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8/23/2019 Resettling Displaced People in a Coastal Zone Mining Project Evaluating the Agricultural and Land use Potential of
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Resettling Displace
Evaluating the A
Proposed Resettleme
Heme1. Department of Agricultural
195-80108 Kilifi, Kenya2. Department of Environme
University of Mombasa, P.3. Kenya Agricultural Resear*Email of Corresponding Auth
This research was financed by TiSamuel Bibuzi from KARI, Mtwap
Abstract
Preparations to mine titanium in Maand farmers affected by the projeccondition that they should be settleis availed for social infrastructure.South, and between longitudes 390 1It receives an annual rainfall of 1,2the land is low-lying and 50% ofallocation process, fearing aboutdisintegration of existing socio-cult
proposed resettlement site was eval
livelihoods of the communities. Thpotassium, and organic carbon contorganic fertilizers should be used fmatter levels in the soil. Drainagetopography of the resettlement site,other social infrastructure as demandisplacement.Key words: Titanium Mining, Disp
1.0 Introduction
The Kwale County is one of the sixIt borders Kilifi and Mombasa coun
the Indian Ocean in the East. The(CL) zones 2-6. The first three Athe hinterland (Jaetzold and Schmiand are suitable for rain-fed agriculAEZs. The last two AEZs, CL 5AEZs are found deep in the hinterreceiving less than 800 mm annuallrange from 24.3 to 27.5 0C.
The Maumba/Noma area of Msambare rich in titanium, and the GovernKiruku hills, and Ramisi River (KirAEZs CL2 and CL3 (the Lowland
is described as warm and humid1,200-1,400 mm and has two croppwhile the second season (short rain
cience-0948 (Online)
152
d People in a Coastal Zone Min
gricultural and Land use Poten
nt site A Case of Titanium Mi
i Mkuzi1, Saeed Mwaguni2*and Kengo Danda3Sciences, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Pwa
t and Health Sciences, Faculty of Pure and Applied S. Box 90420-80100 Mombasa, Kenya
h Institute, Mtwapa, P.O. Box 16 Kikambala, Kilifir: [email protected] Inc. Kenya Limited. The contribution of Mofor the field work in this research are also acknowled
umba and Noma areas of Msambweni District, Kwalet are to be resettled in another area. The displaced
in area where their farming activities are enhanced;he identified site for resettlement site lies between lat6 and 390 20 East, and extends from Kiruku and M0-1,400 mm and is therefore suitable for rain-fed agrthis is prone to flooding. Both communities are
he quality and size of the land to be allocated tral structures. As good practise in integrated coastalated to assess its suitability for crop and livestock p
results of the evaluation show evidence of soil; theents in the soils were generally low. To reverse ther crop and forage production to encourage build upcanals should be reconstructed to control flooding.the portion on raised ground should be set aside fo
ded is be availed so that the communities continue wi
acement of Communities, Resettlement
counties in the Kenya Coast. It is located in the Souties in the North, Taita Taveta County in the West, Ta
county is divided into five agro-ecological zones (AZs, CL 2-4, are the dominant zones and extend about, 1983). These AEZs usually receive an annual r
ture. Average temperatures of 24-26.6 0C are experand 6, form the Livestock-Millet and Ranching zoneland and form the semi-arid and arid zones of they. The average temperatures of the arid and semi-a
weni District of the Kwale County was found to havment planned to evict and resettle the people in an aku/Mwangwei/ Kigombero area). The proposed resetugarcane Zone and the Coconut-Cassava Zone, resp
(Nyandat and Oswago, 1970). The area receivesing seasons per year. The first season (long rains) ss) begins in October. About 75% of the annual rai
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ing Project:
ial of the
ing in Kenya
i University, P.O. Box
iences, Technical
hamed Mzingirwa andged.
County are in progress,people have made it aand that adequate landitudes 40 28 and 40 32angwei to Kigombero.
iculture. About 75% oforried about the landeach, and the likely
zone management, theoduction to sustain the
nitrogen, phosphorous,ituation, inorganic andof nutrient and organicDue to the low lying
r the homesteads. Andth their life, despite the
ern part of the country.zania in the South, and
Zs); Coastal Lowlands35 km from the sea to
infall of over 800 mmenced in the first threes, respectively. TheseKwale County, usuallyid zones of the district
e underlying rocks thatea between Mrima andtlement site falls withinctively). The climate
an annual rainfall oftarts in March or Aprilfall is received during
8/23/2019 Resettling Displaced People in a Coastal Zone Mining Project Evaluating the Agricultural and Land use Potential of
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
the long rains season.
According to Jaetzold and Schmidt
1. Food crops: Maize, cassava2. Cash crops: Sugarcane, co
pawpaw, guava, pineapple,pumpkin, melons, cucumber,
3. Forages: Napier grass, and leIn preparation for the resettlementarea to assess the suitability of the r
The specific objectives were to:
Describe the climate of the reg Undertake a broad scale recon Evaluate the land capability o
for agricultural production and
Identify suitable crops, bearineconomic considerations suc
production of cash crops, inclu
Identify the major impacts that Identify and assess any signi
intensive occupation of the lan
Provide recommendations onpotential of the area.
2.0 Methodology
A multi-disciplinary team was con(Team Leader), a chemist, an agron
conducted in the following four stag1. Acquisition of secondary i2. Field work:
a. General observation ofb. Digging soil profile pitsc. Field survey to intervie
3. Laboratory analysis of soil2.1 Secondary information
The sources of secondary informatiDevelopment: Analysis and Policy,
resettlement site. Other sources ocovering Ramisi, Mrima and Kikoduring the field work:
1. Map sheet 200 and 201 (App2. Map sheet 202 (Appendix 1b
2.2 General observation
A transect was identified, running Eused to determine the position of thto determine the position of the ssettlement, infrastructure, and presidentified transect, the team drove
and the current settlers.
cience-0948 (Online)
153
1983), the area is suitable for growing the following
, cowpea, dolichos bean, green grams
conut, mango, citrus, cashewnut, banana, bixa, a
roundnut, sunflower, soy bean, simsim, vegetablesgarlic, okra, egg plant, brinjals, tomato, onion, kale, a
ume supplements (sirtro, centro, and Leucaena)
process, an evaluation was conducted in the Kiruku/settlement site for certain crop and livestock producti
ion, primarily from an agricultural perspective.
aissance soil survey of the study area.
the area at a reconnaissance level, and comment ongrazing.
in mind both climatic and edaphic constraints of thas proximity to potential markets and other co
ding tree crops.
result from present agricultural practices.
ficant impacts on the soils and land use that could by host settlers.
how to mitigate any negative impacts and how to e
tituted to carry out the evaluation. The team consomist, a socio-economist and laboratory technologist
es:formation on the resettlement site
he site
and soil sampling
: i) current settlers on the site; the farmers to be rese
and interpretation of the results
n included the Farm Management Handbook of KenPersonal communication with farmers and key info
information included reports of previous soil surveyeni, in Kwale district. The following reconnaissanc
ndix 1a to Report No. 3 Soils of the Kwale-Mombas
to Report No. 3 Soils of the Kwale-Mombasa-Lunga
ast-West from the slopes of Mrima hill to Kigomberoproposed settlement site on the world map. This e
oil profile pits. An observation was made on soent agricultural practices. In addition to makinground the proposed settlement site to gather more in
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rops and forages:
vocado, sweet potato,
(chillies, sweet pepper,nd cabbage)
Mwangwei/Kigomberoon.
he potential of the area
e landscape, as well asstraints related to the
result from the more
nhance the agricultural
isted of a soil scientist. The evaluation was
tled
a (Vol. II), Poverty andrmants at the proposed
s conducted in the areae soil maps were used
a-Lungalunga area)
lunga area)
(Plate 1). A GPS wasuipment was also used
ils, vegetation, currentobservations along theormation about the site
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
2.3 Soil profile pits
Three profiles were dug along the itypes based on physical observation
pits were on land that had grey socracking than the other. The third
of the soil profile pits is as shown in
Plate 1: Soils and positioning of p
Key:
PA1: Very deep, well drai
PA3: Very deep, moderatloamy sand texture.
PA4: Very deep, moderat
sandy clay texture.
PA7: Very deep, imperfetexture. In some pl
USmr Very deep, well drtexture.
Boundary of the res
Transect
Soil profile pit
SOIL MAP FOR THE
cience-0948 (Online)
154
entified transect (Plate 1). The profile pits were locas made on the soil and information on soil maps for tils but one of these was located in an area with strprofile pit was dug on land that had red soils. The
Table 1.
rofile pits in the resettlement site
ed soils with reddish yellow to white colour and san
ly to imperfectly drained soils with light grey to yelThere is evidence of mottling in the sub-soil.
ly to imperfectly drained soils with brown to grey co
These soils are mottled.
tly to poorly drained soils with brownish grey toaces, cracking is evident.
ined soils with red to dark red colour and sandy cl
ttlement site
ESETTLEMENT SITE - KIRUKU/MWANG
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ed within different soilhe area. The first twoonger evidence of soilgeographic positioning
to loamy sand texture.
low colour and sand to
lour and sandy loam to
rown colour and clay
ay loam to sandy clay
EI AREA
8/23/2019 Resettling Displaced People in a Coastal Zone Mining Project Evaluating the Agricultural and Land use Potential of
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Table 1:
Soil profile No. Altitude
(m asl)
1 35.0 4
2 29.5 4
3 81.5 4
Metres above sea level
Five soil samples were taken withi
0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80, and 80chemical soil properties with depth.and 20-40 cm, surrounding each psamples were therefore taken from t
2.4 Field survey
The specific objectives of the surve
(i) To characterise farmers and tareas.
(ii) To establish the farmers percep(iii) To solicit suggestions from the
that will enhance success of thData was collected through persontotal of 23 respondents were interv
interviewed in the Maumba/Nomacleaned and analysed using the Sta
frequencies a
2.5 Laboratory analysis
The samples were air-dried and grofor: nitrogen, phosphorous, potassiCritical levels of nutrients describedsufficient or inadequate for crop and
3.0 Results
3.1 General observation
The proposed resettlement site lies b390 20 East. The altitude of thedifferent types of vegetation, inclushrubs and palms (mikoma), and nathe Mombasa-Lungalunga road.
About 75% of the land is low-lyinused for sugarcane growing by thfactory to remove excess water frThere was evidence of an elaborate
but most of the roads were impassa
washed away by flood water. Thresettlement site.
cience-0948 (Online)
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Positioning of soil profile pits in the proposed settlem
atitude Longitude Remarks
0
30.024 S 390
16.700 E There was evidenrecent past.
0 30.078 S 390 17.568 E Land covered by
burnt recently. T
remained uncultiv0 30.574 S 390 19.887 E Land covered by
burnt recently. Th
recent cultivation.
each profile pit; one sample was taken from each o
-100 cm. These samples were used to assess va. Ten more soil samples were taken from five posiofile pit to assess spatial variability in the surface
he proposed settlement site.
were:
e farming systems in Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombe
tions to the resettlement initiative.
affected communities on what they would consider
resettlement process.al interviews with the aid of a structured formal questewed in the Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero area whilrea. Data was then coded and entered into an Exceltistical Analysis System (SAS Inst., 1990) software.nd cross-tabulations were generated for interpretation.
nd to pass a 2 mm sieve. Sub-samples of about 25m, calcium, magnesium, organic carbon, pH, and paby Okalebo et. al. (2002) were used to determine whfodder production.
etween latitudes 40 28 and 40 32 South, and betweerea ranges from 25 m to 85 m above sea level. T
ding natural grass (mainly Panicum spp), bushes cural forests. The natural forests were mainly found
and 50% of this is prone to flooding. The low-lyiRamisi Sugar Factory. Most of the drainage ca
m the fields have since collapsed due to neglect bnetwork of murrum roads that had been constructed ble because either they have been overgrown by bush
re were only two primary schools and no health fa
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ent area
e of cultivation in the
grass that had been
e land seems to have
ted for some time.
bush that had been
re was no evidence of
f the following depths:
iation in physical andions, at depths of 0-20soil. A total of 45 soil
o and Maumba/Noma
s workable approaches
ionnaire (Annex 1). Ae 29 respondents werefile. This data was thenDescriptive statistics,
.
0 g were then analyzedticle size (i.e. texture).
ether the nutrients were
longitudes 390 16 ande site was covered bynsisting of mixture of
around Mvumoni along
g land was previouslyals constructed by they the host community.y the sugarcane factoryes or culverts had been
cilities at the proposed
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
Population at the proposed settlemecarried out farming activities bothfound in the low lying area. Therelying on cassava, maize and rice
produce from the trees was the far
as well as keep livestock. UncultivaThe farmers use traditional agricult
burning of grass and bushes for easto severe destruction of the environimpact. Bare soil is prone to lossinterferes with the infiltration of ware usually destroyed by burning.
plant nutrients from such material.
3.2 Soil characteristics
3.2.1 General observation
The soils showed colour variationswas either yellow or red. The soilstherefore be prepared by tractoraggregates in pits 1 and 2 showedeep-rooted crops such as the cococm.
When attempts were made to dig prThis was clear evidence of a sObservations made at the nearestsurface.
3.2.2 Physical and chemical an
Laboratory results showed that thetexture of the underlying soil horizo
lower clay content but higher levelsoils organic carbon content wasorganic carbon), influences a numbematter (SOM) improves water holdSOM in cultivated soils (caused bmeasure of the extent of chemicalmatter of necessity, have to ensure band by continued application of oorganic matter content of the soil wthe other benefits mentioned aboveand, therefore, improve the soils ch
Table 2:
Soil depth (cm)
0-20
20-40 Sa
40-60 Sa
60-80 Sa
80-100 Sa
The soils around profile 1 had a san52-77% and 68-86%, respectively.a better water holding capacity than
profile pits 2 and 3 are therefore likthan the former. A short dry spell
cience-0948 (Online)
156
t site was sparse. The residents had their homesteaaround their homes and in the low-lying areas.communities residing in the area mainly consisted
for food. Tree crops were concentrated around theers source of cash. The farmers practice mixed fa
ed land is usually used for communal grazing.ral practices, with no regard to environmental conceof land preparation or to encourage fresh growth of
ment. Soil left bare is exposed to climatic forces suchrough wind erosion, while raindrop impact causester into the soil profile. Soil organisms (important cThis interferes with organic matter breakdown an
own the profiles. While the top soil was grey or broare very deep and there were no rock outcrops in the
or animal-drawn implements without problem. Thevidence of well aerated profiles. The deep soil
nut and cashew nut. Grass roots were observed up
file pits 1 and 2 beyond one metre, moisture in the sallow water table around the area where the sell showed that the water surface in the well was ab
alysis
soils at the proposed settlement site have sandy suns varies from sandy loam to clay loam. As expect
s of organic carbon than those of the underlying homuch lower than adequate. Soil organic matter (r of physical and chemical processes in the soil. Aning capacity and the ease with which soils release ny practices such as burning or removal of crop reand physical soil degradation. Farmers in the reseuild up of organic matter in the soil by stopping the brganic fertilizers (animal manures) on their farms.ll lead to improved soil structure (better aggregate fo. Mineralization of the organic matter will contribemical fertility.
Soil texture by depth within the profile
Soil profile
1 2
Sand Sandy loam
ndy loam Clay loam
ndy loam Clay loam
ndy loam Clay loam
ndy loam Clay loam
content of 44-94% while those around profiles 2 anSoils with relatively high clay (and high SOM) contthose with relatively high sand (and low SOM) con
ly to hold more water than those around pit 1. Theis therefore more likely to cause wilting in maiz
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ds on raised ground butfew homesteads were
of subsistence farmers,omesteads and sale ofming: they grow crops
ns. Such practices asnatural pastures has ledh as wind and raindrop
soil capping and thusomponents of soil life), hence, the release of
wn, the underlying soilentire area. Land cane arrangement of soilprofiles are suited forto a depth of about 60
il increased drastically.il profiles were dug.ut 1.8 m from the soil
rfaces (Table 2). Thed, the surface soils had
rizons (Table 3). Themeasured indirectly asincrease in soil organicutrients. A decline insidues) is an effectivettlement site will, as arning of plant material
An improvement inrmation), in addition tote nitrogen to the soil
3
Loamy sand
Sandy clay loam
Sandy clay loam
Sandy clay loam
Sandy clay loam
3 had sand contents ofents are known to haveent. The soils around
latter will dry up fastere grown on soils with
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
properties similar to those of profile
Table 3:
Soil depth
(cm)
Profile 1
% Organic C
0-20 0.43 (vl)
20-40 0.42 (vl)
40-60 0.17 (vl)
60-80 0.18 (vl)
80-100 0.14 (vl)
Key: L = low; vl = very low
Soils at the proposed settlement sithree major nutrients were belowsignifying low soil fertility. The slevel in the top 40 cm (Table 4). Stop 40 cm. The top 30-40 cm ofeeder-roots of some tree crops suchave a negative impact on crop alivestock. Under situations as thooption but to supplement the soil nu
Table 4: The soils nit
Soil depth
(cm)
Profile 1
N P
0-20 0.5 9.1
20-40 0.6 3.1
40-60 0.4 2.4
60-80 0.3 1.7
80-100 0.2 17.7
N < 0.5 = very low, 0.5-1.2 = low;
K < 50 = very low, 50-100 = low
Soils at the proposed settlement sit4.9-7.5 while those around profileslower range (4.9 or 5.1) tend to beits pH. The soils around profile pivery high levels of the nutrient. M
Table 5: The
Soil depth(cm)
Profile 1pH Ca
0-20 5.4 67.7
20-40 4.9 164.0
40-60 5.1 149.7
60-80 5.4 149.7
80-100 5.4 235.3
Ca < 500 = very low, 500-1000 = lo
Mg < 20 = very low, 20-40 = low, 4
3.2.3 Potential of the 5-acre p
The results of thee laboratory anaresearch in coastal lowland Kenya
cience-0948 (Online)
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1 than in maize grown on soils similar to those of pro
Soil organic carbon and clay contents
Profile 2
% Clay % Organic C % Clay % Or
6 1.09 (L) 15 0.8
16 0.20 (vl) 33 0.7
17 0.08 (vl) 32 0.4
18 0.04 (vl) 37 0.3
19 0.05 (vl) 36 0.2
e were highly variable in their chemical properties.the critical levels required for profitable productioils in the low-lying area (Profile pits 1 and 2) had v
oils on raised ground (Profile pit 3) had low to moderf soil forms the layer mostly exploited by roots oh as citrus. Inadequate levels of nutrients in this sd fodder production, leading to low crop yields anse shown by the soil data from the resettlement siterient levels by applying fertilizers.
rogen (g kg-1), phosphorous (mg kg-1) and potassium
Profile 2
K N P K N
11.7 0.8 4.3 37.6 1.2
8.7 0.3 0.7 66.5 0.9
10.2 0.4 0.3 63.5 0.5
8.7 0.2 0.7 75.7 0.3
10.2 0.8 0.2 80.2 0.3
P < 10.0 = very low, 10.0-20.0 = low;
had highly variable pH (Table 5). The soils aroun2 and 3 had pH of 4.9-9.1 and 5.1-6.5, respectively.
acidic and this, therefore, calls for the application ofts 1 and 3 had very low calcium levels but those arouagnesium levels ranged from low to very high.
soils pH, calcium (mg kg-1) and magnesium (mg kg-1
Profile 2Mg pH Ca Mg pH
32.3 6.1 574.0 348.8 6.5
134.9 7.9 852.2 994.8 5.3
136.0 8.1 909.2 808.2 5.4
165.4 8.4 2160.8 1127.9 5.5
209.1 9.1 3480.1 1156.3 5.1
, 1000-1600 = Moderate, 1600-2400 = high, > 2400
-80 = medium, 80-180 = high, > 180 = Very high
ots providing sufficient food for a household
lysis showed that soils in the resettlement site areas shown that optimal yields of maize grown on so
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files 2 and 3.
Profile 3
ganic C % Clay
2 (L) 12
7 (L) 29
(vl) 30
1 (vl) 30
2 (vl) 26
The levels of all then of most crops, thusry low to low nitrogen
ate nitrogen level in theannual crops and the
oil layer will therefored poor performance of, farmers will have no
(mg kg-1) content
Profile 3
P K
3.9 25.4
1.6 10.2
1.1 9.7
1.1 5.9
1.0 5.9
d profile 1 had a pH ofSoils with pH in the
lime to the soil to raisend profile 2 had low to
content
Profile 3Ca Mg
242.4 77.0
228.1 61.8
174.7 45.4
228.1 53.0
253.1 69.4
= very high;
generally poor. Pastils that are deficient in
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
phosphorous and nitrogen can be obP per acre) and 60 kg N ha-1 (24 k20:20:0 per acre (that supplies 16 k
The expected yield of maize in thebags per hectare). If the expected
resettlement site) requires 1.5 acresfarmer applying agronomic recommfollowing agricultural advice will nThe rest of the land (3-3.5 acres) ca
Other studies conducted in coastrecommended rates in combinationthat are nearly as high as those prfarmers would cut the cost of fertilioption for farmers who cannot affor
At the current soil fertility status, fThe farmers, therefore, would not bamendments. Instead, a family of
year.
3.3Results of the field survey3.3.1 Introduction and general info
Data captured from key informantfamilies whose land was surveyedof stay and peoples ethnic groupsMost (92%) of the Maumba/Noma rAgro-forestry practices were evideFarm household sizes were above tsizes of 0.49 and 1.34 acres forcommunity (in the Kiruku/Mwang
in the Maumba/Noma area were mdifferent farming experiences betresettlement site will offer opportu
productivity.
3.3.2 Water sources
The survey results showed that theuse. In the Kiruku/Mwangwei arseasons while rivers (16%), wellMaumba/Noma area. Springs acceach water source supplied water tTo sustain households water requimprove the water situation. Farm
seasons compared to 0.36 km in the
Table 6:
Variable
Mean household size
% Households < 10 years stay
% Households 10-20 years stay
% Households > 20 years stay
% Households whose members are% households dependent on farmin
cience-0948 (Online)
158
tained by applying the two major nutrients at the rateg N per acre), respectively. This can be achieved bP and 16 kg N) and 0.7 bag of CAN per acre (that su
region, when grown as recommended, is 20 bags (9maize yield is achieved, a household of 10 membe
of land to produce enough maize (30 bags) for oneendations will get at least 75% of the expected maizeed 30-40% of the 5 acres allocated to provide subsisbe used for the homestead, cash crops and other ente
al lowland Kenya showed that farmers can usewith farmyard manure and nitrogen fixing legumes
oduced by applying the full fertilizer rates. By usizer input by half from about Ksh. 4,000/= per acre.
to apply the full rates of fertilizer.
armers can only expect maize yields of about 4.5 bae able to produce adequate maize on their 5-acre far10 would require 7 acres of such poor land to meet t
rmation
within the migrating community showed that thernd 265 farm families with un-surveyed land. Farmvaried between the host and migrating communitieesidents, who were mainlyKambas, have stayed for ot in most farms; Casuarina and Eucalyptus were the district average of 7 people per household therebhe Kiruku/Mwangwei and Maumba/Noma areas, rei area) was dominated by members of the ijikend
re developed than those in the Kiruku/Mwangwei aeen the two communities. The mixing of thes
ities for sharing the valuable farming experiences fo
host and migrating communities had different sourcea, 100% of households got water from shallow wels (44%) and roof catchments (32%) were majorounted for only 8% of the water sources. In the
49 households as compared to 23 households in thirement after the resettlement process, there is ners walk for 0.87 km in Kiruku/Mwangwei to fetch w
wet season and 0.66 km in the dry season in Maumba
Household features for the two communities
Survey sit
Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero
(n = 23)
9.0
31.6
42.1
26.3
ijikendas 94.772.2
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s of 40 kg P ha-1 (16 kgy applying 1.6 bags ofplies 9 kg N).
kg each) per acre (50s (as is the case at the
year. At farm level, ayield. Thus, a farmertence to the household.rprises.
fertilizer at half theto obtain maize yieldsng such combinations,This would be a good
gs per acre (1.0 t ha-1).s without applying soilheir maize demand per
e are a total 133 farmhousehold sizes, period
as shown in Table 6.ver 20 years in the area.common tree species.giving per-capita land
espectively. The hostethnic group. Farms
ea, a clear evidence ofe communities in ther improved agricultural
s of water for domesticls in both wet and drywater sources in theiruku/Mwangwei area,e Maumba/Noma area.d for interventions toter in both wet and dry
/Noma area.
e
Maumba/Noma
(n = 29)
13.0
4.0
4.0
92.0
28.068.0
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
3.3.3 Farming systems
Farmers in both sites practised mixeof different tree/plantation crops ansize but in some cases ownershipriver-beds or swamps. Most farme
in Kiruku/Mwangwei/KigomberoFactory.
Major annual crops in the Kiruku/Mand cassava (95%). In the Maumand vegetables (57%) that includearea grew passion fruit. The annuaverage maize yields in the Kirukuacre, respectively. The mean acMaumba/Noma areas, respectively.Coast Province (Waaijenberg H.household consumption whereas innumber (36%) of farmers in the Ma
production while in the Kiruku/Mwpromising cash crop in the MKiruku/Mwangwei area, cassava wa
Crop-livestock farm level relationsof incomes generated from livestolivestock on-farm contributed to soil
Table 7:
Variable
% Households with more than one fMean farm size (acres)
Mean area under maize (acres) per
Mean no. local chicken per househo
Mean number of goats per househol
Mean number of cattle per househol
Mean h/hold monthly income (KSh.
Note: Figures in parenthesis are t
3.3.4 Constraints
Major constraints to farm liveliho
infrastructure (roads and transport fproduce), (ii) resources (clean watdiseases), and (iv) others (crop pest
poor road network, lack of public sas hospitals, schools and markets(Maumba/Noma) communities. Infarm inputs as well as transportatio
produce were critical problems thatconstraints in the Kiruku/Mwangw(Maumba/Noma). Wildlife damagcommunity with some members abmentioned, particularly regardingincluded high incidences of cropincomes and lack of job opportuniresource-poor households. Table 4
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159
d farming: they grew crops and kept livestock (Tablefood crops were observed. Most farmers had one
of more that one parcel was guided by a preferenrs in Maumba/Noma area had title deeds for their lan
rea who were squatting on land previously owned
wangwei/Kigombero area include maize (grown by 1a/Noma area, the annual crops included maize (in 6gg plant (tunguja), tomatoes and kales. About 31l crops were all produced by under smallholder syst
/Mwangwei and Maumba/Noma areas were 3 and 6reage under maize was 1 and 2 acres for the
These yield figures are in agreement with those1994). In the Kiruku/Mwangwei area all the mthe Maumba/Noma area 76% was consumed and thumba/Noma area used external inputs (fertiliser and/
ngwei area none used such inputs. Passion fruits humba/Noma area, with a ready market and hs the main food crop but some of it was sold for cash
ips were mainly in the provision of labour by draughk sales and utilisation of crop residue as feed. Tfertility improvement and therefore substituting inor
Household resource profiles a
Survey site
Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero
(n = 23)
arm 36.84.4 (1-11)
ousehold 1.0
ld 16 (0-50)
d 5 (0-50)
d 1 (0-8)
) 2,987/=
e minimum and maximum stretches for the different
ods were classified into four categories: those co
or farm produce) and public institutions (hospitals, sr, soil, income, wildlife), (iii) disease incidences (s, job opportunities and food security situation) (Tabrvice vehicles or transport for farm produce, inadequas a major concern to both the host (Kiruku/Mwangthe Maumba/Noma area, lack of transport was repo
n of farm produce to markets. Lack of farm inputneed intervention. Lack of clean water and low soi area while wildlife damage was the major proble
e on crops has led to major shifts in the cropping sndoning the growing of maize. The problem of higalaria prevalence in the Maumba/Noma area. Oth
pests and inadequate food due to poor maize harties was of concern in Kiruku/Mwangwei area andshows the rating of the livelihood constraints in the t
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7). Complex intercropsiece of land of varyinge for growing rice onas opposed to farmers
by the Ramisi Sugar
00% of the households)7% of the households)
of the farmers in thism in both areas. Thebags (90-kg bags) periruku/Mwangwei and
eported earlier for theize produced was fore rest sold dry. A fairr pesticides) for maize
d emerged to be a veryigh returns. In thegeneration.
t oxen, ploughing backe use of manure fromanic fertilisers.
gregated by site
Maumba/Noma
(n = 29)
20.017.4 (3-36)
2.4
41 (6-200)
12 (0-45)
3 (1-18)
23,818/=
ariables
nstraints related to (i)
hool, markets for farmalaria and water-bornee 8). The problem ofate public utilities suchwei) and the migratingrted to affect access tos and markets for farmil fertility were critical
in the migrating sitestems of the migratingdisease incidence was
er problems mentionedests. Low householdthis was confirmed byo sites.
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Table 8:
Constraints
Poor infra-structure/institutional set-
Resource based constraints
High disease incidents
Other (crop pests, food shortages, u
3.3.5 Expectations from the res
Farm households expected some beexpected benefits was the hope thawhere the farmers have been livi
consider them for land allocationinfrastructure and institutions suchexpect will be solved through the rinput-output market that will leadshows the positive expectations ocreation or growth, and developmlooks at the resettlement initiative ahousehold incomes. The assumptsecurity measures for the success of
Other expectations were also citedgiven the first consideration duringresidents. On the other hand, the
and that every adult household meone that needs careful interpretatiocompensation procedures.
Table 9: Farm househ
Expectations
Resolved land ownership
Input/outputs market creation or grDevelopment of infrastructure and
Employment creation
Guaranteed security by the Govern
Other (first consideration, avoid re
On the other hand, the same scenarheads to share out land to their arecognised land owner is the one w
3.3.6 Fears by the communities
As much as there were some expec
affect their livelihood (Table 10).by the migrating community. Thipossibility of attacks by burglars
cience-0948 (Online)
160
Agro-related liveliho
Survey sit
Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero
(n = 23)
--------------- % of respon
up 47.4
31.6
21.1
employment, ...) 21.1
ttlement initiative
efits from the resettlement initiative (Table 9). Theland ownership will be resolved in the Kiruku/Mwg as squatters. The farmers expect that the rese
ollowed by subsequent issuance of title deeds. Tas markets for farm produce were among the prosettlement of both the migrating and host communitto economic growth of the hybrid (host/migrating)both communities as demonstrated by the percennt of infrastructure and institutions. The resource
s a blessing for employment creation (53%) that willion by both communities was that the Governmenthe resettlement initiative.
by both communities. The host community expecland allocation, and that the authorities will avoid rigrating community expect that land allocation will
ber will be compensated. This expectation by theto the affected people. There is need for an inten
ld expectations expressed as benefits from the resettl
Survey si
Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero
(n = 23)
--------------- % of respon
47.4
owth 68.4institutions 68.4
52.6
ment 15.8
ocation, .) 10.5
io serves as a message to all land owners that it is idult children and the necessary documentation maose name appears on the title deed.
ted benefits, the communities still expressed fears th
The most notable among the stated fears was the isss community fear, in the event of them being paid tho may come for the compensation money. On t
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d constraints
e
Maumba/Noma
(n = 29)
ents ---------------
68.0
84.0
56.0
12.0
most crucial among thengwei/Kigombero areattlement initiative will
e problems of lack oflems that the farmerses, thereby creating ancommunity. Table 9responses for market
-poor host communityenable them raise theirt was putting in place
ted that they would belocation of the currente based on family size
igrating community issive education on land
ement initiative
te
Maumba/Noma
(n = 29)
ents ---------------
8.0
48.060.0
0.0
32.0
16.0
portant for householdde, otherwise the only
at the resettlement will
ue of security as raisedheir compensation, thee other hand, the host
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community fear that burglars targsurrounding environs. The fear oefforts on land development and tocommunity which was more worrie
A close look at the socio-economi
place in the Maumba/Noma area.committees. These committees hthereby enabling households meet sthese successes that the affected cosocio-economic structures. It is alchurch or mosque are separated by
Table 10: Fears e
Fears
Insecurity
Allocation of inadequate or poor lan
Displacement or relocation
Degeneration of socio-cultural struc
Total loss of livelihoods (yields/inco
Others (unwelcoming hosts, conflict
Tree crops take a long time to estabinitiative will lead to total loss of lmeet most basic needs. Other f
community, possibility of conflictinenvironmental change, and the abse
3.3.7 Possible ImpactsShort and long term impacts ofcommunities and two levels (positiopposite views except for the b(educational and health) and impexpansion, job and income creatiocommunity who felt that the cominand probably had a better treat from
The issues of destroyed livelihood
such as possibility of insecurity, cha
cience-0948 (Online)
161
eting the migrating community may also attack thf being displaced or relocated to another site (leadial loss of land) was more crucial to the host commuabout possible allocation of small and infertile piece
c structures of the communities revealed that vario
These structures included funeral and educationalve had considerable scio-economic impact among
uccesses in solving their education, health and burialmmunity fears that the resettlement initiative will co feared that faith-based structures may be destroyedllocating them distant land parcels.
pressed by both affected communities on resettlemen
Survey site
Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero
(n = 23)
----------------- % of respond
21.1
d 10.5
89.5
ures 5.3
mes) 16.8
s, ..) 5.3
lish and the community in the Maumba/Noma area fivelihood that will render them unable to neither edears expressed include the possibility of meeting
g development agenda, possible health problems assce of basic facilities such as fuel-wood.
the resettlement initiative were examined by boe and negative impacts) were identified. The twolief that the resettlement plan predicts positiveoved infrastructure (Table 11). The possibility on, and resolving land ownership issues was a bel
g of the migrating community was a blessing as theythe Government and Tiomin Company.
as given weight by the migrating community as do
nging life styles leading to poor school performance b
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eir homesteads or theng to loss of previousnity than the migratings of land.
s associations were in
nd health fund-raisingcommunity members;
problems. It is out ofmpletely destroy these, when members of one
t initiative
Maumba/Noma
(n = 29)
nts --------------
64.0
48.0
N/A
68.0
36.0
12.0
lt that the resettlementcate their children noran unwelcoming host
ciated with climatic or
h host and migratingcommunities expressedgrowth of institutionsf market creation andef shared by the hostwere more resourceful
other negative impacts
y their children.
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Table 11: Likely/e
Impact
Market creation/expansion
Job/income creation
Growth of institutions/infra-structur
Land ownership guaranteed
Destroyed livelihoods*
Increased crime rates*
Other*
*Negative impacts of the resettlem
Since the relocation plan was hatcland development because of the uuncertainty has caused changes in cthe migrating families.
3.3.8 Suggestions by the communitFor the success and fairness in rese(Table 12). The common suggestallocation process be applied throuhost and migrating communities.ensuring community participation.
synergy in the development of instipriority to the host community are aThese suggestions, therefore, sendearlier suggestion that the process bmigrating communities.
There is need to first develop the nclean water, hospitals and financial i
Table 12: Suggestions flo
Suggestion
Enhance dialogue with affected
village reps)
Consider h/hold sizes
Consider host community first
Develop infra-structure first
Prepare migrating farmers for the re
Other (livelihood support facility,
Other suggestions as listed b
-Need to allocate equ
cience-0948 (Online)
162
pected short and long-term impacts of the resettleme
Survey site
Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero
(n = 23)
----------------- % of respond
68.8
75.0
e 62.5
37.5
6.3
6.3
6.3
nt initiative
ed over 5 years ago, members of the migrating comncertainty caused by the decision to resettle the afferopping patterns and the halting of the construction
es for a successful resettlement initiative
tling the affected households, the two communities ron by the two communities was that a participatorh the formation of a special committee with represThe need to recognize village institutions was emThe overall participation of different development
tutions. Consideration of household size during lanmong the opposite suggestions between the host andmessage of caution to the resettlement plan that cou
e overseen by a hybrid committee composed of me
ecessary infrastructure and facilities for basic humanstitutions that could provide credit was raised by the
ted by the affected communities for a successful rese
Survey site
Kiruku/Mwangwei/Kigombero
(n = 23)
----------------- % of responde
through local 47.4
26.3
52.6
N/A
settlement N/A
) 5.3
elow:
l land parcel sizes to both communities
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t initiative
Maumba/Noma
(n = 29)
ents ---------------
28.8
14.3
66.7
19.1
52.4
4.8
6.8
munity stopped furthercted households. Thef permanent houses by
aised some suggestionsapproach to the land
ntatives from both thehasized as a basis for
partners would lead to
d allocation and givingigrating communities.
ld be eased through thebers from the host and
need including roads,migrating community.
tlement exercise
Maumba/Noma
(n = 29)
nts ---------------
48.0
16.7
4.4
26.1
60.7
14.8
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Journal of Environment and Earth SISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225Vol. 3, No.4, 2013
-Need to take affected
-Need to provide liMaumba/Noma com
-Need to speed up the
-Compensate all affecThe need to prepare the people forthe migrating community to existin
joint training/workshop between hoand coping strategies. The need forcommunity, especially in recogniti
become sustainable.
5.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
Among both the host and migratingresettlement was first mentioned.exposed to speculation. It is hoco-existence among the affectedregarding the land, infrastructure an
The affected communities shothe resettlement initiative so th
Since a large part of the propshould be set aside for homestefor the homestead (on raised gr
The drainage canals in the low-their maintenance.
Both host and resettled farmersorder to facilitate nutrient and o
The soils at the resettlement sitfertilizer DAP (di-ammonium psince this can lead to increaseshould be use for crop and fodthis under expert guidance.
The farmers should be advisedboth chemical and physical deg
Infrastructure (including roadsdeveloped in order to march tcrucial for the communities siagricultural productivity.
Increased agricultural activitychemical farm inputs. This msource of water in the area.
place at the site for use by the i
5.1 Other issues to consider
Ensuring fair representation oallocation.
Any existing social structureslong-term socio-economic deve
There may be need of alternatiopt to buy land elsewhere.
cience-0948 (Online)
163
communities to a trip of any successful settlement sc
elihood support during the lag/acclimatization tiunity
resettlement programme
ted household membersthe resettlement was raised and this calls for exposusettlement schemes, allowing them to tour the resett
st and migrating communities to enable them establrovision of a livelihood support facility was also sug
on of the lag-time between resettling and when ne
communities, uncertainty had loomed for quite someAs a result of this uncertainty, members of both ced that the recommendations of this report willommunities. Given the current state of the profacilities to support livelihoods, the following issues
ld be empowered to clearly understand short and lot they do not perceive themselves as either as losers.
sed resettlement site is prone to seasonal flooding,ads. It might be necessary to allocate two pieces of lund) and the other for farming activities (on the low-
lying area should be reconstructed and mechanisms b
are strongly advised to always use both organic andrganic matter build up in the soils since they are curre
tend to be acidic; most of them have pH of about 5.hosphate) to supply phosphorous to crops and fodded soil acidity. Instead, compound fertilizers suchder production. Liming is necessary for acidic soils
against poor agricultural practices such as burningadation of the soils at the proposed resettlement site.
and public institutions (market centers, schools ae population increase in the resettlement site. Go
nce a healthy labour force for farm activities is n
at the resettlement site is likely to cause increasay, in turn, cause contamination of ground water whi
reliable water supply, free from potential contamicreased population.
f both host and migrating communities in all m
should be given special consideration during lanlopment.
ve options in case some of the farm households ear
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eme
e especially for the
e trips for members oflement site and holdingish links, commonnessgested by the migratingw agricultural systems
time since the issue ofommunities have beene a basis for a goodosed resettlement siteneed to be attended to:
g term implications of
land on raised groundand per household: oneying area).
e put in place to ensure
inorganic fertilizers inntly degraded.
Continuous use of theshould be discourageds 20:20:0 or 20:10:10but farmers should do
f bush that has caused
d hospitals) should beod health facilities areecessary for improved
d use of organic andch is currently the onlyants, should be put in
tters to do with land
d allocation to ensure
arked for resettlement
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REFERENCES
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2. Nyandat, N.N. and O.O. OAgriculture. National Agri
3. Okalebo, J.R., K.W. Gathuworking manual, Second e
4. SAS Institute. (1990), SAS5. Waaijenberg, H. (1994),
307 pp.
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3), Farm Management handbook of Kenya. Vol. II/C,German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ).
swago. (1970), Soils of Ramisi Sugar Estates (Coastultural Laboratories, Soil Survey Unit
a and P.L. Woomer (2002), Laboratory methods of soition. KARI, TSBF-CIAT and SACRED Africa, Nair
/STAT users guide. SAS Inst., Cary, NC.
ijikenda Agriculture in Coast Province of Kenya. R
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ast Kenya. Ministry of
Province). Ministry of
il and plant analysis: Aobi, Kenya 128 pp
oyal Tropical Institute.
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