• McCarthyism - practice of making accusations of subversion of treason without proper regard for evidence. Refers to Senator Joseph McCarthy and 2nd Red Scare (1947-1956), characterized by heightened political repression as well as a campaign spreading fear of Communist influence on American institute and espionage by Soviet agents.
• Duck and Cover - method of personal protection against effects of a nuclear explosion. Intended as alternative when emergency evacuation no longer viable due to time constraints. Also refers to 1951 US civil defense film of the same name, particularly intended for children with Bert the Turtle.
• Fallout Shelter - enclosed space specially designed to protect occupants from radioactive debris, fallout, resulting from a nuclear explosion. Many constructed as civil defense measures during the Cold War, designed to allow occupants to minimize exposure to harmful fallout until radioactivity has delayed to a safer level.
• National Highway Act - (1956; popularly known as National Interstate and Defense Highway Act) enacted 29 June 1956 by Eisenhower. Original authorization of $25 billion for construction of 41,000 miles of interstate highway system over 10 year period. Largest public works project at the time; defense was included in name for 2 reasons—some money came from federal defense budget, and 2nd most USAFB have a direct link to the system.
• Sputnik - 1st artificial Earth satellite. Launched by Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 in elliptical low Earth orbit. 23” metal sphere with 4 external radio antennas to broadcast radio pulses. Success of Sputnik triggered Space Race and ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments.
• Fair Deal - ambitious set of proposals put forward by President Truman in Jan 1949 State of the Union address. Generally, characterizes Truman’s entire domestic agenda, from 1945-1953. He wanted to continue New Deal Liberalism, but with a conservative coalition controlling Congress only a few initiatives became law.
• Bay of Pigs - failed military invasion of Cuba by (CIA sponsored) Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. Trained in Guatemala and Nicaragua; goal was to overthrow Castro. Failed invasion helped strengthen Castro’s leadership; made him a national hero, and cemented rocky relationships between US and Cuba, while strengthening Cuba//Soviet relations. Led to Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
• Berlin Wall - guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. Built by the German Democratic Republic (East Germany); Wall completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and East Berlin. GDR authorities officially called wall “Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart” (G: Anti faschisticher Schutzwall). In 1989, a series of revolutions in Eastern Bloc countries (specifically, Poland and Hungary) caused chain reaction that ultimately resulted in demise of the wall.
• Alliance for Progress - (Alizana para el Progreso) Initiated by JFK in 1961; aimed to establish economic cooperation between US and Latin America. JFK proposed 10 year plan for Latin America. Goal: annual increase of 2.5% in per capita income; establishment of democratic governments; elimination of adult illiteracy by 1970; price stability; more equitable income distribution; economic//social planning.
• Vietnamization - strategy that aimed to reduce American involvement in Vietnam War by transferring all military responsibility to South Vietnam. Nixon believed that this would allow South Vietnam to act in its own defense against a North Vietnam takeover and allow US to leave Vietnam with honor intact. Deeply flawed strategy. In January 1973, Nixon administration negotiates peace with North Vietnam; Laird declared Vietnamization complete, but in 1975 South Vietnam fell to North Vietnam forces.
• New Frontier - used by liberal Democratic presidential candidate JFK in acceptance speech at DNC in 1960; initially used as slogan to inspire Americans to support him. Phrase developed into a label for his domestic and foreign programs.
• Apollo 11 - landed 1st 2 humans on the moon—Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. Landed lunar module, The Eagle, on 20 July 1969. Spent about 20 hours on the moon; landing broadcast on live tv. Effectively ended Space Race
Cold War• Korean War - 1st military action of Cold War; June 25, 1950 75,000 North Korean soldiers crossed
38th parallel (boundary between North and South Korea). By July, US troops entered war on South Korea’s behalf. US thought war was against forces of international Communism. Fighting stalled; July 1953 Korean War ends. Korean Peninsula still divided.
• Suez Crisis - (also called Tripartite Aggression in Arab world; Sinai War in Israel) invasion of Egypt in late 1956 by Israel, followed by UK and France. Aims were to regain Western control of Suez Canal and remove Egyptian president Gamai Abdel Nasser from power. Political pressure from US, Soviet Union, and UN led to withdrawal; humiliated UK and France.
• Americas - US and USSR compete for influence in Third World in general, but specifically in Latin America. CIA overthrows Communist friendly governments in Guatemala.
• Cuban Revolution - armed revolt conducted by Castro’s 26th of July movement and its allies against Right Wing authoritarian President Fulgencio Batista. Began in July 1953, continued until Batista ousted in 1959. Replaced government with socialist state, and became Communist Party in October 1965. Had powerful domestic and international repercussions.
• Bay of Pigs - failed military invasion of Cuba by (CIA sponsored) Brigade 2506 on 17 April 1961. Trained in Guatemala and Nicaragua, goal was to overthrow Castro. Failed invasion helped strengthen Castro’s leadership, made him a national hero, and cemented rocky relationships between US and Cuba, while strengthening Cuba//Soviet relations. Led to Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
• Cuban Missile Crisis - leaders of US and Soviet Union engaged in tense 13 day political and military standoff in October 1962 over installation of nuclear armed Soviet missiles on Cuba. JFK enacts naval blockade of Cuba. People feared nuclear war, but resolved peacefully when Khrushchev agreed to remove missiles if US doesn’t invade.
• Berlin Crisis - June 4-November 9, 1961; last major politico-military European incident of Cold War. USSR provokes crisis with ultimatum demanding withdrawal of Western armed forces from West Berlin. West doesn’t withdraw; USSR builds Berlin Wall.
• Vietnam War - long, costly, divisive conflict that pitted Communist government of North Vietnam against South Vietnam, and their principal ally, the US. Intensified by Cold War between US and Soviet Union, over 3 million people (including over 58,000 Americans) killed in Vietnam War, and more than half were Vietnamese. Communist forces ended the war by seizing control of South Vietnam in 1975, and the country was unified as Social republic of Vietnam in 1976.
McCarthyism• Origins - Executive Order 9835 March 21, 1957 (Truman) required all federal civil service
employees be screened for “loyalty”. One basis for disloyalty is finding membership in, affiliation with, or sympathetic association any organization defined by Attorney General to be totalitarian, Fascist, Communist, or subversive. Expanding Communism in Asia—Soviet Union tests atomic bomb in 1949, Korean War in 1950, Mao gains mainland China.
• Executive Branch - Eisenhower continues loyalty program, DoJ starts keeping list of subversive organizations. FBI director J. Edgar Hoover designed Truman’s loyalty security program, which increased agents in FBI and extended Hoover’s own influence.
• Congress - House Committee on Unamerican Activities (HUAC) most prominent and active government committee involved in anti-Communist investigations. Formed in 1938, known as Dies Committee (after chairman Martin Dies); greatest fame/notoriety for investigation into Hollywood Film industry. The “$64,000 Question”: “are you now, or have you ever been, a member of the Communist Party of the United States?” Hollywood Ten refused to answer, citing 1st Amendment, but all imprisoned for Contempt of Congress. Senate Internal Security Subcommittee formed in 1950, and had reputation for careful and extensive investigations. McCarran heads Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations; began investigating US Army/Army Signal Corps as a dangerous spy ring, which ultimately turned out to be an unfounded claim.
• Blacklists - President of MPAA issued press release, Waldorf Statement, that announced firing of Hollywood Ten and said “we will not knowingly employ a Communist, or member of any party or group which advocates the overthrow of the US government”. 100s were denied employment, but no one publicly admits the blacklists exist.
• Laws - Alien Registration Act (Smith Act), 1940: criminal offense to advocate overthrowing US government
• McCarran Internal Security Act, 1950 - no real effect, beyond legal harassment. Required registration of Communist organizations with US Attorney General.
• Communist Control Act (1954) - sought to outlaw Communist party• Popular Support - supported by a variety of groups, including American Legion. Peak of popular
support in January 1954 (50%); significant support from Catholics, unskilled workers, and small business owners. Unpopular with union activists, and Jews.
• Communist Portrayals - proponents of McCarthyism claimed that the Communist Party of America was so completely under Moscow’s control that any American Communist was merely a puppet of Soviet and Russian intelligence services. In 1940, ACLU ejects founding member, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, saying being a Communist and being a civil libertarian are mutually exclusive.
• Victims - difficult to estimate total number; 100s imprisoned, while 10-12,000 lost their jobs. Often being subpoenaed was enough to be fired. Also targeted homosexuals and “sexual perverts” as part of the Lavender Scare.
• Background - Americans had postponed marriage and childbirth for 16 years (Great Depression, World War I, World War II). As a result of the strong post war economy Americans felt confident they could support larger number of children. Soldiers were returning home, with GI Bill benefits.
• Marriage Rates - spike in marriage rates even larger after the war; 2.2 million couples were married in 1946, a record that stood until the 1970s. WWII generation most marriage and family oriented in US history—96.4% of women and 94.1% of men were married, and often at younger ages than previous generations.
• Family Sizes - Birth rate average 4.24 million babies annually 1946-1964. Average woman had 3 children in 1950, but 3.65 in 1960. (Peak was 3.77 in 1957) Most women were pregnant with their first child within 7 months of their wedding.
Truman Administration• Founding of the U.N. - Truman strongly supported creation of the UN; formulated and negotiated
among delegations from Allied Big 4 (Soviet Union, United Kingdom, US, China) at Dumbarton Oaks Conference in 1944. UN opened in San Francisco 25 April 1945, attended by 50 governments. Officially came into existence 24 October 1945 upon charter ratification by 5 permanent members of the Security Council (France, China, Soviet Union, UK, US) and 46 other signatories. General Assembly building in NYC is considered international territory.
• Cold War - signed National Security Act of 1947 and reorganized military forces by merging Department of War and Department of Navy into (ultimately) Department of Defense. The act also created the CIA and National Security Council. In 1952, Truman created the NSA.
• Marshall Plan - (European Recovery Program) American initiative to aid Western Europe in which US gave over $13 billion to help rebuild W. European economies after WWII. Goals were to rebuild war devastated areas, remove trade barriers, modernize industry, make Europe prosperous, and prevent the spread of Communism.
• China - was fighting a huge civil war (nationalists vs Communists). Nationalists had been major wartime allies, and had popular support in US, along with a powerful lobby. General Marshall spent most of 1946 in China trying to negotiate a compromise, but failed. Ultimately, Mao wins China and US has a new enemy in Asia.
• NATO - North Atlantic Treaty Organization, created in 1949. Established a formal peacetime military alliance with Canada and democratic European nations that had not fallen under Soviet control. Widely popular, easily passed Congress. Eisenhower was the 1st commander of NATO. Goals were to contain Soviet expansion in Europe, and send a clear message to Communist leaders.
• Israel - Truman was pro-Zionism, but state department officials (including Secretary of State Marshall) urged Truman to NOT recognize Israel, because they feared backlash from their Arab neighbors. Ultimately, Truman recognized Israel on 14 May 1948, 11 minutes after they declared themselves a nation.
• GI Bill - (Serviceman’s Readjustment Act of 1944) provided a range of benefits to returning WWII vets. Designed by American Legion, goal was to provide immediate rewards to almost all vets. Benefits included free post-secondary education (vocational or college), and low cost housing loans. One of the most important and successful government programs of late 40s.
• Civil Rights - Feb 1948 Truman submitted Civil Rights agenda to Congress that proposed creating federal offices devoted to issues like voting rights, and fair employment practices. Lots of criticism (especially from Southern Democrats), but Truman refused to compromise. WWII vets were treated poorly, EO 9881 (July 1948) regulates equal opportunity in Armed Forces.
• Fair Deal - In 1950, Truman vetoed McCarran Internal Security Act, but passed over veto. Truman’s legislative agenda in 1948 election. He advocated national health insurance, repeal of Taft-Hartley Act, and an aggressive civil rights program. Not well received by Congress—only one bill (Housing Act of 1949) ever enacted.
• Constitutional Amendments - 22nd Amendment (term limits for president) approved on 21 March 1947; clear pushback on FDR’s 4 terms.
Eisenhower Administration• New Look Policy - Initial security policy, unveiled 30 October 1953. Reflected Eisenhower’s desire
for sustainable long term US national security policy, and his belief that the mission of the military was to “get ready and stay ready”. US relied on a triad of weapons for nuclear deterrence—land based intercontinental ballistic missiles (IBMs), strategic bombers, and submarine launched ballistic missiles.
• Cold War: defense spending high throughout presidency, per Cold War. • Eisenhower Doctrine - Power vacuum in Middle East after Sinai Crisis. Eisenhower says essential
for US to accept new responsibility for security in Middle East. Under the E.D., any middle eastern country could request American economic assistance or military aid, if it was being threatened. The Soviet Union was the target, but it turned the middle east into a Cold War battlefield.
• Nonpartisanship - domestically, Eisenhower works to avoid partisanship whenever possible. Democrats regained House and Senate in 1954 elections, but E works smoothly with (Democrats) Speaker Rayburn and Majority Leader LBJ in Senate. Eisenhower was really popular, so it was beneficial for Democrats to work with him as well.
• Immigration - Refugee Relief Act (1953) allowed admission of 214,000 additional immigrants from European countries. Operation Wetback (June 1954): roundup and deportation of undocumented immigrants in CA, AZ, and TX, mainly; prompted when CA said the additional costs of the Refugee Relief Act (to states) were unfair.
• Civil Rights - May 1954, Brown v Board of Ed; President says “The Supreme Court has spoken and I am sworn to uphold the Constitutional process in this country; and I will obey”. Eisenhower never publicly supports the ruling; never says decision was morally right, but he does send federal troops to Little Rock after the state government attempts to defy the court order to desegregate schools.
• Interstate system - Congress authorized construction via Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956. Key motivation was defense against possibility of large scale foreign nuclear attack. Argued that highways would be essential evacuation routes. Unwittingly led to decline of rail roads because they facilitated an increase in trucking, and made suburbanization possible.
• Labor unions - high profile target of Republican activists in 40s and 50s, especially the Taft-Hartley Act. Business community and local Republicans wanted to weaken unions; membership peaked in 50s at about a third of the labor force. Republicans wanted to delegitimize unions by focusing on their shady activities, such as racketeering in the Teamsters.
• Capitalism & Consumerism - Under Eisenhower, Americans achieved level of prosperity previously unknown. Economy grew by 37% in 1950s. Average family had 30% more purchasing power in 1960 than in 1950. Eisenhower essentially balanced the federal budget, and the increase in consumer spending also fueled prosperity. Adults in the 50s grew up in production society (focused on meeting basic needs) of Great Depression and two World Wards; ready to spend their money.
• Suburbia - Developers bought land on the outskirts of towns and used mass production techniques to build modest, inexpensive tract houses. GI Bill subsidized low cost mortgages for returning soldiers, which made it cheaper to buy a house in the suburbs than rent an apartment in the city. Houses were perfect for young families, but confined and isolated women, whose dissatisfaction led to the feminist movement in the 60s.
• Women’s Fashion - Mend and make it work of the 40s gave way to the “perfect” coordination of the 50s (gloves, hat, purse, dress, shoes), which led to shift dresses and “rebellious” short hemlines of 60s. Short hemlines about self-confidence; the shorter the hemline, the more confidence.
• Music - Rock and roll dominates popular music in mid-late 50s; growth in popularity of electric guitar. In the 60s, popular music becomes tied up in causes—sexual revolution, feminism, Black Power, and environmentalism. 60s also included a folk rock revival (Bob Dylan, Joan Baez), soul music (Motown), Nashville Sound (Merle Haggard), and psychedelic rock (The Grateful Dead, Jefferson Airplane) and the British Invasion (The Beatles, Kinks, and Rolling Stones).
• Movies - wide variety in the 50s; had to compete with TV for the first time, so used gimmicks like widescreen and big approach methods (Cinemascope, Vistavision, Cinerama). 50s best known for sci fi (The Day the Earth Stood Still; The War of the Worlds, etc). Also adept at character and realistic films; James Stewart, John Wayne, and Marlon Brando were at the peak of their popularity. Hitchcock was also at his peak in the 50s. Historical dramas continue to include epics in the 60s; psychological horror films extend beyond the stereotypical monster (Dracula, etc) to Psycho. Comedy becomes more elaborate (The Pink Panther; A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum), with comedy-drama (Breakfast at Tiffany’s) to satire//comedy noir (Dr. Strangelove). Sci fi films employ a wider range of special effects (The Time Machine, Planet of the Apes). Mid-decade films become increasingly experimental and daring, setting the stage for the 70s.
• Television - early 50s only a few thousand wealthy Americans had a TV. At the end of the decade, nearly 2/3 of American households had one. TV Guide was the biggest selling periodical of the decade. Network programming blurs regional distinctions and helped forge a national culture. Changed politics permanently; 1st president televised was Harry Truman. Eisenhower’s staff generated short, powerful statements (sound bites) rather than his entire speech.
Civil Rights Movement• Montgomery Bus Boycott – started as a result of Rosa Parks’ arrest; proved that peaceful
protest could result in the changing of laws relating to civil rights.• Little Rock Nine – nine students who enrolled in Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, to
start the process of desegregating schools. When the governor of Arkansas prevented them from attending school, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent the U.S. Army to protect them.
Suggested Answer Key CONT.Civil Rights Movement cont
• Sit-ins – African Americans sat at white lunch counters to protest segregation. They were refused service, harassed, intimidated, and received death threats. They led to a changed in segregationist policies.
• Freedom rides - A series of bus rides through the South to protest segregated interstate bus terminals; intended to test Supreme Court’s ruling in Boynton v. VA (1960), which declared segregation in interstate travel and rail stations unconstitutional.
• Birmingham Campaign - The Birmingham Campaign was a series of protests against racial segregation in Birmingham, Alabama. These protests took place in April of 1963.
• March on Washington - Civil rights protestors wanted to bring national attention to issues such as racial segregation, lower wages, and discrimination. One way they did this was by marching to Washington D.C. in 1963. Protestors marched to Washington to push for an end to segregation and Jim Crow laws in the South. The signs they carried said “March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom.” They wanted equal opportunities when looking for jobs. MLK gave his famous “I have a dream speech” in Washington.
• Civil Rights Act of 1964 - The Civil Rights Act of 1964 was one of the most important Civil Rights laws in American history. It ended segregation, outlawed racial discrimination, and protected voting rights for minorities.
• Harlem Riot of 1964 - 6-day period of rioting, started July 18, 1964 after white off duty police officer shot and killed African American teenager. Rioting spread to Brownsville, Bedford-Stuyvesant (Brooklyn) and South Jamaica (Queens). First of many race riots in major cities in 1964.
• Voting Rights Act of 1965 - Prohibits racial discrimination in voting. Signed by LBJ, and amended 5 times to expand protections. Designed to enforce voting rights guaranteed by the 14th and 15th
amendments. • Civil Rights Act of 1968 - Also known as Fair Housing Act. Landmark legislation that provided for
equal housing opportunities. Signed by LBJ during MLK assassination riots. Similar laws had previously failed, but bill was revived by the Kerner Commission report on 1967 ghetto riots, and civil unrest//riots following MLK’s assassination.
Great Society• Civil Rights - Most important domestic achievement of Great Society is passing civil rights
legislation. 4 acts passed; 3 in first 2 years of Johnson’s presidency. Civil Rights Act of 1964: forbade discrimination and segregation of public accommodations. Voting Rights Act of 1965: minority registration and voting guaranteed (outlawed literacy tests, etc.) Immigration and Nationality Service Act of 1965: abolished national origin quotas in immigration. Civil Rights Act of 1968: banned housing discrimination and extended Constitutional protections to Native Americans on reservations.
• War on Poverty - most ambitious and controversial part of Great Society. Goals to eliminate hunger, illiteracy, and unemployment. Centerpiece is Economic Opportunity Act of 1964, which created the Office of Economic Opportunity to oversee a variety of community based antipoverty programs. OEO reflected consensus that the best way to help the poor was job training, education, and community development.
• Education - Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965-allocated over $1 billion to help schools purchase materials and start special ed programs. Also established Head Start as permanent program (rather than 8 week summer program). Higher Education Act of 1965—increased federal money given to universities, created scholarships, and low interest loans.
• Medicare & Medicaid - Social Security Act of 1965 authorized Medicare and provided federal funding for many of medical costs of older Americans. High resistance from AMA; overcame by making benefits available to all over 65, and linked payments to existing private insurance system. In 1966, welfare recipients of all ages received medical care through Medicaid, created under XIX of the Social Security Act.
• Welfare - Welfare programs expanded and simplified. Food Stamp Act of 1964 made program permanent, and Social Security Amendments of 1967 stipulates that at least 6% of money for maternal and child health must be spent on family planning. By 1967, federal government began requiring state health departments to make contraceptives available to poor adults. Meal programs for low income senior citizens began in 1965 and Child Nutrition Act (1966) made improvements to nutritional assistance for kids, like the introduction of School Breakfast Program.
• Consumer Protection - LBJ appoints presidential assistant for consumer affairs. • Cigarette Labeling and Advertising Act of 1965 - required packages to carry warning
labels• Motor Vehicle Safety Act of 1966 - created National Highway Traffic Safety Administration• Fair Packaging and Labeling Act - requires products to identify the manufacturer,
address, servings, and quantity.• Wholesome Meal Act - meat must meet federal standards• Truth-in-Lending Act - lenders have to disclose the full cost of finance charges
• Environmental Policies - main contribution was extension of protections—Water Quality Act, Clear Air Act, Wilderness Act, Endangered Species Preservation Act, National Trails System Act, Wild and Scenic Rivers Act.
• Housing - Housing and Urban Development Act (1965)—rent subsidies for low income families, rehab grants to enable homeowners in urban renewal areas to improve their homes instead of relocating elsewhere. Demonstration Cities Act (1966)—established new program for complete neighborhood renewal, with emphasis on strategy and job creation.
• Labor - several increases made to federal minimum wage. Fair Labor Standards Act extended to about 9.1 million additional workers.
Anti-War Movement• The Draft - a system of conscription which threated lower and middle class registrants and
drove much of the protest after 1965• Students - great deal of civil unrest on college campuses throughout 1960s (Civil Rights
Movement, 2nd Wave Feminism, anti-war movement) students joined antiwar movement because they did not want to fight in a foreign civil war that they believed did not concern them, or because they were morally opposed to war.
• Arts - many artists in 60s and 70s opposed war and used careers//creativity to visibly oppose the war. Antiwar artists ranged from pacifists to violent radicals and caused Americans to think more critically about the war. Art activism faded as political activism increased.
• Women - large part of antiwar movement, even though they faced sexism within most opposition groups. Several protest groups created for//by women—Another Mother for Peace, Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, and Women for Peace. Mothers and older women often joined to advocate for their sons. WFP held peace vigil every Sunday at White House for 8 years. Government believed that middle aged women were the most dangerous members of the opposition because they could mobilize quickly and efficiently.
• African Americans - often involved in Civil Rights Movement, and antiwar movement. MLK Jr., James Bevel (of SCLC), and Muhammed Ali were prominent opponents of the Vietnam War. Black Panther Party vehemently opposed Vietnam War; black antiwar groups criticized because poo and minority men were most affected.
• Asian Americans - many strongly opposed to Vietnam War; saw it was a bigger action of American imperialism and anti-Asian, anti-war sentiment fueled by racial inequality in US.
Stonewall Riots• Background - very few establishments welcomed openly gay people in the 50s and 60s; pervading
opinion was that homosexuals could be “cured” with assimilation and education. The last years of the 60s were contentious with all the social movements at the time—civil rights, antiwar, counterculture—plus the liberal environment of Greenwich Village were a catalyst for the riots. None of the bars were the LGBT community gathered were owned by them; most were owned by organized crime (mafia), who treated the patrons poorly, but they also paid off police so the raids were infrequent.
• Riots - the police planned to raid the Stonewall Inn and shut it down, but the raid occurred later at night than usual, and the police officers conducting the raid didn’t have the wagons they needed for confiscated material. While they were waiting for the additional wagons, the crowd turned violent and rioted.
• Aftermath - riots led to a feeling of urgency throughout Greenwich Village, even by those who weren’t in attendance. Many were inspired to attend organizational meetings; people who had felt oppressed now felt empowered. The riots led to Gay Pride Day and marches; the first one was called Christopher St Liberation Day (June 28, 1970—one year anniversary) and in 1971 there were marches in NYC, LA, Chicago, Boston, Dallas, Milwaukee, London, Paris, West Berlin, and Stockholm.
• Legacy - within 2 years of Stonewall, there were gay rights groups in every major American city as well as Canada, Australia, and Western Europe. Stonewall was established as part of a national monument by Obama in 2016.
Kennedy Administration• 1960 Election - Kennedy enters the race on January 2, 1960. He chose LBJ to be VP, despite
protests from more liberal delegates, including his brother. Both Kennedy and Nixon travel extensively; Nixon employs a “50 state” strategy, whereas Kennedy focuses on states with more electoral votes. Kennedy ultimately wins one of the closest elections of the 20th century.
• Judicial Appointments - appoints 2 judges to the Supreme Court—Byron White and Arthur Goldberg. Also appoints 21 judges to the Court of Appeals and 102 judges to district courts.
• Economy - JFK loosened monetary policy to keep interest rates down and encourage economic growth. He also incurred the first non-war, non-recession deficit.
• Civil Rights - Initially, JFK wants to distance himself from civil rights; he thinks Southern Democrats will not support his legislation if he’s pro-civil rights. He was also distracted from civil rights by Cold War, Bay of Pigs, and SE Asia. He does send in troops to desegregate Ole Miss and Alabama.
• Space Policy - Kennedy was initially anti-manned space mission//NASA until a Soviet cosmonaut (Yori Gagarin) became the first person to fly in space. Starts Space Race, which doesn’t end until US lands a man on the moon, several years after Kennedy’s death.
• Peace Corps - created as one of Kennedy’s first presidential acts. Americans volunteer to help underdeveloped nations in areas such as education, farming, healthcare, and construction. Since 1961, over 200,000 Americans have joined and volunteered in over 139 countries.
• Cold War - Kennedy had repeated confrontations with the Soviet Union; used “flexible response” strategy, which relied on conventional arms to achieve limited goals (as opposed to nuclear arms); Kennedy also expanded special operations forces. His main goal was to counter Soviet influence without resorting to war.
Kennedy Assassination• Background - JFK goes to Texas to smooth over frictions in the TX Democratic party, and
between Democrats and conservative Governor John Connally. Kennedy has 3 goals for the trip: raise more Democratic party presidential campaign funds, begin quest for reelection in 1964, and mend political fences among several leading TX Democratic party members (because they had barely won TX in 1960). The trip was announced in September, the motorcade route was finalized on November 18, and made public on November 22.
• Lee Harvey Oswald - former Marine; arrested the night of Kennedy’s assassination; charged with murder of JFK and Dallas police officer. Oswald denies shooting anyone; claimed he was a patsy arrested because he had lived in Soviet Union. Oswald was fatally shot 2 days later by Jack Ruby, a Dallas nightclub owner.
• Assassination - JFK’s limo convertible entered Dealey Plaza at 12:30p CST; shots were fired as the motorcade drove down Elm Street. About 80% of witnesses recall hearing 3 shots.
• Funeral - State funeral in DC during 3 days following assassination. Kennedy’s body was flown back to DC, placed in East Room of the White House for 24 hours. On Sunday, his coffin was carried on horse drawn caisson to Capitol to lie in state. 100s of thousands views his casket. State funeral on Monday, November 25. After Requiem mass at St. Matthew’s Cathedral, the president was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.
• Conspiracy Theories - Generally, theories believe the assassination involved more people and/or organizations than just Lee Harvey Oswald. Current theories put forth a criminal conspiracy involving parties as varied as CIA, Mafia, VP LBJ, Fidel Castro, the KGB, or some combination thereof. Public opinion polls consistently show that a majority of Americans believe there was a conspiracy to kill Kennedy.
• Reactions - evoked stunned reactions worldwide. The first hour after the assassination was full of confusion—the president’s death hadn’t been announced officially, and it was unclear if LBJ was also wounded. People wept openly, and watched news coverage in department store windows; schools dismissed their students early.
• Inauguration - took presidential oath on Air Force One at 2:38p at Love Field, hours after the assassination. LBJ felt an immediate transition of power was important to give stability to grieving nation; he also rushed back to DC because the threat level in Dallas as unclear. Some misconstrued his actions as being in too much of a hurry to assume power.
• Civil Rights - personally sympathetic to the civil rights movement; felt the time had come to pass the first major civil rights bills since Reconstruction. LBJ uses his Senate contacts/knowledge to push bills to the floor for a vote. He also makes civil rights a personal//ethical matter; how can an individual who identifies themselves with a merciful and just God continue to condone racial discrimination, police brutality, and segregation?
• Great Society - LBJ’s domestic program. Encompasses movements of urban renewal, modern transportation, clean environment, anti-poverty, healthcare reform, crime control, and education reform.
• Health Care - President Truman had proposed a national health insurance system in 1945; LBJ was heavily influenced by Truman’s ideas, but the AMA and fiscal conservatives were opposed to a government role in health insurance. 1964 election shows that there is public support for some version of public medical care; a 3 layer cake version of Medicare is proposed—hospital insurance under Social Security, voluntary insurance for doctor visits, and expanded medical welfare program for the poor (Medicaid)
• Immigration - Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965—abolishes national origins quotas, which dramatically changed the ethnic composition of the US. The act also prioritized family reunification over national origins. Cuban Adjustment Act: granted Cuban refugees an easier path to permanent residency and citizenship.
• Space Program - LBJ is pro-NASA, even after the Apollo 1 first stunned the nation. NASA bounces back and Apollo 7 and 8 are completed successfully while Johnson is in office. Attends the Apollo 11 launch 6 months after leaving the White House.
• Cold War - LBJ agonized over Vietnam escalation; publicly, determined not to lose, but wanted to negotiate peace talks, which didn’t even start until after he left office.
Space Race• Start – the U.S. and Soviet Union quickly realized how important rocket research was to the
military. Both sides recruited the top German rocket scientists to progress rocket technology. The race began in 1955 when both sides announced that they planned to launch satellites into orbit. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched the first satellite into orbit (Sputnik I). The U.S. launched their own satellite (Explorer I) a few months later.
• Orbit – the Soviet Union put the first man into space on April 12, 1961 (Yuri Gagarin on the spacecraft Vostok I). The U.S. launched the spaceship Freedom 7 with astronaut Alan Shepherd a few weeks later. Although Shepherd’s spacecraft did not orbit the earth, on February 20, 1962 John Glenn first orbited the early on the Friendship 7.
• Race to the Moon – In 1961, President Kennedy announced that he wanted the U.S. to be the first country to put a man on the moon. Soon after, the Apollo Moon program was launched.
• Gemini Program – developed technology for the Apollo spacecraft. Those who worked on the Gemini program learned how to change the orbit of a spaceship, how orbit affected the human body, how to bring two spaceships together for a rendezvous in space, and how to perform space walks.
• Man on the Moon – the Apollo 11 spacecraft was launched into space on July 16, 1969. The astronauts on board were Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin, and Michael Collins. It took them three days to reach the moon. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin descended to the moon on a lunar module called the Eagle, which landed on July 20, 1969. Neil Armstrong was the first man to set foot on the moon. He said, “one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.”
• End – the Soviet Union and U.S. held a joint mission in 1975 called the Apollo-Soyez when relations got better. The Space Race was finally over.
