Research Proposal, Methodology and Scientific Writing

Basic steps of a Research Unit- 5

Sushila C. NepaliSeptember 2012

Contents

1. Identification of research problems2. Conceptual Framework3. Basic format of a research report4. Preparing Research Design eg. Conducting

social research.

Proposal Table of Content

1. Summary2. Introduction to the topic Issues, what,, Objectives overall and specific Limitations3. Problem justification4. Literature Review5. Details Research Plan Study area description Methodology Methods6. Work plan7. Budget8. References

Identification of Research Problem

Two types of Research Problems

Relating to states of nature Relate to relationships between variables

One needs to formulate research problem (based on a problem, to achieve some objectives, meet objectives by using alternatives, to clear doubts, to mitigate the limiting factors)

Can be done through generalizing a problem statement- initial field study Understand the nature of the problem Search through literature reviews Rephrase it in analytical point of view-

Escalation of conflict or civil strife

Change in Threats Changes in planning, input, decision making, outputsEffects on illegal tradesEffects on community management

PA Management Effectiveness

Local livelihoods

Conservation of PA

Figure: Relationships between conservation efforts of PA and local livelihood having an impact from escalating conflict

(N- natural capital assets; S = social capital assets; P = political capital assets; H = human capital assets; F = financial capital assets; Ph = physical capital assets.)

What is Scientific Research?

Provides new knowledge (novel)

Uses recognized methods for data collection and interpretation (reliable and redoable)

Work that:

Word of Advice:

Don’t believe all what you read!

Many errors are printed,many mistakes repeated

(particularly by students)

Go to the original source—get it right!

THESIS: Quantitative data Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

DedicationAcknowledgementContentsList of FiguresList of Tables

OptionalNormalNecessaryOptionalOptional

Recommendations Optional

Approach or Methodology

THESIS: Qualitative Data Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Chapter A) (Chapter B) Conclusion References Appendices

Tell your story!

Examples:Social Qualities and Natural HazardsTraditional ValuesReactions to ChangeLong-term Opportunities

Layoutof an”ArticleThesis”

Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review

References Article

Appendices

TitleIntroduction(Materials and)

MethodsResults and DiscussionConclusionReferences

Send to publisher

THESIS: Organizing information Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion

IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion

IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion

IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion

Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review ((Materials and)) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

Each chapter is unique!

IntroductionLiterature ReviewMethodologyResults and Discussion

Common error: Chapter contains ...

Organizing information Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

Present and discussonly your own data …

… don’t mix in other information …

Organizing information: IllustrationExample: Results and Discussion chapter

Methods

Literature Review

Do not insert pieces of literature review*

and methods

Organizing information

Keep in mind:

• You have collected data, and now you are back to tell us what you found.

• You are not writing a textbook!

THESIS (quantitative) Title Abstract Introduction Literature Review (Materials and) Methods (Methodology) Results and Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

TITLE

Short Keywords Express problem and scope No fillers, jargon or unnecessary words No justification (?)

TITLE

Short (max. 12 words) Keywords Express problem and scope No fillers, jargon or unnecessary words No justification (?)

High Proportion of Keywords

”A study of the impact of tube wells on

farm households in the Maha Oya-

Padiyatalawa (Ampara District) in the dry

zone of Sri Lanka”

Example 1:

Find the essential words (problem and scope)

Keywords Index

”A study of the impact of tube wells on

farm households in the Maha Oya-

Padiyatalawa (Ampara District) in the dry

zone of Sri Lanka”

Keyword index: 9/25 = 0.36

Example 1:

Keywords

“Floristic composition of summer habitats and

dietary relationships between Tibetan argali (Ovis

ammon hodgsonii), naur (Pseudois nayaur) and

domestic goat (Capra hircus) in the Damodar Kunda

region of Upper Mustang in Nepal Himalaya.”

Keyword index: 14/32 = 0.44

Example 2: Can the title be simplified?

Fewer Words — More Keywords:

“Dietary composition of summer habitats for

Tibetan argali, naur and domestic goat,

Damodar Kunda, Nepal”

Keyword index: 12/15 = 0.80

Keywords: Diffuse or Specific?Keywords should be as specific as possible

Examples:

Impacts of agricultural diversification on the environment

Impacts of cotton cultivation on soil erosion

PROBLEM AND SCOPE:

“Floristic composition of summer habitats and

dietary relationships between Tibetan argali (Ovis

ammon hodgsonii), naur (Pseudois nayaur) and

domestic goat (Capra hircus) in the Damodar Kunda

region of Upper Mustang in Nepal Himalaya.”

Example 1:

PROBLEM AND SCOPE:

”Groundwater Management in Northwest Syria: The

case of Jabal Al Hoss.”

Example 2:

”Groundwater Management in Jabal Al Hoss,

Northwest Syria”

FILLERS AND JARGON:

”Management of natural resources: An

assessment of the forest conservation

program conducted by the Annapurna

Conservation Area Project in Ghandruk VDC,

Nepal”

Example:

ABSTRACT

In scientific writing ...

Conclusion is a ...Summary of findings (results and discussion)

Abstract is a ...Summary of entire publication (introduction, materials and methods, results and discussion and conclusions)

The abstract ...

• Must only contain information that is presented in the paper

• Commonly 150-350 words• No literature review or references• The last thing you write

Rationale Amelioration of subsoil acidity requires an increase in calcium status along with a decrease in alu-

minum status in the subsoil.

Objective In this study, effects of phosphogypsum (PG) on the amelioration of

subsoil acidity have been evaluated using cultivated and woodland subsoils representing Cecil,

Wedowee and Bladen soil series.

Methods Subsoil samples were collected and treated with either PG, cal-

cium nitrate or magnesium nitrate along with an unamended control treatment. A fertile topsoil

amended with ammonium nitrate was placed on top of all treated subsoils.

Results Top and root growth of

alfalfa and soybean were significantly greater in PG-amended than in unamended pots of the Cecil

and Wedowee soils, although most growth was observed with the calcium nitrate amended treat-

ment. In the Bladen soil, however, none of the amendments evoked a significant growth response

in either alfalfa or soybean. The concentration of Ca in the displaced soil solution (in soils with no

plants) as well as tissue levels of calcium suggest that the growth response was partly due to an

improved calcium availability in both PG and calcium nitrate treated soils. Exchangeable alumi-

num decreased in PG-amended soils. The self-liming effect of PG, which is a release of hydroxyl

due to ligand exchange between sulfate and hydroxide, as well as a decrease in exchangeable alu-

minum in PG-amended soil is greater in the predominantly kaolinitic Cecil and Wedowee soils than

in the smectitic Bladen soil.

Conclusion As a result, significant growth response to PG a mendment was

observed in the Cecil and Wadowee soils but not in the Bladen soil.

Structure of an Abstract (exploded)

Amelioration of subsoil acidity requires an increase in calcium status along with a decrease in aluminum status in the subsoil. In this study, effects of phosphogypsum (PG) on the amelioration of subsoil acidity have been evaluated using cultivated and woodland subsoils representing Cecil, Wedowee and Bladen soil series. Subsoil samples were collected and treated with either PG, calcium nitrate or magnesium nitrate along with an unamended control treatment. A fertile topsoil amended with ammonium nitrate was placed on top of all treated subsoils. Top and root growth of alfalfa and soybean were significantly greater in PG-amended than in unamended pots of the Cecil and Wedowee soils, although most growth was observed with the calcium nitrate amended treatment. In the Bladen soil, however, none of the amend-ments evoked a significant growth response in either alfalfa or soybean. The con-centration of Ca in the displaced soil solution (in soils with no plants) as well as tissue levels of calcium suggest that the growth response was partly due to an im-proved calcium availability in both PG and calcium nitrate treated soils. Exchange-able aluminum decreased in PG-amended soils. The self-liming effect of PG, which is a release of hydroxyl due to ligand exchange between sulfate and hydroxide, as well as a decrease in exchangeable aluminum in PG-amended soil is greater in the predominantly kaolinitic Cecil and Wedowee soils than in the smectitic Bladen soil. As a result, significant growth response to PG amendment was observed in the Cecil and Wadowee soils but not in the Bladen soil.

Structure of an Abstract (condensed)

(253 words)

INTRODUCTION

You will most likely use the introduction that you wrote for your proposal.

Warning:You may have changed your focus somewhat since you wrote the proposal. Go through the introduction again to make sure that it hits the subject of your thesis accurately.

INTRODUCTION

Ask yourself:

Introduction to what?

Introduction to:

1. The issue

2. Present knowledge (briefly)

3. Remaining questions

4. My work (objectives)

Chapter 2

Introduction: The Problem

Social problem ?

Technical problem ?

Chapter 2

Implementationproject

No research needed (?)

Knowledge problem ? Research project

Introduction: The ProblemChapter 2

Research needs

Socio-technical problem

Knowledge gapResearch needs

Socio-technical problem

Knowledge and knowledge gap

Intro. to an implementation project Intro. to a research project

Socio-technical problem

Introduction

1. The issue

2. Present knowledge

3. Remaining questions

4. My work (objectives)

Chapter 2

First sentence

Common Flaws in Introductions

Intro

Introduction to a situation (or condition)— should rather introduce a knowledge gap (i.e., research problem)

Too general Lots of statistical information Starts out with an issue different from

the title Too long Boring Too much ”ain’t it awful”

Logical FlowIntro

Go straight to your research topic (see title)

Give the reader an overview of the present knowledge and recent research

Point out missing or insufficient knowledge

Describe your objectives

ObjectivesIntro

• State objectives in a way that facilitates the test question: ”Have I reached my objectives?”

Even better objective:Description of a tangible object

Intro

Objective: ”Develop a tested model”

Test question: Have we developed a tested model?

Common mistakes in objective statements

Intro

• Diffuse• Process instead of product• Too many objectives• Some ’objectives’ are methods• Some are intermediate objectives

LITERATURE REVIEW

Should have been written as part of your proposal

Contains ONLY published information

Not a single word about your own study in this chapter, please

Chapter 3

NOT A SINGLE WORD ABOUT YOUR OWN STUDY IN THIS CHAPTER, PLEASE

Move from the global to the local; from the general to the specific

Describe what is known about the topic you have studied; what have people found elsewhere?

Common mistakes: Too general Lack international perspectives Plagiarism

LITERATURE REVIEW

Next slide

Local / Global Perspectives –Number of Potential Readers

Local

National

Regional

Continental

Global

Few readers

Many readers

USE OF REFERENCE

Three reasons for using references:

• To substantiate facts

• To describe what others think

• To substantiate your own views

Straight-forward

Watch out!

Attention needed!

References

Use references to ...

• support questionable statements

• give credit to the holder of intellectual

property rights

References

• Do NOT use references to support generally known facts, e.g., ”Earth is round”; ”Uganda is located between latitude 1 °S and 4 °N”.

• Do NOT add references just to obtain a long reference list

• Do NOT use references just to show that you have read lots of books and papers

What can I refer to?

• To the opinion of a colleague?

• To a newspaper article?

• To an internal report?

• To an obscure report filed in a small library?

• To a textbook?

• To a published review article?

• To a published research article?

References & Ethics

• Refer to original authors, NOT to secondary or tertiary authors (review publications). Give credit to those who deserve it.

• Refer to proven statements, i.e., statements supported by original evidence -- not unsubstantiated statements

• Refer to what is scientifically SOLID!

References in TextWhat did the referred author actually state?

Example of common misuse of references:

”The low concetrations of nitrogen found in the soil samples (< 0.1 %) could be due to insuffi-cient application of fertilizer or manure or due to leaching loss (Smith, 1995).”

Smith (1995) could not have made a statement to this effect since your data were not available in 1995.

Solution?

(cf. Smith, 1995).”

Methodology/Approach/Procedure

Definition of methodology (HyperDictionary):

1. The system of methods followed in a particular discipline

2. The branch of philosophy that analyzes the principles and procedures of inquiry in a particular discipline

(Chapter 4)

(Materials and) Methods

Purpose: To let people know how you did itWhy? Others must be able to do it over

again and check your results Quality: Short and concise; use references if

possible (example?) No discussion of methods, only description of

method and possibly reason for choice Write in past tense

Chapter 4

Philosophical stance

Strategy or plan of action how

Techniques and process

Knowledge- what and how we know

(Materials and) Methods

1. Insufficient details2. Irrelevant information included3. Unused survey data

Chapter 4

Common problems:

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

or

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Chapter 5

Chapter 6

Chapter 5

Chapter 5 Results

Chapter 6 Discussion

Chapter 5 Results and Discussion

”Objective”

”Subjective”

”Objective”

”Subjective”

”Subjective”

”Objective”

”Subjective”

”Objective”

RESULTS

Present your observations objectively

Do not interpret data at this stage

Use a writing style that underscores the impression of observation

Use past tense

RESULTS

Common error: A short literature review as an introduction to the Result chapter (a second introduction to the topic)

Correct: Give an introduction to your results

RESULTSDo not show data in more than on way:

Variable Categories Frequency

Percentage

Gender Male 4 57.1

Female 3 42.9

Occupation Farmer/trader 4 57.1

Farmer/labourer/trader

3 42.9

Education No formal school 4 57.1

Primary school 2 28.6

Secondary school 1 14.3

Same data

DISCUSSION

In this chapter you discuss your data:

How do you interpret them?What do they tell us? How do they compare to other studies?

What are their implications?What are their weaknesses?What can you conclude?

Do not describe!

DISCUSSION

Common mistakes (I):

Presenting results from other studies(what is old, what is new?)

Discussing issues that are not included in your title or objectives (out of scope)

Describing facts that you already know but not supported by the present data

Continues

DISCUSSION

Common mistakes (II):

Using results to verify textbook knowledge(common problem among beginners)

Reversed interpretation: Using textbook knowledge to interpret nonconclusive data

Under-analyzing dataNext: Illustration

WRITING STYLE

LAYOUT• Does IOF standard tool (?)• Headings

Do not use period (e.g., Introduction.)Do not use colon (e.g., Introduction:)Do not use more that three-digit index number

(e.g., ”2.1.3 Role of Women”)• Page Setup

A4 (not ”A4 Small”)• Page margin (?)

Top and bottom: 3 cm (1.25 inch)Left 3 cm (1.25 inch) and right: 2.5 cm (1 inch)

• FontTimes or Times New Roman (same for headings and text)11 or 12 point

First step: Decide what you want to tell the reader

(avoid the mental trap: ”I have to write a thesis”)

Second step:Explain

Third step:Trim your language

(remove all verbiage)

Three Basic Steps in Writing

’Results and Discussion’ is the core:

Results and Discussion

Conclusion

Introduction

Keep It Simple!”If you understand something,

you can explain it in simple terms”

Wordy Phrases

In the light of the fact thatBecause (not “since”)

Owing to the fact thatBecause

In the event thatIf

In the vicinity of Near

Simple VerbsSimple verbs are more powerful than complex:Perform an investigation

InvestigateMake a decision DecideTake into consideration

ConsiderMake an adjustment AdjustPerform an analysis AnalyzeReach a conclusion Conclude

Use Simple and Concise PhrasesExamplesVerbose

’The demand pressure on available water resources’

Concise

’The demand for water’

Verbose

’Subject matter specialist’

Concise

’Specialist’

(nutrition specialist)

WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?

Plagiarism is the act of copying text or ideas from others and presenting them as one’s own. Authors have ‘intellectual property right’ to their ideas and texts.

Copying text and pasting it into one’s own work is, therefore, considered theft. And theft, of course, is unethical and unacceptable. Suspected plagiarism linked to

course assignments, term papers or exam papers will be reported by the relevant departments to the University Board. The University Board will make a decision and

determine appropriate reactions regarding the student.

Some students don’t realize that they commit plagiarism. Hence, they plagiarise in good faith. The following examples will teach you how you should cite your

references correctly and avoid the crime. If you still have questions after reading the text below, please contact your academic adviser or study coordinator

immediately for clarification. At a university, lack of awareness is no excuse for plagiarism.

How do we know if its plagiarism or notText Based on Other Authors’ Knowledge and Experience Consider an original text by Werner (1993: 12)[1]: The results of many rural development projects aiming to improve the living

standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.

1. You plagiarise Werner if you—based on this text—write: The results of many rural development projects aiming to improve the living

standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.

Why? Because (1) you copy the text without enclosing it in quotation marks, and (2) you give no credit to the creator of the sentence (no reference).

2. You plagiarise if you write: According to Werner (1993: 12), the results of many rural development projects

aiming to improve the living standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.

Why? Because you copy the text written by Warner without enclosing it in quotation marks. By not using quotation marks, you falsely indicate that you have formulated Werner’s message using your own words.

[1] Werner, J. 1993. Participatory development of agricultural innovations - Procedures and methods of on-farm research. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (DTZ) GmbH and SDC, Swiss Development Cooperation. TZ-Verlagsgesellschaft mbH, Rossdorf, Germany.

You do not plagiarise if you write

“The results of many rural development projects aiming to improve the living standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor” (Werner, 1993).

or According to Werner (1993), “the results of many rural development projects

aiming to improve the living standards of the rural population in developing countries have often been disappointingly poor.”

Why? Because (1) you indicate that you present Werner’s idea by providing reference, and (2) you show that you present Werner’s idea in his own words by enclosing the text in quotation marks.

Or The success rate of rural development projects in developing countries has

generally been low. Attempts to raise the standard of living among rural poor have to a large extent not had the anticipated effects (Werner, 1993).

Why? Because (1) the statement is you own; you are the creator of sentence, and (2) you provide reference for the information on which you base your statement.