat vomit andreduce phlegm
Pinus armandiiFranch
Seitu Songzi PinaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-Oct
Leaves and stems used forweisang Needles used asfodder Plants used as fuel-wood
Pistaciaweinmanniifolia JPoiss ex Franch
Li Anacardiaceae Deqin Fruits eaten fresh Aug-SeptLeaves and stems used forweisang Leaves and fruits usedas fodder
Plantago asiaticaL
Hamaye PlantaginaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Wholeplants
boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves stems flowers andseeds used as fodder
Plantago major L Hamaye PlantaginaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Wholeplants
boiled or stir-fried Jun-AugLeaves stems flowers andseeds used as fodder
Potentillaanserina L
Chuomo RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Roots eaten fresh or boiled Jun-SeptLeaves stems and fruits usedas fodder Roots used tocontrol leukorrhea flow
Potentillacoriandrifolia DDon var dumosa
Franch
Zumuyasha RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Roots eaten after boiling Jun-Sept Whole plants used as fodder
Potentillaleuconota D Don
Pagu RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Roots eaten after boiling Jun-Sept Whole plants used as fodder
Prasiolasubareolata Skuja
Shihuacai Prasiolaceae Shangri-laWholeplants
eaten fresh or added to soups Jun-Jul
Prinsepia utilisRoyle
Qingciguo RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug
Pteridiumaquilinum (L)Kuhn var
latiusclum (Desv)Underw ex A
Heller
Zhila PteridaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Immaturefronds
eaten fresh or stir-fried May-JulWhole plant used to treatrheumatism or for clearingheat
Pyracanthafortuneana
(Maxim) H L LiSare Rosaceae
Shangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Sept-Oct
Pyrus betulifoliaBunge
Reli RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct
Pyrus calleryanaDecne
Xialie RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Oct
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alJournalofEthnobiology
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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alJournalofEthnobiology
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
RubuspolyodontusHand-Mazz
HongpaiYongde
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence
Rubusrubrisetulosus
Cardot
HongpaiYongde
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence
Rubus stansFocke
HongpaiYongde
RosaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Whole plants used as fence
Whole plant used for making tea wine and beverage Aug-OctUsed to tranquilize mind andclear heat
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
Thlaspi arvense L Manlancai BrassicaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried or used for making pickle May-Jun Aerial parts used as fodder
ThlaspiyunnanenseFranch
Manlancai BrassicaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Seeds used for making vegetable oil Jul-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Tibetia himalaica(Baker) H P Tsui
FabaceaeDeqinShangri-la
Roots eaten fresh Jun-Aug Aerial parts used as fodder
Toona sinensis(Juss) Roem
MeliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Leaf buds eaten fresh or stir-fried May-Jun
Torreya fargesiiFranch var
yunnanensis (C YCheng et L KFu) N Kang
Shasongguo TaxaceaeWeixiShangri-la
seeds eaten fresh or stir-fried Sept-OctLeaves and stems used forweisang Plants used as fuel-wood
Toxicodendronsuccedaneum (L)
KuntzeSi Anacardiaceae
Weixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits touse in varnish and polish
Toxicodendronvernicifluum(Stokes) F A
Barkley
Si AnacardiaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used for making vegetable oil Jul-SeptWax is extracted from fruits forusing in varnish and polish
Triosteumhimalayanum
WallSachi Caprifoliaceae Shangri-la Fruits eaten fresh Aug-Sept Aerial parts used as fodder
Typhoniumdiversifolium Wall
ex SchottBanxia Araceae Shangri-la
Youngleaves
used for making pickle Jul-Aug
Urtica fissa EPritz
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
Urtica mairei HLeacutev
Yanglala UrticaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
stir-fried Jun-Jul
ViburnumbetulifoliumBatalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Viburnumkansuense Batalin
Ruosi CaprifoliaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh and used to prepare local tonic wine Aug-Sept
Vitis betulifoliaDiels et Gilg
Geng VitaceaeWeixi andDeqin
Fruits eaten fresh Jul-Oct Leaves used as fodder
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alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
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of22
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Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
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alJournalofEthnobiology
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 3 Wild edible plants used by the Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan Province China (Continued)
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Youngstems andleaves
eaten fresh or stir-fried Apr-May
ZanthoxylumbungeanumMaxim
Yemu RutaceaeShangri-laWeixi andDeqin
Fruits used as spices Jul-Sept
Frequency gt 75 of respondents gt 50 of respondents gt 14 of respondents gt 18 of respondents lt 18 of respondents but at least 2 respondents
Juet
alJournalofEthnobiology
andEthnom
edicine2013928
Page17
of22
httpwwwethnobiom
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Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
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17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 18 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
distributed into different life forms with herbs (435)and shrubs (268) having the most species similar to asurvey conducted in Yunnan Province [17] and another inHunan Province [21] The majority of food plants belongto the Rosaceae (34 species) Liliaceae (9) Brassicaceae(9) Araliaceae (6) and Berberidaceae (6) The generarepresented by the highest number of species are Rubus(8 species) followed by Maianthemum (6) Berberis (4)Cornus (4) Lindera (4) and Pyrus (4)The most frequently used parts are fruits young leaves
and stems (Figure 2) This result is similar to otherinvestigations such as a study of the Shuhi people in theHengduan Mountains (southwest China) [24] studies inXishuangbanna southern Yunnan (China) [2628] andsurveys among Inner Mongolian herdsmen [18] Thepreference for wild collected leafy vegetables and fruitsover underground plant parts seems to be commonamong diverse ethnic groups in China and the Himalayanarea and might be due to the ease of collecting aboveground parts [24] Collection period varies from April toAugust (for young leaves and stems) and July to October(for fruits and seeds) Most plant parts are collected insummer and autumn (Table 3) These plants are often driedin the sun after collection and stored (a very common pre-serving technique [22]) until winter Most uses are specificto a particular plant part (such as young leaf new shoot orripe fruit) although in a few cases a single plant part hasdifferent uses eg seeds of Juglans regia are eaten fresh orused to make vegetable oil More than one plant part isused for about 7 of the species For example youngleaves and stems of Panax japonicus var major are usedas a vegetable while rhizomes are stewed with meat andeaten as a tonic Leaves of Thlaspi yunnanense are used asa vegetable while vegetable oil is made from the seeds
Figure 2 Use frequency of wild edible plant parts of speciesused by Tibetans in the Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Young leaves stems and fruits of Berberis amoena Bjamesiana B pruinosa and B eisiensis are eaten freshYoung stems and leaves of Zanthoxylum bungeanum areboiled or stir-fried and the fruits as a condiment Fruits ofBerchemia hirtella and B sinica are eaten fresh and theyoung leaves to make tea In total vegetable (419) is themost used category followed by fruit (408) (Table 4)Ripe fruits are often eaten fresh green leafy vegetativeparts (eg young leaves and stems) are usually boiled orstir-fried less commonly they are eaten fresh as salad oradded to soups All these plants are used as ingredientsfor the hot pot since Tibetans in this region like hot potvery muchThese wild edible plants play an important role in
providing local Tibetans with various vital nutritionelements such as vitamins and minerals needed tomaintain health and promote immunity against diseaseFor example butter rice with ginseng fruits is a famousand traditional Tibetan dish Ginseng fruits are theroots of Potentilla anserina a perennial herb and wasreported to have low fat high dietary fiber all essentialamino acids various mineral elements and vitamins [41]Other wild vegetables and fruits frequently used by localTibetans include Maianthemum atropurpureum Alliumovalifolium Aralia chinensis Hippophae rhamnoides subspyunnanensis and Amygdalus mira which are all mentionedby nearly every respondent
Multiple uses of wild edible plantsIn addition to edible use 714 of the reported wild edibleplants (120 species) have additional uses (Tables 3 and 5)Such species are common in rural areas and are importantto local people [1242] They not only balance the nutri-tional value of starchy diets (compensating for lack ofseveral vitamins proteins and minerals) but may also pro-vide pharmacologically active compounds The multipleuses attest to the importance of these plants for subsist-ence and as a part of local cultural heritage [12] Thirty-one species (185) are also used as medicine most areherbs (19 species) or trees (6 species) These medicinalplants are used to treat gastropathy cough fever rheuma-tism dysentery fractures dyspepsia hemoptysis and
Table 4 Specific edible uses of wild edible plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Specific use Number of plants
vegetable 80
fruit 78
wine 11
vegetable oil 9
spice 8
tea 5
Total 191
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Table 5 Types of multiple uses for edible wild plantsutilized by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan China
Kind of usage Number of species Percentage
Edible 168 1000
Fodder 52 310
Medicinal 31 185
Fence 22 131
Ornamental 11 65
Weisanga 10 60
Fuel-wood 9 54
Construction 4 24aThe religious rite of burning offerings for smoke which plays an importantrole in local Tibetanrsquos daily life
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 19 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
asthma For a few species the same part is not only usedas food but is also used for medicinal purposes Forexample the roots of Anemone rivularis are stewed withmeat and eaten as tonic by local people and the decoctionof them are used to treat bronchitisWEPs can provide resources for future exploitation of
new health foods As living standards improve there is aglobally increased demand for healthy and safe food [21]Compared to conventional cultivated vegetables wildfood plants require less care are not affected by pesticidepollution and are a rich source of micronutrientsHowever destructive harvesting is a significant con-
cern and in the present study this was documented tooccur in at least 21 species used for medicine the under-ground parts (root tuber and corm) of fourteen speciesand the whole plant of seven species This manner ofharvest may have a serious consequence from both thesurvival of plants and from an ecological point of view[43] The conservation and sustainable utilization of spe-cies with multiple uses should be taken into considerationFifty-two species (31) were used as fodder For ex-
ample Potentilla coriandrifolia var dumosa is regardedas high-quality forage at high altitude (3500ndash4300 m)Further study of its nutrient composition can be done inorder to understand the rationale for its usage and de-velopment potentialTen species have cultural significance in a religious rite
named weisang during which specific plants are burnedfor smoke These are Adenophora khasiana Araliachinensis Cerasus conadenia Pinus armandii Pistaciaweinmanniifolia Ribes moupinense Ribes glaciale Rosapraelucens Rubus pectinellus and Torreya fargesii varyunnanensis This rite plays an important role in Tibetansrsquodaily life and it is said that the fragrance in the smoke cannot only make the mountain god pleased but also wash dirtythings away from people Tibetans pray for good harvestgood fortune happiness and prosperity in this manner
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potentialBesides food value the recorded species provide the possi-bility to supplement household income of rural people withlimited cash income opportunities [44] In our surveythe most preferred plants (mentioned by more than 50of respondents) include Maianthemum Allium AraliaArundinaria faberi Fargesia melanostachys Pteridiumaquilinum var latiusclum Matteuccia struthiopterisZanthoxylum bungeanum Ligusticum daucoides Hip-pophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis and Pistaciaweinmanniifolia All these plants are collected from re-mote mountains by local people and traded in localmarkets which provides the possibility to increase theincome of rural people with low cash incomeMaianthemum species (zhuyecai or ldquobamboo-leaved
vegetablerdquo) are the most frequently mentioned wildvegetable In Diqing Prefecture the leaves of six speciesare eaten (M atropurpureum M forrestii M henryi Moleraceum M purpureum and M tatsienense) They areadded to soups stir-fried with bacon or eaten raw assalad Several studies have focused on the nutritionalanalysis of zhuyecai and found they contained higheramount of protein essential amino acids vitamin C andmineral elements compared with some common vegeta-bles [45-47] Although local people do not use them asmedicine Maianthemum species were reported for medi-cinal use since ancient times For instance M japonicaand M henryi are employed to treat kidney diseasesactivate blood circulation and alleviate pain [4448] Matropurpurea contains a variety of steroidal saponins andnucleosides which may possess anti-tumor activities[49-51] Three new steroidal saponins having cytotoxicproperties against human cancer cells were isolated fromM japonica [52] Zhuyecai also has commercial value Inthe market the price varied from 12 CNY (Chinese yuan)to 40 CNY (ca 1 USD= 65 CNY) per kilogram (freshweight) from April to June an important source of cashincome And in restaurants one dish (prepared fromabout 500 g) costs 18ndash38 CNY during another seasonAnother renowned edible plant shutoucai includes
two species Aralia caesia and A chinensis Leaf budsand young leaves are edible and are collected from Aprilto May Researchers have reported that the tendershoots of A chinensis contain many oleanolic acids andseven essential amino acids [53] One local company in-tends to exploit this wild vegetable commerciallyHippophae rhamnoides subsp yunnanensis endemic tothe Qinghai-Tibet Plateau has both food and medicinalvalues Its fruits are eaten fresh or used to make beverageand wine and also used to treat cough and invigorate thecirculation of bloodIn the present study we found that taste is the first
criterion for all types of food plants in agreement withother surveys [54] However taste itself is not strong
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 20 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
enough to construct a reliable priority list for future con-servation domestication and exploitation Further detailednutrition analysis and phytochemical investigation shouldbe undertaken to comprehensively evaluate food and medi-cinal value of these ldquomost preferredrdquo plants which couldprovide scientific and important informationIt is generally believed that local people are more likely
to support and participate in conservation initiatives ifthey can receive direct benefits from such efforts [55] Ifmanaged sustainably these plants could be a goodmeans of income generation for rural communitiesMarket surveys value chain analyses and the risk ofoverexploitation should be assessed thoroughly [1356]Maianthemum populations (zhuyecai) are becoming rarein Shangri-la County although there were rich resources20 years ago Uprooting and harvesting the entire plantduring collection were observed and identified as causesof decline for Sinopodophyllum hexandrum Aristolochiadelavayi Megacarpaea delavayi and Codonopsis pilosulavar handeliana Because few people in this area areaware of sustainable harvesting the conservation andproper utilization of these species should be taught
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and cropproductionCrop wild relatives (CWRs) are species that are closely re-lated to crops including crop progenitors These wild rela-tives of domesticated crops may provide genes havinghigher resistance to adverse circumstance that could proveparticularly important in response to global climate changewhich will undoubtedly alter the environmental conditionsunder which our crops grow and dramatically impactagriculture [45758] CWRs are also of great importance tomaintain the productivity and stability of traditional agro-ecosystems [5960] Conservation of these species ensuresthat diverse genetic resources are preserved and could beused in the improvement of crops as a contribution to 21st
century food security [478] The main options for CWRsconservation are ex situ in gene banks and in situ in thenatural or farmed environment [596162] It is widely rec-ognized that in situ is necessary to conserve the full rangeof genetic diversity inherent in and between plant popula-tions with ex situ techniques as a backup [58] Taxon in-ventory is the starting point for in situ conservation whichprovides the baseline data critical for biodiversity assess-ment and monitoring [63] Some of the wild relatives offruit vegetable and spice crops documented in this studyare species of Actinidia Allium Amaranthus AmygdalusArctium Armeniaca Capsella Cerasus CrataegusDioscorea Diospyros Eriobotrya Foeniculum FragariaHippophae Juglans Malus Mentha Pyrus Toona Vitisand Zanthoxylum Take Amygdalus mira as an exampleDue to its advantageous traits such as high adaptabilityand longevity resistance to disease and tolerance to
drought and cold it could be a genetic resource for peachimprovement Another case is Pyrus betulifolia which isusually used as stock to graft various pear cultivars It isdrought resistant cold tolerant and long living making it agood candidate for providing useful genes to improve thequality of pears Young leaves of Allium ovalifolium couldbe eaten as vegetables and leaves are relatively larger thanthose of other Chinese chives Thus it might be used as asource for breeding new variety of chives Two otherspecies Rosa omeiensis and R praelucens have edible andornamental uses and exhibit high cold tolerance They mayprovide beneficial genes for future study and exploitation indeveloping new crops
Issues of conservationWild edible plant species are threatened by various naturalcauses and human activities [434] Extreme weathercaused by global climate change such as heavy snow andsevere droughts has resulted in the decrease and even lossof many wild food plant populations Various human ac-tivities such as land use change habitat destruction over-harvesting and over-grazing are major threats In recentyears with the construction of roads airports reservoirsand other infrastructure wild habitats for edible plantswere severely impacted Unsustainable harvesting of foodplant species with good market price also contributes to adecrease of these plantsThreats are not only limited to wild food plants them-
selves the traditional knowledge associated with WEPs isalso endangered Therefore systematic documentation ofindigenous knowledge and biological resources is of greatsignificance [5564] Along with economic developmentand increasing income only a few people want to collectwild edible plants The younger generation is becomingless interested in them thus causing the loss of traditionalknowledge In Shangri-la County tourism is booming andlocal people eagerly want to serve as guides or drivers intourist areas to pursue more money With the conveni-ence of transportation residents can buy much morevegetables from the markets than ever before and do notneed to collect wild species However in more remoterural communities where transportation is still inconveni-ent and people seldom go to the market indigenousknowledge about WEPs is relatively intact In DeqinCounty much land has been converted to grape cultivationto develop a wine industry and agricultural chemicals areused frequently causing the decrease of various wild ed-ible species and even cultivation of the very importantspecies hull-less barley Hordeum vulgare the staple foodof Tibetan communities [6566] is threatened During oursurvey we found that most people are reluctant to culti-vate hull-less barley now because planting grapes canbring more cash income
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 21 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
ConclusionThis paper is the first ethnobotanical study of wildfood plants used by local Tibetans in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture As plant resources in thisarea are rather plentiful and under the influence ofother ethnic groups local Tibetans not only cultivatevarious crops but also collect wild edible plants asfood Our survey showed the diversity of WEPs andrelated indigenous knowledge in this areaDifferent parts of plants are used by local people and
the most frequently used parts were fruits young leavesand stems These plants have different specific food useswith leafy vegetable uses being most frequent followedby fruit uses WEPs provide food and nutrients to localcommunities such as essential amino acids various vita-mins and minerals which are needed to keep healthyand enhance immunity against diseases and infectionsIf properly harvested WEPs could be the source of
cash income for local people with low cash incomebecause they are enjoyed by local people very much andoften traded in markets Furthermore with the increaseddemand for green healthy and safe food in modern soci-ety wild food resources have attracted global interest be-cause they are pollution-free and contain numerousimportant micronutrients and pharmacologically activesubstances In order to properly utilize the wild food re-sources we have some suggestions 1) properly exploitand improve conservation and management of wild foodplants 2) focus on scientific research on wild food re-sources 3) protect the natural environment and habitatfor wild food plantsIn addition to food value more than 50 of recorded
plants have medicinal ornamental and cultural andother uses that are important in local Tibetan cultureFurthermore some are crop wild relatives and couldprovide useful genes for crop improvement which mayhave significant consequence on global food securityHowever along with the development of economy thesemulti-valued resources are threatened by human activitiesand natural causes and associated traditional knowledgeis eroding rapidly Therefore sustainable management ofthese resources as well as conserving biodiversity is of theutmost importanceIn a word our ethnobotanical surveys provide data
and information basis for conservation and sustainableutilization of local wild edible plants and also contributeto preserve cultural and genetic diversity in Diqing TibetanAutonomous Prefecture
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributionsCLL designed the study YJ BL and JXZ performed the field survey YJdrafted the manuscript BL revised the manuscript CLL revised and finalizedthe manuscript All authors read and approved the final manuscript
AcknowledgementsWe are thankful to the local people for their assistances in the fieldinvestigations and for sharing their valuable knowledge Dr Kendrick Marrfrom the Royal British Columbia Museum in Victoria BC Canada kindlyhelped to edit the English and provided professional comments We are verygrateful to his assistances Members of Ethnobotanical Laboratory at MinzuUniversity of China and Research Group of Ethnobotany at KunmingInstitute of Botany Chinese Academy of Sciences participated in the fieldwork and discussion This research was funded by the National ScienceFoundation of China (31161140345) the Ministry of Education of China throughits 111 and 985 projects (B08044 MUC98506-01000101 amp MUC985-9) and theAsian COPE Program of Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPSAP109080)
Author details1College of Life and Environmental Sciences Minzu University of ChinaBeijing 100081 PR China 2School of Agronomy and Biotechnology YunnanAgricultural University Kunming 650201 PR China 3Kunming Institute ofBotany Chinese Academy of Sciences Kunming 650201 PR China
Received 23 January 2013 Accepted 5 April 2013Published 19 April 2013
References1 Lulekal E Asfaw Z Kelbessa E Van Damme P Wild edible plants in
Ethiopia a review on their potential to combat food insecurityAfrica Focus 2011 2471ndash121
2 Heywood VH Ethnopharmacology food production nutrition andbiodiversity conservation towards a sustainable future for indigenouspeoples J Ethnopharmacol 2011 1371ndash15
3 Seal T Evaluation of nutritional potential of wild edible plantstraditionally used by the tribal people of Meghalaya state in IndiaAmer J Plant Nutr Fertil Tech 2012 219ndash26
4 Uprety Y Poudel R Shrestha K Rajbhandary S Tiwari N Shrestha U AsselinH Diversity of use and local knowledge of wild edible plant resources inNepal J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 816
5 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Sauerborn J A comparison of the wild food plantuse knowledge of ethnic minorities in Naban River Watershed NationalNature Reserve Yunnan SW China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2012 817
6 Menendez-Baceta G Aceituno-Mata L Tardiacuteo J Reyes-Garciacutea V Pardo-de-SantayanaMWild edible plants traditionally gathered in Gorbeialdea (Biscay BasqueCountry) Genet Resour Crop Evol 2012 591329ndash1347
7 Ford-Lloyd BV Schmidt M Armstrong SJ Barazani O Engels J Ge S HadasR Hammer K Kell SP Kang D Khoshbakht K Li Y Long CL Lu BR Ma KPNguyen VT Qiu LJ Wei W Zhang ZW Maxted N Crop wild relatives-undervalued underutilized and under threat BioScience 201161559ndash565
8 Pandey A Tomer AK Bhandari DC Pareek SK Towards collection of wildrelatives of crop plants in India Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 55187ndash202
9 Misra S Maikhuri R Kala C Rao K Saxena K Wild leafy vegetables A studyof their subsistence dietetic support to the inhabitants of Nanda DeviBiosphere Reserve India J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 415
10 Arenas P Scarpa GF Edible wild plants of the chorote Indians GranChaco Argentina Bot J Linn Soc 2007 15373ndash85
11 Joshi N Kehlenbeck K Maass BL Traditional neglected vegetables of NepalTheir sustainable utilization for meeting human needs Conference onInternational Agricultural Research for Development Tropentag 20071ndash10
12 Shrestha PM Dhillion SS Diversity and traditional knowledge concerningwild food species in a locally managed forest in Nepal Agroforest Syst2006 6655ndash63
13 Termote C Van Damme P Dhedrsquoa Djailo B Eating from the wild TurumbuMbole and Bali traditional knowledge on non-cultivated edible plantsDistrict Tshopo DR Congo Genet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58585ndash618
14 Keller GB Mndiga H Maass BL Diversity and genetic erosion of traditionalvegetables in Tanzania from the farmerrsquos point of view Plant GenetResour Charact Util 2005 3400ndash413
15 Tardiacuteo J Pardi-De-Santayana M Morales R Ethnobotanical review of wildedible plants in Spain Bot J Linn Soc 2006 15227ndash71
16 Luczaj L Zovko Končić M Miličević T Dolina K Pandža M Wild vegetablemixes sold in the markets of Dalmatia (southern Croatia)J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2013 92
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
Issues of conservation
Conclusion
Competing interests
Authorsrsquo contributions
Acknowledgements
Author details
References
Ju et al Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928 Page 22 of 22httpwwwethnobiomedcomcontent9128
17 Ghorbani A Langenberger G Liu JX Wehner S Sauerborn J Diversity ofmedicinal and food plants as non-timber forest products in Naban RiverWatershed National Nature Reserve (China) implications for livelihoodimprovement and biodiversity conservation Econ Bot 2012 66178ndash191
18 Khasbagan Huai HY Pei SJ Wild plants in the diet of arhorchin mongolherdsmen in Inner Mongolia Econ Bot 2000 54528ndash536
19 Wujisguleng W Khasbagen K An integrated assessment of wild vegetableresources in Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region ChinaJ Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 634
20 Huber FK Ineichen R Yang YP Weckerle CS Livelihood and conservationaspects of non-wood forest product collection in the Shaxi Valleysouthwest china Econ Bot 2010 64189ndash204
21 Zou XB Huang FQ Hao LM Zhao JW Mao HP Zhang JC Ren SY Thesocio-economic importance of wild vegetable resources and theirconservation a case study from China Kew Bull 2010 65577ndash582
22 Kang YX Łuczaj Ł Ye S Zhang SJ Kang J Wild food plants and wildedible fungi of Heihe valley (Qinling Mountains Shaanxi central China)herbophilia and indifference to fruits and mushrooms Acta Soc Bot Pol2012 81405ndash413
23 Wang XY Du XL Recent status of the development and strategies ofexploitation of non-wood forest products in China Forest Res (China)1997 10199ndash205
24 Weckerle CS Huber FK Yang YP Sun WB Plant knowledge of the Shuhi inthe Hengduan Mountains southwest China Econ Bot 2006 603ndash23
25 Wu X ldquoTurning waste into things of valuerdquo Marketing fern kudzu andOsmunda in Enshi Prefecture China J Dev Soc 2003 19433ndash457
26 Xu YK Tao GD Liu HM Yan KL Dao XS Wild vegetable resources and marketsurvey in Xishuangbanna southwest China Econ Bot 2004 58647ndash667
27 Zhang XP Wu ZL Li Y Liu F Wang JQ Investigation on species resourcesand utilization of wild vegetable in Nabanhe Watershed Nature ReserveXishuangbanna (in Chinese with English abstract) J Southwest ForestryCollege 2004 2421ndash24
28 Chen J Su YC Chen GQ Wang WD Ethnobotanical studies on wild ediblefruits in Southern Yunnan folk names nutritional value and uses EconBot 1999 532ndash14
29 Myers N Mittermeier RA Mittermeier CG Da Fonseca GAB Kent JBiodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities Nature 2000403853ndash858
30 Liu YC Dao ZL Yang CY Liu YT Long CL Medicinal plants used byTibetans in Shangri-la Yunnan China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2009 515
31 The Compilation Committee of the Records of Diqing TibentanAutonomous Prefecture The Records of Diqing Tibetan AutonomousPrefecture Kunming The Nationality Press of Yunnan 2003
32 Liu ZY Inheritance and vicissitude of the Tibetan diet-a case of a Tibetanrural community China Tibetol 2012 192ndash109 119
33 Willson A Forest conversion and land use change in rural NorthwestYunnan China Mountain Res Dev 2006 26227ndash236
34 Byg A Salick J Local perspectives on a global phenomenon-climate changein eastern tibetan villages Global Environ Change 2009 19156ndash166
35 Meng R Zhang LR Zhang QX Threatening factors and protectioncountermeasures to resources of wild ornamental plants in NorthwestYunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) J Hubei Uni 2011 33297ndash303
36 Khasbagan S Indigenous knowledge for plant species diversity a casestudy of wild plantsrsquo folk names used by the Mongolians in Ejina desertarea Inner Mongolia PR China J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2008 42
37 Alexiades MN Sheldon JW Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research Afield manual New York The New York Botanical Garden 1996
38 Long CL Wang JR The Principle method and application of participatoryrural assessment Kunming Yunnan Science and Technology Press 1996
39 Chambers R The origins and practice of participatory rural appraisalWorld Dev 1994 22953ndash969
40 Chambers R Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) Challenges potentialsand paradigm World Dev 1994 221437ndash1454
41 Sun J Lu J Bo H Analysis and evaluation of dietetic nutrimental ofPotentilla anserina Roots (in Chinese with English abstract)Food Sci 2008 29411ndash414
42 Etkin NL Local knowledge of biotic diversity and its conservation in ruralHausaland Northern Nigeria Econ Bot 2002 5673ndash88
43 Teklehaymanot T Giday M Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants ofKara and Kwego semi-pastoralist people in Lower Omo River ValleyDebub Omo Zone SNNPR Ethiopia J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 2010 623
44 Meng Y Yang YP Weckerle CS Conservation status of Maianthemumspecies in the Hengduan Mountains a case study analyzing the impactof new policies on wild collected plant species Ethnobot Res Appl 20064167ndash173
45 Gui M Chen B Shen J Tian Y The nutrition value of Smilacinaatropurpurea and its exploitation (in Chinese with English abstract)Guihaia 2000 2071ndash74
46 Liu X Zhang J Fu H The determination of the trace elements in the leafand stalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Studies Trace Elements Health 2003 2017ndash18
47 Zhang J Zhou J Liu X Nutritional components analysis of the leaf andstalk of Smilacina henryi (bekev) Wang ef Tang from GaoligongsanMoutains Yunnan (in Chinese with English abstract) Nat Prod Res Dev2002 1545ndash47
48 Wu ZY Synopsis of Chinese Herbal Medicines (in Chinese) Shanghai ShanghaiScience and Technology Press 1991
49 Yang SL Liu XK Wu H Wang HB Qing C Steroidal saponins and cytoxicity ofthe wild edible vegetable-Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 2009 747ndash12
50 Zhang Y Li HZ Zhang YJ Jacob MR Khan SI Li XC Yang CR AtropurosidesA-G new steroidal saponins from Smilacina atropurpurea Steroids 200671712ndash719
51 Yang S Liu X Nucleosides from Smilacina atropurpurea (in Chinese withEnglish abstract) Chin J Nat Med 2003 1196ndash198
52 Liu X Zhang H Niu XF Xin W Qi L Steroidal saponins from Smilacinajaponica Fitoterapia 2012 83812ndash816
53 Wang ZZ Jin SD Jin SC Hu JH Zheng H Analysis of chemicalconstituents in medicinal and edible tender shoots of Aralia spp (inChinese with English abstract) Acta Nutrimenta Sinica 1999 21100ndash103
54 Dansi A Adjatin A Adoukonou-Sagbadja H Faladeacute V Yedomonhan H OdouD Dossou B Traditional leafy vegetables and their use in the BeninRepublic Genet Resour Crop Evol 2008 551239ndash1256
55 Acharya KP Acharya R Eating from the wild indigenous knowledge onwild edible plants in Parroha VDC of Rupandehi district Central NepalInt J Soc Forestry 2010 328ndash48
56 Leakey RRB Potential for novel food products from agroforestry trees areview Food Chem 1999 661ndash14
57 Hajjar R Hodgkin T The use of wild relatives in crop improvement asurvey of developments over the last 20 years Euphytica 2007 1561ndash13
58 Maxted N Kell S Establishment of a global network for the in situconservation of crop wild relatives status and needs Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations Commission on Genetic Resources forFood and Agriculture 2009
59 Meilleur BA Hodgkin T In situ conservation of crop wild relatives statusand trends Biodivers Conserv 2004 13663ndash684
60 Harlan JR The possible role of weed races in the evolution of cultivatedplants Euphytica 1965 14173ndash176
61 NrsquoDanikou S Achigan-Dako EG Wong JLG Eliciting local values of wildedible plants in southern Beacutenin to identify priority species forconservation Econ Bot 2011 65381ndash395
62 Khoury C Laliberteacute B Guarino L Trends in ex situ conservation of plantgenetic resources a review of global crop and regional conservationstrategies Genet Resour Crop Evol 2010 57625ndash639
63 Heywood V Casas A Ford-Lloyd B Kell S Maxted N Conservation andsustainable use of crop wild relatives Agri Ecosys Environ 2007 121245ndash255
64 Acharya R Acharya KP Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used byTharu community of Parroha VDC Rupandehi district NepalScientific World 2009 780ndash84
65 Li YL Long CL Kato K Yang CY Sato K Indigenous knowledge andtraditional conservation of hulless barley (Hordeum vulgare) germplasmresources in the Tibetan communities of Shangri-la Yunnan SW ChinaGenet Resour Crop Evol 2011 58645ndash655
66 Guo Y Li YL Huang Y Jarvis D Sato K Kato K Tsuyuzaki H Chen LJ LongCL Genetic diversity analysis of hulless barley from Shangri-la regionrevealed by SSR and AFLP markers Genet Resour Crop Evol 201259(7)1543ndash1552
doi1011861746-4269-9-28Cite this article as Ju et al Eating from the wild diversity of wildedible plants used by Tibetans in Shangri-la region Yunnan ChinaJournal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 928
Abstract
Background
Methods
Results
Conclusion
Background
Methods
Study area
Field survey and data collection
Results and discussion
Wild food plant diversity and frequently utilized species
Multiple uses of wild edible plants
ldquoMost preferredrdquo species and their commercial potential
Crop wild relatives for genetic improvement and crop production
