RESEARCH PROCESS
Prof. Dr. Wajiha Shah
Step 1
• Idea to research
Step 2
• Figure out research problem
Step 3
• Making on outline & reviewing literature
Step 6
• Selecting the appropriate research design
Step 7
• Sampling selection
Step 8
• Data recollection
Step 9
• Data Analysis
Step 10
• Presenting results
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1. The idea: A research project is born
Ideas
criteria
Solve problems
Elaborate theories
New thoughts
Initially vague
Sources
Bibliography, audiovisuals, theories, discoveries, beliefs, internet
Idea
An idea represents the closest approach to reality that will be researched
There are lots of different resources that generate ideas
In the beginning ideas are vague. They require careful analysis in order to transform into structured and precise research statements
2. Choosing a research topic Choosing a research topic
Criteria
Clarity
Data recollection
Needed elements
Viability
Justification
Research questions
Objectives
Research topic Once the researcher got acquainted
and familiar with the topic then it is possible to setup the research topic.
There is certain criteria that is needed in order to narrow down the general topic into the “just-right” (research) topic. Has to be straight forward, usually as a
question Should be viable and verifiable by
empirical proof For example, “how sublime is a person’s
soul?” is not a good research topic since sublime is not something that is measurable, neither is a person’s soul.
Research topic There are also some elements that
should be taken into consideration in order to choose a research topic. Objectives: guidelines for the research
What is the main purpose for the research? Solve problem Prove a theory Introduce new knowledge
Research topic Questions: together with the
objectives, creating questions will present the topic in a direct manner, minimizing the distortion. The question or questions might not deal
with the topic in its entirety, but they will also help guide the research.
Questions should be concrete, since general questions will not help. Questions like: why are some people happier
than others? Why do some marriages last more than others? How does media relate to people’s voting?
This questions are too general and actually end up generating more questions
Research topic Justification: this is the explanation for your
research, and it’s importance. Some of the reasons why a specific research
might be important: Convenience: Why is its importance? Social relevance: What benefits would come out of
it? Practical implications: Is it practical? Does it solve an
actual problem? Theoretical value
Viability: this has to do with the possibility of performing research with the resources that are available. Do you have enough money/time/people to help
you carry on the research
3.Creating an outlineOutline
Functions Hypothesis; plan out the process;
prevent mistakes
StagesDeveloping a perspective
Revising literatureExtraction and recompilation; consult; obtain; detect
TheoryCriteria
Simplicity; innovation; perspective; logically consistent; description, explanation and prediction
Function Predict; relate; systematize; explain
Creating an outline After the previous steps have been
completed it is important for the researcher to analyze and expose the theories, theoretical approaches that help with the foundation of the topic.
Usually observed as an index with titles and subtitles
It is important to know that looking over at the existent literature helps out with figuring out the best way, and more importantly, the manner in which we want to deal with our research and the topic.
Creating an outline Functions:
Helps prevent mistakes that might have been committed in previous studies or research
Leads the way into figuring out how the research should be performed.
Broadens the horizon and helps the researcher understanding the need to carry research in more depth
Helps with the establishment of a hypothesis or affirmations that need to be tested
Inspires new lines or areas of research It gives the researcher a starting point
Stages: there are two stages Literature revision (revising sources):
Making sure that the sources are trustworthy Remember back to PP presentation: Sources and
Organization Adoption of a specific theory or theoretical
perspective: When revising the literature we might find out that: There is a theory accompanied by empirical
evidence to back it up that applies to out research There are several theories that apply to our
research There are “bits and pieces” of theory with some
empirical evidence, that suggest important information for the research
There are important discoveries without a theory to back them up
There are unstudied guidelines that are vaguely related to the research.
Theory: actual knowledge that helps understand, events, situations and contextsDescribes, explains, predicts, and finally
orients the research process Criteria, to evaluate:
Able to explain, describe and predict Logical consistency Perspective: That it explains the topic
(almost) totally Innovation: Capability to generate new
discoveries Simplicity: Not required but desired in
order to easily understand it
4. Types of research
Final Purpose
Basic
Applied
Depth of objective
Exploratory
Descriptive
Explicative
Experimental
Correlational
Source
Documentary
Laboratory
Field
Time Period
Historical
Descriptive
Experimental
Nature of variables
Qualitative
Dichotomic
Politomic
Quantitative
Discrete
Continuous
http://www.mailxmail.com/curso-tesis-investigacion/tipos-investigacion-1-2
5. Establishing HypothesisHypothesis
Types
Alternative
Null
Research
Characteristics
Proving technique
Referent to reality
Relation between variables
Real situation
Precise terms
Objectives
Try and suggest theories
Lead research
Hypothesis
Guide the research Tentative explanation to researched
phenomena formulated as propositions or questions
All though most types of research require a hypothesis, in exploratory research no hypothesis is required since there is not that much information available.
They are NOT ALWAYS correct, they could be incorrect or even null.
Types of hypothesis Research:
The expected income for workers in Paraguay is between $800 and $1000 dlls.
The more physical attraction there is, the less trust
Null (work to negate a statement): The expected income for workers in Paraguay
is not between $800 and $1000 dlls. The is no relationship between physical
attraction and trust Alternative (to research or null):
Young men give more importance to physical attraction than young women
6. Research designResearch design
Non-experimentalNo variable manipulation
DesignsCausal
Descriptive
Exploratory
ExperimentalVariable manipulation
Quasi-experimentalIntact groups
Designs/experimentsIntentional manipulation
Measure effect, Control and validity
Proof/post-proof
What is research design? The plan or strategy that we will
follow in order to obtain the information that we want, or require.
Usually this is selected when you choose your specific topic, decided on a theoretical view, and formulated the hypothesis.
Choosing and appropriate research design Experimental (require a specific design, and are
used mostly in natural sciences):In these designs the researcher decides on what variables
to study and how to modify them Experiment: random choice of participants, and their
assignment to their study groups Quasi-experiment: not entirely random
Non-experimental (used mostly in social sciences):
In these designs the researcher does not manipulate the variables, but only “observes” phenomena as it happens in its natural environment Causal: relate two variables Exploratory: initial exploration of a community Descriptive: research the repetitiveness of a certain
variable in a population
7. Sample selectionPopulation
Characteristics
Size
Choose sample
Probabilistic
Randomly selected
Stratified
Non-probabilistic
Quota
Purposive
Convenience
7. Sample selection Sample:
Set of elements that come from a bigger set (population).
We study this set in order to know the characteristics of the bigger set.
Why use a sample instead of the population? Because the population requires a
detailed study, and all though the sample only allows an approximate result it is less costly in money and time.
Population
sample
Study of Population Study of Sample• Exact Knowledge• Requires much time
• High Cost
• Approximate Knowledge• Quick• Cheaper
Sampling is important because…
It is cheaper, faster and still representative
In order to start sampling we need to specify the selection method and the type of sample
Probability sampling
Random Sample: Each individual has an equal likelihood of selection
Stratified Sample: Mini-reproduction of the population Split into characteristics of importance
Examples: Gender, social class, religion, etc. i.e. if 38% of the population is college educated, then
38% of the sample needs to be better educated It is better than the random sample, but it is more
difficult to construct
Non-Probability sampling Quota Sample:
the researcher deliberately sets the proportions of levels or strata within the sample. This is generally done to insure the inclusion of a particular segment of the population. The proportions may or may not differ dramatically from the actual proportion in the population.
Example: A researcher is interested in the attitudes of members of different religions towards the death penalty. In Iowa a random sample might miss Muslims (because there are not many in that state). To be sure of their inclusion, a researcher could set a quota of 3% Muslim for the sample. However, the sample will no longer be representative of the actual proportions in the population. This may limit generalizing to the state population. But the quota will guarantee that the views of Muslims are represented in the survey.
Non-Probability sampling Purposive Sample:
non-representative subset of some larger population, and is constructed to serve a very specific need or purpose. A researcher may have a specific group in mind, such as high level business executives. It may not be possible to specify the population -- they would not all be known, and access will be difficult. The researcher will attempt to zero in on the target group, interviewing whomever is available.
Example: Snowball sample. One person tells another about the survey, and this person another, and this one another, etc.
Non-Probability sampling
Convenience Sample: taking what you can get. It is an accidental
sample. Although selection may be unguided, it probably is not random, using the correct definition of everyone in the population having an equal chance of being selected. Volunteers would constitute a convenience sample.
Now……that we have selected the sample
What does it mean to select a specific number for the sample?
Which proportion of the population are we selecting?
And when we want to have conclusions about the population, how many of the elements of the population does each one of the sample elements represent?
Size of sample
sample
Small (<25)
Big (>25)
8. Collecting dataData recollection
Trustworthy and valid
Process1. Choose instrument 2. Apply 3.
Coding 4. Prepare analysis
Instruments Focus groups, interviews, observation, surveys and
questionnaires, scale of values
Collecting data: Instruments Scale of values:
Collecting data: Instruments Questionnaires:
Two types: open and closed questions Examples:
Are you currently studying in any type of program?
( ) yes ( ) no In your own point of view, how do you
define physical fitness?
Characteristics of a good question Clear and easily comprehensible Do not make the person
uncomfortable Do not induce answer Appropriate language
No set length Suggestion: Nothing that takes
longer than 35 min. to answer
Best size for the questionnaire