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May 16, 2013May 16, 2013

GEOG 370GEOG 370

So what is our commonality?So what is our commonality?

What are the real questions we What are the real questions we need to deal with in landscape need to deal with in landscape

change, ecosystem management,change, ecosystem management,air quality and water qualityair quality and water quality??

Six ObjectivesSix Objectives1.1. Review the fundamental relevant attributes of property Review the fundamental relevant attributes of property

rights. rights.

2.2. Discuss the key weakness of private property rights and Discuss the key weakness of private property rights and environmental quality problems and relate this to environmental quality problems and relate this to pollution prevention incentives.pollution prevention incentives.

3.3. Briefly evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the Briefly evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the major methods for environmental conservation, quality major methods for environmental conservation, quality protection, and improvement. protection, and improvement.

4.4. Present a linked ecologic-economic-geographic Present a linked ecologic-economic-geographic optimization model which incorporates measures of equity optimization model which incorporates measures of equity and ecosystem services in a spatial context .and ecosystem services in a spatial context .

5.5. Conclude with a call for a comprehensive environmental Conclude with a call for a comprehensive environmental management systems model which utilizes educational, management systems model which utilizes educational, regulatory and market approaches.regulatory and market approaches.

The Four Key Property RightsThe Four Key Property Rights

1.1.the right of alienationthe right of alienation

2.2.the right to use the propertythe right to use the property

3.3.the right to earn a benefit the right to earn a benefit stream from the propertystream from the property

4.4.the right of the right of exclusivityexclusivity

Three Key Types of PropertyThree Key Types of Property

1.1.Private PropertyPrivate Property

2.2.Common PropertyCommon Property

3.3.Public PropertyPublic Property

Seven Major Approaches and Seven Major Approaches and Methods of Pollution Control Methods of Pollution Control

ManagementManagement• Moral Persuasion and EducationMoral Persuasion and Education

• Suing for Damages (Tort solutions)Suing for Damages (Tort solutions)

• ProhibitionProhibition

• Direct Governmental RegulationDirect Governmental Regulation

• Governmental Economic Payments & Governmental Economic Payments & IncentivesIncentives

• Resource Use & Pollution Emission ChargesResource Use & Pollution Emission Charges

• Pollution & Resource Use RightsPollution & Resource Use Rights

• Cap & TradeCap & Trade

Moral Persuasion and EducationMoral Persuasion and Education• Educating and sensitizing people about their Educating and sensitizing people about their

behaviorbehavior

• Prepare people for actionPrepare people for action

• May produce ineffective guiltMay produce ineffective guilt

• ““Free riderFree rider”” problems problems

• May penalize ecologically & socially May penalize ecologically & socially responsible people & organizationsresponsible people & organizations

• Bottom line -> first steps, necessary, but not Bottom line -> first steps, necessary, but not sufficient sufficient

Tort Solutions: Suing Tort Solutions: Suing ““the the AmerikanisherAmerikanisher”” approach approach

• Appealing from perspective of social justiceAppealing from perspective of social justice• Time-consuming, expensiveTime-consuming, expensive• Difficult to establishDifficult to establish

– who & what damagedwho & what damaged– extent of damagesextent of damages– evaluate & agree on damagesevaluate & agree on damages– legally responsible party or entitieslegally responsible party or entities

• Limited as a deterrentLimited as a deterrent• A A post factopost facto approach, not a preventative approach approach, not a preventative approach• EIS important proactive toolEIS important proactive tool• Needs a strong legal systemNeeds a strong legal system

ProhibitionProhibition• Shields individuals & environment from Shields individuals & environment from

irresponsible acts of othersirresponsible acts of others• Non-compliance issuesNon-compliance issues• Second law of thermodynamics often makes Second law of thermodynamics often makes

complete prohibition both practically and complete prohibition both practically and economically infeasibleeconomically infeasible

• ““tests the ropestests the ropes”” of the politically feasible of the politically feasible• Risks Risks ““political backlashespolitical backlashes””• May not be optimal, i.e., natural biogeochemical May not be optimal, i.e., natural biogeochemical

processes can absorb some residualsprocesses can absorb some residuals• Requires strong sense of legitimacy & significant Requires strong sense of legitimacy & significant

financial & personnel resources to enforce financial & personnel resources to enforce prohibitionsprohibitions

Direct Governmental Regulation - 1Direct Governmental Regulation - 1• zum Beispiel:zum Beispiel:

– laws & regulationslaws & regulations• required abatement equipmentrequired abatement equipment• worker safety equipmentworker safety equipment• product contamination standardsproduct contamination standards• MPCsMPCs• land use ordinancesland use ordinances• best available sciencebest available science

• positive aspects:positive aspects:– internalize some of external costsinternalize some of external costs– protect individuals from irresponsible acts of othersprotect individuals from irresponsible acts of others– often more fair and just than outright prohibitionoften more fair and just than outright prohibition– ““level the playing fieldlevel the playing field””

Direct Governmental Regulation - 2 Direct Governmental Regulation - 2 • positive aspects continued:positive aspects continued:

– ““standardsstandards”” better than better than ““technologiestechnologies”” at at creating positive incentives creating positive incentives

– maybe only practical & effective way to deal maybe only practical & effective way to deal with small non-stationary air polluters & home with small non-stationary air polluters & home heating furnacesheating furnaces

– maybe only practical & effective way to deal maybe only practical & effective way to deal with non-point source water pollutionwith non-point source water pollution

– American experience -> regulation has proven American experience -> regulation has proven to be the easiest method to get approved by to be the easiest method to get approved by legislative bodieslegislative bodies

Direct Governmental Regulation - 3 Direct Governmental Regulation - 3 • problem areas:problem areas:

– use of use of ““samesame”” standards internalizes only part of the standards internalizes only part of the external costsexternal costs

– fails to make use differing physical geographic fails to make use differing physical geographic environmentsenvironments

– requiring requiring ““samesame”” technology discourages development technology discourages development of better & cheaper pollution control and resource of better & cheaper pollution control and resource conservation technologyconservation technology

– can force out small firms lacking sufficient investment can force out small firms lacking sufficient investment capitalcapital

– standards & regulations tend to be ones that are standards & regulations tend to be ones that are enforceableenforceable rather than rather than optimaloptimal

– problems with overlapping & conflicting jurisdictions problems with overlapping & conflicting jurisdictions – complaints that complaints that ““polluterspolluters”” don don’’t pay for damagest pay for damages– lobbying efforts can delay & weaken compliance via lobbying efforts can delay & weaken compliance via

courts, revised legislation & administrative procedurescourts, revised legislation & administrative procedures

Governmental Economic Payments Governmental Economic Payments & Incentives& Incentives

• zum Beispiel:zum Beispiel:– government grantsgovernment grants– investment tax creditsinvestment tax credits– conservation tax credits for pollution abatement equipmentconservation tax credits for pollution abatement equipment

• Advantages:Advantages:– focus upon prevention rather than remedial actionfocus upon prevention rather than remedial action– meet with less oppositionmeet with less opposition– decrease private production and construction costsdecrease private production and construction costs– can lead to higher profits and cheaper homescan lead to higher profits and cheaper homes– improve enterprise competitiveness in international markets (WTO????)improve enterprise competitiveness in international markets (WTO????)

• Disadvantages:Disadvantages:– do little to internalize costsdo little to internalize costs– lower lower ““private costsprivate costs”” -> over consumption of pollution generating activities -> over consumption of pollution generating activities– increase output rather than conserve resources & improve environmentincrease output rather than conserve resources & improve environment– use rather than generate tax revenuesuse rather than generate tax revenues– susceptible to political & financial influencesusceptible to political & financial influence– difficult to discontinue when no longer needed difficult to discontinue when no longer needed – divert tax revenues away from other needsdivert tax revenues away from other needs

Resource Use & Pollution Emission Resource Use & Pollution Emission Charges -1Charges -1

• Advantages:Advantages:– internalize external costs if charges are close to estimated internalize external costs if charges are close to estimated

marginal external costsmarginal external costs– costs passed along to ultimate consumercosts passed along to ultimate consumer– encourage reduction of resource and pollution to optimum levelsencourage reduction of resource and pollution to optimum levels– collected changes may be used to generate tax revenues & pay collected changes may be used to generate tax revenues & pay

for abatement/prevention facilitiesfor abatement/prevention facilities– a positive, preventative, pro-active incentive approach rather a positive, preventative, pro-active incentive approach rather

than remedial, after the fact compensation strategythan remedial, after the fact compensation strategy– lower transaction costslower transaction costs– allow fees to reflect increasingly scarce resourcesallow fees to reflect increasingly scarce resources– can cope with economic growth vs environmentcan cope with economic growth vs environment

Resource Use & Pollution Emission Resource Use & Pollution Emission Charges - 2Charges - 2

• Disadvantages:Disadvantages:

– how to find equilibrium level of feeshow to find equilibrium level of fees

– inflation -> increase in pollution & resource use waste inflation -> increase in pollution & resource use waste unless inflation adjustment is built-inunless inflation adjustment is built-in

– in U.S. thus far, strong opposition to economically rational in U.S. thus far, strong opposition to economically rational methodsmethods

– approach not accepted by politicians, nor approach not accepted by politicians, nor ““GreensGreens””– only modest charges such as water use and sewage only modest charges such as water use and sewage

processing feesprocessing fees

– rarely have fees been high enough to elicit significant rarely have fees been high enough to elicit significant resource use conservation behaviors resource use conservation behaviors

Pollution & Resource Use RightsPollution & Resource Use Rights

• zum Beispiel:zum Beispiel:– markets, stocks and auctions for pollution and resource markets, stocks and auctions for pollution and resource

use rightsuse rights– Los Angeles Air Pollution Control Board auction Los Angeles Air Pollution Control Board auction

market for air market for air – Kyoto ????Kyoto ????

Dynamic Supply & Demand Curve for a Dynamic Supply & Demand Curve for a Pollution RightPollution Right

Pollution & Resource Use RightsPollution & Resource Use Rights• Advantages:Advantages:

– based on fixed known limits of rightsbased on fixed known limits of rights– generate tax revenuesgenerate tax revenues– inflation & economic growth would automatically raise inflation & economic growth would automatically raise

pricesprices

• Disadvantages:Disadvantages:– requires extensive requires extensive ““objectiveobjective”” scientific input to scientific input to

determine the determine the ““fixed upper limitsfixed upper limits”” of rights of rights– maximum pollution right, may be severely maximum pollution right, may be severely

compromised by political processes compromised by political processes – requires extensive monitoring and enforcement to requires extensive monitoring and enforcement to

ensureensure• non-purchasers do not pollute, degrade, and waste resourcesnon-purchasers do not pollute, degrade, and waste resources• purchasers do not exceed their purchased purchasers do not exceed their purchased ““rightsrights””

Another look at Adiabatic & Environmental Lapse Rates and Another look at Adiabatic & Environmental Lapse Rates and Unstable AirUnstable Air

Environmental Lapse RateEnvironmental Lapse Rate

AAl l t t iittuuddee

Unsaturated lapse rate (dry adiabatic rate)Unsaturated lapse rate (dry adiabatic rate)

AA

BB

CC

Parcels A, B and C - different air parcels at different Parcels A, B and C - different air parcels at different

temperatures and elevations - are all temperatures and elevations - are all unstableunstable

TemperatureTemperature

directions air has a tendency to moredirections air has a tendency to more

Adiabatic & environmental lapse rates & stable airAdiabatic & environmental lapse rates & stable air

Environmental Lapse RateEnvironmental Lapse Rate

Unsaturated lapse rate (dry adiabatic rate)Unsaturated lapse rate (dry adiabatic rate)

AA

BB

CC

Parcels A, B and C - different air parcels at Parcels A, B and C - different air parcels at different temperatures and elevations - are all different temperatures and elevations - are all

stablestable

TemperatureTemperature

Direction towards air move is “pushed” away from A, B or CDirection towards air move is “pushed” away from A, B or C

AAllttiittuuddee

Saturated adiabatic lapse rateSaturated adiabatic lapse rate

D???D???

Hot gases risingeven if

level theatmosphericconditions

arestable

Summary of Environmental lapse rates in Summary of Environmental lapse rates in highly stable, stable, conditionally highly stable, stable, conditionally

unstable, & unstable airunstable, & unstable air

EnvironmentalEnvironmental

Environmental

Environmental

Environmental

Environmental

Environm

ental

Environm

ental

ELRELR

level of free convection in figure (c) =level of free convection in figure (c) =

Rising Rising ““bubblebubble”” of (unstable) warm air of (unstable) warm air

Atmospheric Stability vs. InstabilityAtmospheric Stability vs. Instability

Comparison of normal and inverted lapse rates

Upper Air Temperature InversionUpper Air Temperature Inversion

Low level (surface level) temperature inversion and Low level (surface level) temperature inversion and ““smoggysmoggy”” fog fog

Figure 3.10 Temperature InversionFigure 3.10 Temperature Inversion

Fig. 3.10a Normal Temperature Profile

Fig. 3.10b Inverted Temperature Profile