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Returning to High School Online: A Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student
Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence
Dissertation Manuscript
Submitted to Northcentral University
Graduate Faculty of the School of Education in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
by
SUZANNE DARROW-MAGRAS
Prescott Valley, Arizona
October 2015
Approval Page
Returning to High School Online: A Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student
Experience oflnternet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence
By
Suzanne Darrow-Magras
Approved by:
LJ,du.)~ 11/2/15
Chair: Leah Wickersham-Fish, Ph.D. Date
Certified by:
~~~ uW1s-Dean of School: Dr. Rebecca Wardlow, Ed.D. Date
ii
iii
Abstract Online high schools provide alternatives for non-graduates opting to return to school, yet
student attrition from these programs is a known problem. Internet-Based Learning Self-
Efficacy (IBLSE) is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the ability to
succeed in an online course or online learning activity. IBLSE influences student
persistence in online courses, yet non-graduates often have low self-efficacy due to
previous negative school experiences. Despite a lack of research on student experiences
within online high schools, investment in these programs continues. This research gap
presents a problem, as educational stakeholders are unable to leverage data to inform
programming decisions and reduce student attrition. The purpose of this qualitative
phenomenological study was to explore the lived student experiences of IBLSE and
persistence in an online high school, in an effort to provide stakeholders with this
necessary data. Self-efficacy theory served as the study’s framework and as a lens to
evaluate findings. Purposive sampling identified five individuals who completed at least
three courses at Career Online High School or who graduated within the past year.
Phenomenological techniques of epoché, reduction, and imaginative variation helped
identify the shared essences of the phenomenon under review. A coding process allowed
for detailed data analysis and the identification and interpretation of common themes.
Eleven major composite themes were identified from the interview data: perseverance
and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education
on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others,
support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified
self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious
iv
experience. Findings demonstrated alignment with the hypothesized sources of self-
efficacy and to concepts of self-regulated learning, expectancy, and adult learning
theories. Findings also aligned with research on IBLSE and the achievement of student
goals, course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online learning
environment. Study findings aligned with research on online high school best practices
as well as research on common student challenges in online learning environments.
Results contributed to understanding the factors that promote student IBLSE and
persistence in online high schools. This study assists educational stakeholders in
understanding and supporting student IBLSE and persistence in online high school
environments.
v
Acknowledgements
I first learned about the “Law of Attraction” through the book The Secret by
Rhonda Byrne and further explored the influence of thought on manifestation through the
work of inspirational teachers like Esther and Jerry Hicks, Michael Losier, Mike Dooley,
Darryl Anka and Matt Khan. Internalizing the concept that I attract whatever I think
about, good or bad, significantly changed how I approached life decisions and interacted
with others.
The topic of virtual high schools has long been of interest to me. I live in the U.S.
Virgin Islands where only 60% of adults have high school diplomas. I have also taught
in a St. Thomas public high school and I know there is a need for school choice,
especially for students that need flexible schedules and for those that struggle in
traditional school environments. I wanted to study the use of virtual high schools by non-
graduates, in the hopes that this modality could provide a viable option for local
residents. In particular, I wanted to understand the perspective of successful online
students and use this information to inspire, motivate and support others to graduate.
As I explored theoretical frameworks, I came across the work of Dr. Albert
Bandura and self-efficacy theory. Dr. Bandura demonstrated that an individual’s ability
to achieve a goal depends on whether or not the individual believes he or she can achieve
the goal. With this information in mind, I was able to align my personal beliefs with
validated research and demonstrate to my family and friends that I wasn’t so crazy after
all. I sent an email to Dr. Bandura, thanking him for his work, and told him about my
research proposal. Dr. Bandura is 89 years old and professor emeritus at Stanford
University. While I did not expect a reply, I was thrilled to receive his one-sentence
response, “May the efficacy force be with you.” I often reflected on Dr. Bandura’s wish
for me, as the dissertation journey required immense dedication, focus, perseverance and
most of all, super Jedi-like self-efficacy powers. I’ve found that a self-efficacy mindset
makes all the difference.
I would like to thank the Career Online High School staff for sharing their data
and students with me. Thank you Dr. Howard Liebman, Wendy Kauffman, Teresa
Salafrio and Dr. John Padgett for trusting and believing in me. I know that you will use
the study findings to continue your uplifting work. I am also humbled and sincerely
vi
thankful to the students interviewed for this study. Your personal stories of triumph over
adversity were inspirational and speaking with you was heart-opening.
I would also like to thank the experts that helped to review my study proposal and
interview protocol and whose work is used extensively in this study: Dr. Dale Schunk,
Dr. Ellen Usher, and Dr. Chin-Chung Tsai. Thank you to my Dissertation Chairs, Dr.
Gregory Hickman and Dr. Leah Wickersham-Fish, and to my committee members Dr.
Eugene J. Polles and Dr. Scott Burrus, for your feedback and support.
I sincerely appreciate the support I received from my employer and colleagues at
International Capital & Management Company and the Cancer Treatment Centers of
America (CTCA). The CTCA approach to cancer care has long incorporated the mind-
body connection of fostering hope and healing through self-efficacy.
I also received immeasurable support from family and friends who never stopped
believing that I could earn my PhD. Thank you to my amazing husband Dana Magras for
your kindness, patience and love over the past six years of this dissertation journey. To
the entire Magras family circle, thank you for always loving and supporting me.
I am blessed to share this accomplishment with my mother, MaryAnn Darrow, my
father, Michael Darrow and my stepmother Irene Darrow. Thank you for always giving
me your unwavering support. To my sisters, Christine Darrow, Lynn Chylinski,
Maribeth Darrow and extended family members, thank you for your love and
encouragement.
To my daughters, Jade Sunshine Barber and Alice Moon Barber, I dedicate this
dissertation to you. You are my life, my heart and my love. Always believe in your
dreams and follow your passion. I love you.
vii
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 Background ................................................................................................................... 3 Statement of the Problem .............................................................................................. 5 Purpose of the Study ..................................................................................................... 5 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 8 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 14 Nature of the Study ..................................................................................................... 14 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 17 Definition of Key Terms ............................................................................................. 19 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 25
Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................................ 27 Documentation ............................................................................................................ 28 The Problem of High School Dropout ........................................................................ 29 Returning to High School ........................................................................................... 36 Online High Schools for Reentry Purposes ................................................................ 41 Human Development, Learning and Self-Efficacy ..................................................... 47 Student Motivation and Internet-Based Learning Self Efficacy ................................. 57 Self-Efficacy, Expectancy, and Self-Regulation in Online Learning Environments .. 60 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 65
Chapter 3: Research Method ............................................................................................. 66 Research Methods and Design(s)................................................................................ 70 Population ................................................................................................................... 74 Sample......................................................................................................................... 77 Materials/Instruments ................................................................................................. 80 Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis ................................................................. 81 Assumptions ................................................................................................................ 87 Limitations .................................................................................................................. 89 Delimitations ............................................................................................................... 90 Ethical Assurances ...................................................................................................... 91 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 95
Chapter 4: Findings ........................................................................................................... 97 Results ......................................................................................................................... 97 Evaluation of findings ............................................................................................... 166 Summary ................................................................................................................... 182
Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions ...................................... 186 Implications............................................................................................................... 189 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 196 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 209
viii
References ....................................................................................................................... 213
Appendixes ..................................................................................................................... 223
Appendix A: Permission to Conduct Study and Publish Program Names ..................... 223
Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Email/Script ........................................................ 224
Appendix C: Participant Introductory Email .................................................................. 225
Appendix D: Participant Informed Consent Form .......................................................... 226
Appendix E: Interview Scheduling Email ...................................................................... 228
Appendix F: Interview Guide ......................................................................................... 229
Appendix G: Follow-Up Interview Email and Guide ..................................................... 231
Appendix H: Member Check Email, Transcript ............................................................. 232
Appendix I: Member Check Email, Individual Textural Description ............................ 233 Appendix J: Copyright Information…………………………………………………….234
ix
List of Tables Table 1. Participant Demographic Information ............................................................... 100 Table 2. Composite Textural Themes and Definitions .................................................... 142
x
List of Figures
Figure 1. Moustakas’ (1994) Modified van Kaam Method of Data Analysis. ................ 85 Figure 2. Composite Themes by Participant ................................................................. 143
1
Chapter 1: Introduction
This phenomenological study explored the lived student experiences of Internet-
Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) and persistence within an online high school.
IBLSE is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an
online course or online learning activity (Tsai, Chuang, Liang, & Tsai, 2011). Study
participants were former high school non-graduates who opted to return to school online.
This study used the term ‘non-graduate’ to indicate individuals who have formally
withdrawn from traditional high school. Prior phenomenological research with this
population revealed that individuals prefer to be called non-graduates as the term
‘dropout’ has negative connotations that signify quitting and those that drop out of school
are often perceived as failures (Hynes, 2014). Use of this terminology allowed for
avoidance of judgment of a marginalized population. This phenomenological study
aimed to highlight the voices of non-graduates who returned to high school online. These
students were the experts on online high school persistence and their stories deserved to
be heard and honored (Hynes, 2014).
According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2012), approximately 3.1 million
students formally withdraw from school each year. A highly skilled, educated population
is fundamental to the economic strength of the United States, yet this is threatened as
individuals that leave school have lower median incomes, higher rates of unemployment,
greater incarceration rates, and poorer health in comparison to their graduate counterparts
(Balfanz, Bridgeland, Moore, & Fox, 2013; Chapman, Laird, & KewalRamani, 2010;
Hynes, 2014; Miller, McCardle, & Hernandez, 2010; Wilkins 2011). Adverse effects of
high school dropout on communities include lower tax contributions, greater reliance on
2
federal programs such as welfare and Medicaid, and higher rates of crime (Amos, 2008;
Aud, Wilkinson-Flicker, Kristapovich, Rathbun, Wang, & Zhang, 2013; Balfanz et al.,
2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins 2011). High school dropout remains a serious
national concern despite improvements in the dropout rate and significant investment in
student dropout prevention and recovery (Amos, 2008; Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et
al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011).
There is some balance to this negative trend as the majority of non-graduates
eventually obtain completion certificates (Aud, Wilkinson-Flicker, Kristapovich,
Rathbun, Wang, & Zhang, 2013). According to the National Center for Education
Statistics approximately 88% of adults ages 25 to 29 had high school completion
certificates in 2012. Non-graduates can return to school through in-person adult
education programs or through online high school programs (Wilkins, 2011). They can
also opt to take a high school equivalency exam, such as the General Educational
Development (GED) test (Wilkins, 2011).
Student attrition from online high schools is a known problem, with dropout
rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). There is a lack of
high-quality research on the effectiveness of online learning at the high school level, yet
this lack of data has not hindered program expansion efforts (Hawkins, Graham,
Sudweeks & Barbour, 2012; Molnar, Rice, Huerta, Shafer, Barbour, Miron, & Horvitz,
2014). As investment and enrollment in online high school programs grows, educational
stakeholders have an increased urgency to understand student attrition from these
programs (Barbour & Reeves, 2009).
3
Support of student self-efficacy in online high school programs can mitigate the
problem of student attrition from these environments, as high student self-efficacy levels
correlate with educational program persistence (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara, Fida,
Vecchione, Del Bove, Vecchio, Barbaranelli, & Bandura, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011). The
exploration of the lived experiences of students who are successful in online high schools
can fill literature gaps on student self-efficacy and persistence in this environment.
Educational stakeholders can use study data to inform programming decisions and reduce
student attrition.
This chapter includes background information on the utilization of online high
schools by former non-graduates and student self-efficacy in these environments. The
study’s problem and purpose statement are included within this chapter, followed by
information on self-efficacy theory, which served as the study’s theoretical framework,
and related information on IBLSE. This chapter also includes research questions, the
nature and significance of the study, definitions of key terms and concludes with a
summary.
Background
Online high schools have existed since the mid-1990’s (Oliver, Osborne, Patel, &
Kleiman, 2009). Initial online programs catered to accelerated students by providing
access to advanced coursework and specialized, remote instructors (Oliver et al., 2009).
Early online high school efforts also targeted rural students, the underserved and special
needs populations (Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Critics of online high schools identified
concerns about teacher and course quality, program funding, school certification, and
social and moral aspects of learning online (Roblyer, 2006).
4
Online education utilization in the United States, across all academic levels,
continues to grow exponentially (Queen & Lewis, 2011). In the 2003–2004 school year,
U.S. public school districts reported that 0.3 million students were enrolled in K-12
online programs and by the 2008-2009 school year this number increased to over 1
million students (Queen & Lewis, 2011). Today’s online high schools provide students
with a range of individualized opportunities including college-level courses for advanced
students and credit-recovery opportunities for students at-risk of failure or dropout
(Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Cavanaugh, Repetto, & Wayer, 2013; Oliver et al., 2009;
Roblyer & Davis, 2008).
For students that have formally withdrawn from traditional school, there are
online high schools that cater specifically to non-graduate populations (Wilkins, 2011).
Online learning components such as student-paced programming, flexible schedules, and
individualized curricula appeal to these individuals (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins &
Halverson, 2010). However, students with previous negative school experiences often
struggle in online high school programs and fear of failure can cause students to drop out
once again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond, Linton,
Smink, & Drew, 2007).
Student attrition from online high schools is a known problem, with dropout rates
in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). High attrition rates may
indicate student dissatisfaction with online learning and this can affect student success
(Roblyer, 2006). Students may leave online high school for several reasons including
feeling that the school does not meet their needs or that family or employment obligations
interfere with coursework (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011).
5
Some students may struggle with independent work and feel isolated in the online
environment (Wilkins, 2011).
Support of student self-efficacy in online high school programs can mitigate the
problem of student attrition from these environments as high student self-efficacy levels
correlate with educational program persistence (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al.,
2008; Tsai et al., 2011). Self-efficacy theory comes from Albert Bandura’s (1977a)
seminal work on social cognitive theory and indicates a person’s belief in his or her
competence to perform tasks and attain goals. Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy
(IBLSE) is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an
online course or online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011).
Self-efficacy can influence the choices students make, the amount of effort
exhibited on tasks, and the level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching
tasks (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al.,
2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Practitioner support of student
self-efficacy discourages student procrastination in the online environment and improves
student use of learning strategies (Artino & Stephens, 2009). Students with self-
professed high self-efficacy levels may be at an advantage, as self-efficacy over-
estimation can result in higher student motivation and achievement and in improved
student self-confidence in comparison to those with a more realistic sense of their
capabilities (Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk & Meece, 2006).
Statement of the Problem
Over the past decade, student enrollment in online high schools has increased
exponentially (Queen & Lewis, 2011), yet student dropout from these programs remains
6
a known problem with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009;
Roblyer, 2006). Research on the use of online high school programs by non-graduates is
limited as university-level students are typically the subject of online learning studies and
research is primarily quantitative (Tsai et al., 2011). Despite stakeholder investment into
online high schools and increased student enrollment there is little high-quality research
on learning effectiveness in this environment (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al.,
2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Queen & Lewis, 2011; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). There is an
increased urgency to understand and reduce student attrition from these environments
(Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Researchers also do not fully
understand how high school students acquire the necessary skills, attitudes, and habits to
learn online (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Molnar et al., 2014). Although high student self-
efficacy levels are indicative of persistence in learning environments (Artino & Stephens,
2009; Caprara et al., 2008), non-graduates can have low self-efficacy due to previous
negative school experiences and fear of failure can cause students to leave school once
again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007;
Schunk & Mullen, 2012). The aforementioned research gaps and concerns present a
problem as educational stakeholders have a lack of information on student experiences of
IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009;
Miller et al., 2010; Molnar et al., 2014; Roblyer, 2006). As a result, stakeholders are
unable to leverage research-based data to reduce student attrition and inform
programming decisions (Roblyer & Davis, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares,
2008).
7
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to examine the lived
student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school in an effort to
provide educational stakeholders with data to inform programming decisions and reduce
student attrition. Former non-graduates who have experienced success within online high
schools are the experts on online high school persistence and their stories deserve to be
heard (Hynes, 2014). The themes that emerged from the study interview data provide
necessary information for the development of strategies to improve student persistence
and enhance student academic performance in online learning environments (Hawkins et
al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014). Research on how students approach difficult academic
experiences and generate positive outcomes is necessary and beneficial (Hynes, 2014;
Usher & Pajares, 2008).
The setting for the study was Career Online High School (COHS), which is within
the world’s first accredited online, private school district, Smart Horizons Career Online
Education (“About Us,” 2015). The district is located in Pensacola, Florida (“About Us,”
2015). COHS program managers assisted with participant recruitment and participants
included a purposive sample of five students that completed at least three COHS courses
or graduated within the past year. There are no rules regarding sample size in qualitative
studies and research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010).
The researcher conducted semi-structured, telephone-based interviews, which
were approximately one hour in length. Data was analyzed with a seven-step
phenomenological process designed by the seminal work of van Kaam (1966) and
modified by Moustakas (1994). This process included: listing and preliminary grouping
8
of relevant expressions, reduction and elimination of expressions, clustering of
expressions to establish core themes, theme validation, development of individual
textural and structural descriptions, and development of textural-structural meanings of
the experience (Moustakas, 1994). A coding process allowed for detailed data analysis
and the identification and interpretation of common themes (Moustakas, 1994). A
composite description of the phenomenon synthesized all data as a whole (Moustakas,
1994).
Theoretical Framework
Self-efficacy theory, Bandura’s (1977a) seminal work, served as the study’s
framework and lens to evaluate findings on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence
in an online high school. Self-efficacy theory was appropriate for this study as theory
application can indicate foundational information about an individual’s personal belief
system and what the individual perceives himself or herself capable of accomplishing in
an online learning environment. Study findings extended the literature on IBLSE as it
pertained to the experiences of former non-graduates in online high schools. Educational
stakeholders can use this data to inform programming decisions and reduce student
attrition from online high school programs.
In his seminal work, Bandura (1977b) developed social learning theory to explain
human learning through social interaction and observation of others. Social learning
theory consists of three central concepts that influence human behavior: (a) cognitive or
personal factors, such as knowledge, expectations and attitudes; (b) environmental
factors, such as social norms, and one’s ability to influence one’s environment; and (c)
behavioral factors, such as skill and practice (Bandura, 1977b). Initially, researchers
9
based learning theory on behavioral tenants and Bandura’s inclusion of cognitive
processes indicated a fundamental change in how researchers interpreted the learning
process (Schunk, 2008). With this transformation, researchers viewed learners as active
seekers and processors of knowledge and not as passive receivers of information or blank
slates (Schunk, 2008).
Social cognitive theory emerged from social learning theory to encompass the
effects an individual’s cognitive processes have on all types of human behaviors,
including learning behaviors (Bandura, 1986). Social cognitive theory includes the
following constructs: reciprocal determinism, self-regulation and self-efficacy (Bandura,
1986). Reciprocal determinism is the interrelationship between an individual’s learned
behavior and the environment (Bandura, 1986). Self-regulation is a self-influence
process consisting of self-monitoring one’s behavior to include: (a) causes and effects;
(b) self-judgment of one’s behavior to include the influence of personal morals, standards
and circumstances; and (c) self-reaction to one’s behavior, to include self rewards and
self-punishments (Bandura, 1986). Self-efficacy indicates a person’s belief in his or her
competence to perform tasks and attain goals (Bandura, 1977a).
There is a long history of philosophical and psychological interest in beliefs about
personal control and the term ‘self-efficacy’ is a modern development (Maddux, 2012).
Researchers used self-efficacy beliefs as predictors to determine whether an individual
will be motivated to engage in a particular goal and to what degree an individual will
persevere and achieve a goal (Bandura, 1977a). There is no all-purpose self-efficacy
assessment tool as self-efficacy is relative to particular situations or domains of function
(Bandura, 1997, 2006).
10
Self-efficacy is not be confused with intention (what one says one will do),
although research showed that intentions can be influenced by self-efficacy beliefs
(Maddux, 2012). Self-efficacy is also not be confused with self-esteem (one’s perception
of one’s competence and self-worth), yet self-esteem can influence student academic
achievement (Maddux, 2012; Zuffiano, Alessandri, Gerbino, Kanacri, Di Giunta, Milioni,
& Caprara, 2013). Self-efficacy is not defined as a personality trait, but as belief in one’s
ability to attain desired goals within specific domains and circumstances (Maddux, 2012).
Individuals have differentiated self-efficacy beliefs as they relate to specific
functional domains (Bandura, 2006). As such, an individual’s expectations about
performing a specific task is relative to a particular situation (Bandura, 2006). High self-
efficacy in one domain does not automatically correlate with high self-efficacy in another
(Bandura, 2006). For example, an individual with a high sense of academic self-efficacy
may feel confident in achieving academic goals, but may have a low sense of physical
activity self-efficacy and may shy away from physical activity-related goals (Bandura,
2006).
The higher an individual’s self-efficacy in a particular domain, the more likely he
or she will achieve a goal and vice versa; individuals with low self-efficacy in a domain
are likely to struggle to attain goals in that area (Bandura, 1977a). For individuals
lacking requisite knowledge and skills, no amount of self-efficacy will produce
competent performance (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Perceived self-efficacy beliefs can
fluctuate due to changes in environmental conditions or personal conditions such as an
individual’s motivation level or state of mind (Schunk & Meece, 2006).
Personal self-efficacy expectations are hypothesized to come from four
11
information sources: (a) performance accomplishment, which refers to an individual’s
personal accomplishment of a task or goal; (b) vicarious experience, which refers to
personal witness of task attainment by others; (c) verbal persuasion, which refers to
attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion; and (d)
physiological and emotional states, which refers to the physiological arousal an
individual exhibits in consideration of a particular task or goal (Bandura, 1977a).
Performance accomplishment has the greatest effect on self-efficacy as repeated
successes or failures can raise or lower personal expectations (Bandura, 1977a; Usher &
Pajares, 2008). When students complete academic tasks, they interpret and evaluate the
results and develop personal competence judgments according to their interpretations
(Usher & Pajares, 2008). The experience of personal mastery in a domain has enduring
effects on individual self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Verbal encouragement from trusted parents, teachers and peers can boost student
confidence on academic tasks (Usher & Pajares, 2008). A student’s strong emotional
reaction to school-related tasks can provide clues to the expected success or failure and
high anxiety can undermine student self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Increasing a
students’ physical and emotional well-being and reducing stress and negative emotional
states strengthens self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares). Self-efficacy beliefs are known to
have a biological impact and can influence the release of catecholamines which are
neurotransmitters related to management of stress and perceived threats (Bandura, 1997;
Maddux, 2012). Self-efficacy beliefs play a role in the release of endorphins which can
impact sensations of pain and euphoria (Bandura, 1997; Maddux, 2012).
Researchers leveraged self-efficacy sources to influence student academic
12
achievement, to improve student performance, and facilitate student goal attainment
(Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Researchers also used self-efficacy theory to indicate optimism levels in students, to
identify and mitigate student anxiety, and facilitate academic help-seeking behaviors
(Usher & Pajares, 2008). Research findings demonstrated that student self-efficacy had
implications on achievement, motivation and self-regulation in online learning
environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011). IBLSE,
which indicates a student’s confidence and self-belief in the ability to succeed in an
online course or online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011), has been used to predict
student motivation to enroll, exert effort, and complete an online course, and to predict
student satisfaction with learning online (Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty &
Loboda, 2011).
Locus of control is the degree to which individuals perceive that outcomes result
from their own behaviors (internal control) or from forces external to themselves
(external control) (Lefcourt, 2014). Individual attribution of control can influence
behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes experienced as well as self-efficacy beliefs (Lefcourt,
2014). Those with an internal control may believe they are responsible for their success
while those with an external control may believe that external forces, like luck, impact
outcomes (Lefcourt, 2014).
Researchers found that students with self-professed high self-efficacy levels may
be at an advantage as self-efficacy over-estimation can result in higher student
motivation, achievement and student self-confidence, in comparison to students with a
realistic sense of their capabilities (Bandura, 1997; Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk &
13
Meece, 2006). There is some controversy on this topic as researchers found that among
academically at-risk high school students, student over-estimation of academic self-
efficacy resulted in poor social skills, behavior problems, and lower academic
competence (Gonida & Leondari, 2011). The challenge for educators is to enhance
student self-efficacy, while ensuring students have the requisite skills needed for success
(Schunk & Meece, 2006).
Other conflicting self-efficacy research indicated that individuals with high levels
of self-efficacy may overestimate abilities to attain goals and may experience failure,
while those with low self-efficacy levels can feel motivated to achieve goals to prove
they can accomplish challenging tasks (Settlage, Southerland, Smith, & Ceglie, 2009).
Additionally, an individual who is highly skilled, yet has low self-efficacy, can be limited
in what he or she can achieve (Schunk & Meece, 2006; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Some researchers claimed that Bandura’s utilization of self-efficacy to predict
performance is limited as self-efficacy may only indicate an individual’s momentary
perception of capability, whereas self-concept or self-esteem, (one’s perception of one’s
competence and self-worth), may provide a more valid prediction of performance
(Maddux, 2012). Additional known sources of self-efficacy not explored by Bandura
include the role of optimism, the use of motivational self-talk, and the use of imagery
(Usher & Pajares, 2008). There is a need to understand how student self-efficacy is
fostered and sustained in the online learning environment and to understand how existing
theories can be adapted for this modality (Bekele, 2010; Hartnett, St. George, & Dron,
2011; Tsai et al., 2011).
14
Research Questions
Phenomenological research questions are interpretive and generate data that
reveals lived experiences and shared essences of a phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). For
this study, the phenomenon under investigation was the student experience of IBLSE and
persistence in an online high school. The study problem, a lack of information on student
experiences of this phenomenon and the resulting inability for educational stakeholders to
leverage this data to reduce student attrition was addressed through Research Question 1.
Research Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose, to understand how educational
stakeholders can leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high
school environments and use this information to inform programming decisions.
Q1. What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within an online
high school?
Q2. How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE
and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school
programming decisions?
Nature of the Study
This qualitative phenomenological study described the student experiences of
IBLSE and persistence within an online high school. A qualitative approach was
appropriate as this method allowed for the exploration of a social issue from the
participants’ point of view and indicated the meaning attributed to this experience
(Marshall & Rossman, 2011). A qualitative design aligned with theoretical contribution
as this approach generated information on student self-efficacy in an online learning
environment.
15
A phenomenological approach was optimal for the study as researchers utilized
this method to understand the essence of shared experiences and to convey fundamental
meanings (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological methods allow researchers to adopt a
holistic, inductive, non-judgmental approach to the exploration of how others perceive
events (Moustakas, 1994). This approach was appropriate based on study goals as it
allowed the researcher to understand the phenomenon from the participant’s point of
view and revealed data on how the phenomenon interacted with other factors in a
participant’s life (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenology provided a deliberate, sensitive
approach to research that was appropriate given the study population. A
phenomenological approach allowed for the voices of marginalized groups, like non-
graduates, to be heard (Hynes, 2014; Moustakas, 1994).
In their critical review of the literature on self-efficacy in schools, Usher and
Pajares (2008) cited several studies that utilized a qualitative phenomenological
approach, including an interview protocol, to assess student self-efficacy. Other
researchers were successful in using a phenomenological approach to capture the lived
experiences of former non-graduates engaged in high school/adult education programs
(Hynes, 2014). There is a need to hear the voices of students and incorporate their ideas
into the development of high school reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014).
The researcher considered other methodologies for the study but they were not
appropriate based on study goals. Quantitative methodologies use objective data
collection and analysis methods, which did not align with the study’s framework or the
goal to understand the phenomenon from the participant’s point of view (Maxwell, 2013).
Quantitative data does not indicate the rich, detailed descriptions that make a study
16
unique (Moustakas, 1994).
The researcher explored other research designs, but they were not appropriate for
the study. A case study would allow for in-depth investigation of students and programs
through observation, interview and document review, but this method would not allow
for exploration of lived experiences (Yin, 2014). A grounded theory approach involves
theory development and this method would not allow for the application of a self-efficacy
framework (Maxwell, 2013). Narrative inquiry was a less desirable approach as it
involved studying individuals through the stories they tell about their lives and would not
target the experience of student IBLSE and persistence in an online high school
(Maxwell, 2013).
Ethnography is similar to phenomenology and was under consideration as the
research design. Ethnography involves holistic descriptions and interpretations of
cultural behaviors and cultural groups over a prolonged period, yet a phenomenological
study was preferred as it focused on understanding meaning through the lens of the
participant (Maxwell, 2013). The study had ethnographic elements due to the nature of
the research, but the study’s focus was the unique lived experience of the phenomenon
and its relation to theory, making a phenomenological approach the preferred design
route.
The setting for the study was Career Online High School (COHS), which is
within the world’s first accredited online, private school district, Smart Horizons Career
Online Education and is located in Pensacola, Florida (“About Us,” 2015). Study
participants included a purposive sample of five students that completed at least three
COHS courses or graduated within the past year. There are no rules regarding sample
17
size in qualitative studies and research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010).
The researcher examined participants via a semi-structured telephone interview.
Bandura’s (2006) ‘Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales’ aided interview question
development, along with sample qualitative self-efficacy interview questions found
within Usher and Pajares (2008) and sample phenomenological interview questions found
within Moustakas (1994).
Interviews were transcribed verbatim and phenomenological analysis of interview
data followed a modified van Kaam methodology to generate common themes
(Moustakas, 1994). As part of the data analysis process, the researcher identified student
self-efficacy expressions and related them to Bandura’s (1977a) theorized sources of self-
efficacy. Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) managed
study data.
The data collection plan was appropriate and aligned with the purpose of the
study, to examine the lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online
high school in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with data to inform
programming decisions and reduce student attrition. Data collection from multiple
participants generated this needed empirical information and analysis processes indicated
how participant experiences related to the theoretical framework. Findings provided
insight into the shared characteristics of former non-graduate students in online high
school environments.
Significance of the Study
The problem of high school dropout, at the rate of approximately 3.1 million
students per year, is a serious national concern (Amos, 2008; Balfanz et al., 2013;
18
Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). A highly skilled, educated population is
fundamental to the economic strength of the United States, yet this is threatened as
individuals that leave school can expect to have lower median incomes, higher rates of
unemployment, greater incarceration rates, and poorer health in comparison to their
graduate counterparts (Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Hynes, 2014; Wilkins
2011). Adverse effects of high school dropout on communities include lower tax
contributions, a greater reliance on federal programs such as welfare and Medicaid, and
higher rates of crime (Amos, 2008; Aud et al., 2013; Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al.,
2010; Wilkins 2011). Research that addresses the problem of high school dropout and
fosters development of dropout recovery and reentry strategies is deemed worthwhile
(Hynes, 2014; Wilkins, 2011).
Although online high schools provide viable alternatives for non-graduates,
student attrition from these programs remains a known problem with dropout rates in
excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). As investment and enrollment
in online education programs grows, there is an increased urgency to understand and
reduce student attrition in these environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009). High levels of
student self-efficacy correlate with student persistence in learning environments (Artino
& Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011), and practitioner support of
IBLSE in online high schools may mitigate the problem of student attrition.
Researchers do not fully understand how high school students acquire the
necessary skills, attitudes, and habits to learn online (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Molnar et
al., 2014). Although the use of online schools by non-graduates is commonplace, there is
little research in this topic area (Roblyer & Davis, 2008). During the literature review, no
19
qualitative studies on former non-graduate experiences of self-efficacy in online high
schools were identified. The lack of research on student experiences of IBLSE in online
high schools results in a problem as educational stakeholders are unable to leverage
critical data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions (Roblyer &
Davis, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). This study generated this
necessary data. As a result, more students may receive the support they need to earn
completion degrees, improve earning power, and obtain an overall higher quality of life.
Phenomenological research is an important methodology as it allows the voices of
marginalized groups, like non-graduates, to be heard (Hynes, 2014; Moustakas, 1994).
There is a need to incorporate student ideas into the development of high school reentry
strategies (Hynes, 2014). This phenomenological study provided a venue for students to
express themselves and share their experiences of IBLSE and persistence. Study findings
extended the literature on student IBLSE and persistence as it pertained to the
experiences of former non-graduates in an online high school environment.
Definition of Key Terms
Academic Self-Efficacy (ASE). The construct of ASE indicates a learner’s
perception of academic learning; this term is interchangeable with that of student self-
efficacy (Tsai et al., 2011).
Andragogy. Andragogy is a Greek term, which means ‘man-leading,’ and can be
contrasted with the Greek term, pedagogy, which means ‘child leading’; within
education, andragogy is the science of helping adults learn (Knowles, 1980).
Averaged Freshman Graduation Rate. The averaged freshman graduation rate
is the proportion of public high school freshmen who graduate with a regular diploma
20
four years after starting ninth grade; this rate is an estimate of on-time graduation from
high school (Chapman et al., 2010).
Computer Self-Efficacy (CSE). CSE is a construct indicating an individual’s
perceived confidence in utilizing computer technologies in a variety of capacities and
situations (Tsai et al., 2011).
Concrete Operational Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the concrete
operational stage occurs during the elementary school years as children apply cognitive
operations to problems that involve concrete objects (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
Constructivist Learning Theory. Developed by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget
(1896-1980), constructivist learning theory indicated that individuals create their
understanding of the world they live in through interactions with their environment and
with others (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
Credit Recovery. Credit recovery is an educational program feature where
student retake failed coursework for high school credit or obtain high school credit
through activities such as mastery testing, community service, or work/life experience
(Wilkins, 2011).
Disconnected Youth. Disconnected youth is a term that describes young high
school non-graduates that are neither working or in school (Bloom, Thompson, & Ivry,
2010).
Dropout Recovery. Dropout recovery involves activities conducted by school
districts or community organizations to identify and re-enroll non-graduates back into
traditional school (Wilkins, 2011).
Dropout Reentry. Dropout reentry refers to a non-graduate’s return to high
21
school to obtain a high school credential; within the context of the study, this term is
unrelated to the criminal justice system and the reintegration of former offenders into
mainstream society (Wilkins, 2011).
Educational Stakeholder. The term educational stakeholder refers to any
person, group or organization that has an interest or concern in education (Saxena, 2014).
Epoché. Epoché is a Greek term meaning ‘suspension of judgment’; in
phenomenological research, epoché, or ‘bracketing’, refers to researchers refraining from
judgment and setting aside bias (Moustakas, 1994).
Event Dropout Rate. The event dropout rate is the percentage of students who
dropped out of high school between the beginning of one school year and the next,
without earning a high school credential (Chapman et al., 2010).
Expectancy. In Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory, expectancy refers to an
individual’s perception that greater efforts will yield greater results; in regards to
workplace learning, expectancy refers to an individual’s perception that training
participation will lead to the acquisition of knowledge, skills or abilities (Mathieu,
Tannenbaum & Salas, 1992)
Expectancy Theory. Developed by business school professor Victor Vroom,
expectancy theory indicated that individuals are motivated to behave in certain ways
based on perceived results of behavior, with correlations between perceived desirability
of an outcome and an individual’s motivation level (Vroom, 1964).
Formal Operations Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the formal
operations stage occurs in early adolescence and continues into adulthood and is
demonstrated by an individual’s ability to solve complex problems, infer possibilities,
22
hypothesize, and think ahead (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
Four-Year Adjusted Cohort Graduation Rate. The four-year adjusted cohort
graduation rate is the common calculation used by all U.S. state governors for tracking
high school dropout; to calculate the rate, divide the annual number of on-time graduates
by the number of first-time ninth graders, four years earlier (Balfanz et al., 2013).
High School Credential. A high school credential refers to any type of high
school completion degree, including a General Educational Development (GED) test
credential and demonstrates that a student has met all state requirements for high school
graduation (Chapman et al., 2010).
Instrumentality. In Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory, instrumentality refers to
an individual’s perception that greater efforts will result in expected outcomes; in regards
to workplace learning, instrumentality refers to an individual’s perception that
knowledge, skills, or abilities gained from training will lead to specific outcomes, such as
respect from peers, pay increases, and improved job performance (Mathieu et al., 1992)
Internet-Based Learning (IBL). The construct of IBL refers to learning that
occurs within a general online learning environment (Tsai et al., 2011).
Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE). The construct of IBLSE
indicates student self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or an online
learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011).
Internet Self-Efficacy (ISE). The construct of ISE indicates an individual’s
confidence in general skills and knowledge in using the Internet (Tsai et al., 2011).
Non-graduate. The term non-graduate refers to an individual who has officially
withdrawn, or ‘dropped out’ of high school (Hynes, 2014).
23
Performance Accomplishment. In self-efficacy theory, performance
accomplishment refers to an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal
(Bandura, 1977a).
Physiological and Emotional States. In self-efficacy theory, physiological and
emotional states refers to the physiological and emotional arousal an individual exhibits
in consideration of a particular task or goal (Bandura, 1977a).
Preoperational Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the preoperational stage
occurs during the preschool years and includes the development of symbolic schemes,
meaning children are able to represent objects and events with symbols such as language,
mental images, and gestures (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
Reciprocal Determinism. In social cognitive theory, reciprocal determinism is
the interrelationship between an individual’s behavior and the environment (Bandura,
1986).
Reentry Programs. Reentry programs are high school credential programs for
non-graduates; this term is not to be confused with reentry as it relates to the correctional
system (Wilkins, 2011).
Schemes. In constructivist learning theory, schemes are patterns of thoughts or
actions that children use to interact with the environment (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
Self-Efficacy. Self-efficacy refers to the theoretical construct that an individual’s
ability to achieve a goal depends on whether or not the individual believes he or she can
achieve the goal (Bandura, 1977a).
Self-Regulated Learning (SRL). SRL refers to the metacognitive, self-directed
practices and beliefs students use to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning
24
effectiveness (Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986).
Sensorimotor Stage. In constructivist learning theory, the sensorimotor stage
occurs in infancy and includes simple and action-oriented schemes such as reaching for,
grasping, and pulling objects, goal-directed behavior, and object permanence (Meece &
Daniels, 2008).
Social Cognitive Theory. Developed by American psychologist Albert Bandura,
social cognitive theory emerged from social learning theory to encompass the effects an
individual’s cognitive processes have on all types of human behaviors, including learning
behaviors (Bandura, 1986).
Social Learning Theory. Developed by American psychologist Albert Bandura,
social learning theory indicated that humans learn from one another through observation,
imitation and modeling (Bandura, 1977b).
Status Completion Rate. The status completion rate is the percentage of
individuals in a particular age range who are not in high school and have earned a high
school credential (Chapman et al., 2010).
Status Dropout Rate. The status dropout rate is the percentage of individuals in
a particular age range who are not in high school and have not earned a high school
credential (Chapman et al., 2010).
Student Self-efficacy. Student self-efficacy refers to a student’s personal belief
in his or her ability to complete an academic task and this term is interchangeable with
that of academic self-efficacy; students demonstrate this construct by setting specific and
proximal goals, self-evaluating, self-motivating, and self-regulating learning behaviors
(Zimmerman, 2008).
25
Urban Youth. The term urban youth refers to young people that live in
metropolitan areas and whose families are recent immigrants or who are financially
impoverished (Schunk & Mullen, 2012).
Valence. In Vroom’s (1964) expectancy theory, valence refers to an individual’s
perception of the importance of an expected outcome; in regards to workplace learning,
valence refers to the personal importance of training outcomes to the individual (Mathieu
et al., 1992)
Verbal Persuasion. In self-efficacy theory, verbal persuasion refers to attempts
by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion (Bandura, 1977a).
Vicarious Experience. In self-efficacy theory, vicarious experience refers to
personal witness of task attainment by others (Bandura, 1977a).
Summary
This chapter included background information on online high schools, the
utilization of these programs by former non-graduates and the impact of student self-
efficacy in learning environments. The study’s problem and purpose statement were
included in this chapter, followed by information on self-efficacy theory and related
information on IBLSE. This chapter included the study’s research questions, information
on the nature and significance of the study and definitions of key terms.
The utilization of a phenomenological research design indicated alignment with
the study problem, purpose and research questions. Rich, detailed descriptions, which
reflect the lived experiences of individuals, are possible with qualitative
phenomenological methodology and can indicate shared patterns, themes, and essences of
experiences (Moustakas, 1994). Bandura’s (1986) self-efficacy theory provided a robust
26
study framework, which aligned with the nature of the study. Study data indicated shared
essences of the phenomenon under review and educational stakeholders can use this
information to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions. Research that
supports non-graduate attainment of high school completion degrees and fosters
development of dropout recovery and reentry strategies is considered worthwhile (Hynes,
2014; Wilkins, 2011).
27
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Although there is a plethora of research on the topics of high school dropout and
dropout prevention, there is little research on the use of online high schools to mitigate
the problem of high school dropout (Wilkins, 2011). While online high schools have
been in existence for decades, researchers still do not fully understand how students learn
within these environments and research on the non-graduate experience of these
programs is even more limited (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Hynes,
2014; Molnar et al., 2014; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Self-efficacy research validity improves when it is domain-specific as individual
self-efficacy beliefs are relative to particular environments and tasks (Bandura, 1997,
2006). Although there is research on self-efficacy within academic domains, there is a
lack of information on Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) which indicates a
student’s confidence and self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or in an
online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). Additionally, research on the topic of online
learning environments and student self-efficacy is primarily quantitative and focused on
the experiences of university-level students (Tsai et al., 2011).
This chapter familiarizes readers with current literature on topics relevant to the
study and demonstrates the need for research on the experiences of former non-graduates
enrolled in online high schools. The review provides foundational information in support
of the study purpose: to examine the phenomenon of student experiences of IBLSE and
online high school persistence in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with
information to reduce student attrition. This review incorporates various seminal, current
and peer-reviewed resources to provide the appropriate perspective.
28
A review of the phenomenon of high school dropout indicates the gravity of this
national problem. Information on high school reentry provides an overview of student
pathways back to high school. A review of the use of online high schools for reentry
purposes indicates the utilization of this modality with non-graduate populations.
Information on self-efficacy, development and learning provides theoretical context on
the human learning experience. A discussion of student motivation and IBLSE provides
insight into the online student experience. Additional information on expectancy theory
and Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) theory, as they related to self-efficacy theory,
provides perspective on theory development, theory overlaps, and practical applications.
Documentation
A search of Northcentral University databases utilizing the Roadrunner Search
Discovery Service facilitated in the location of scholarly, peer-reviewed articles from the
following databases: (a) Ebrary, (b) EBSCOhost Education Research Complete, (c) EdIT
Digital Library, (d) ERIC Education Research, (e) ProQuest Educational Journals, (f)
Sage Journals Online, (g) Science Direct, (h) SpringerLink, (i) Taylor and Francis Online,
and (j) Wiley Online Library. Additional Northcentral University resources included the
Northcentral Dissertation Database and ProQuest Dissertation and Theses. Professional
books served as resource and seminal material and the Google Scholar search engine
helped locate full text, peer reviewed, and seminal resources.
Searches of the following government and professional websites and education
clearinghouses assisted in identifying education statistics and trends: (a) U.S. Department
of Education and the National Center for Education Statistics; (b) U.S. Census Bureau;
(c) America’s Promise Alliance, Civic Enterprises and Everyone Graduates Center; (d)
29
Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; (e) National Dropout Prevention
Center; (f) National Education Policy Center; and (g) Alliance for Excellent Education.
Key search terminology included various combinations of the following terms: high
school dropout, online high school, virtual high school, online learning, Internet-based
learning, online education, online education for high school dropouts, student attrition
and persistence from online programs, social cognitive theory, self-efficacy theory,
expectancy theory, self-regulated learning theory, adult learning theory, online self-
efficacy, and academic motivation.
The Problem of High School Dropout
School reform efforts have led to significant improvements in the high school
dropout rate, yet each year more than one million public high school students fail to
graduate on time with their original freshman class; this equates to one-fifth of the United
States freshman student body (Balfanz et al., 2013). The statistics for urban youth and
minority groups such as African Americans, Native Americans and Hispanics are even
more distressing as only 50% of the members of this population graduate on time
(Balfanz et al., 2013; Schunk & Mullen, 2012). In 2008, the national status dropout rate
was 8%, indicating that approximately 3.0 million 16 to 24-year-olds were either not
enrolled in high school or had not earned a high school credential (Chapman et al., 2010).
High school dropout is a crisis in the United States as more than 3.1 million students
leave school each year (Aud et al., 2013).
Historically, national dropout rates have been difficult to gauge as state education
agencies use varied calculations to report dropout data (Balfanz et al., 2013). Due to
these inconsistencies, researchers from the National Center for Education Statistics
30
analyzed four specific rates in a compendium report which included graduation and
dropout data from 1972–2008 (Chapman et al., 2010). Rates studied included: (a) the
event dropout rate (percentage of students who dropped out of high school between the
beginning of one school year and the next without earning a high school credential); (b)
the status dropout rate (percentage of individuals in a particular age range who are not in
high school and have not earned a high school credential); (c) the status completion rate
(percentage of individuals in a particular age range who are not in high school and have
earned a high school credential); and (d) the averaged freshman graduation rate
(proportion of public high school freshmen who graduate with a regular diploma four
years after starting ninth grade and is an estimate of on-time graduation from high school)
(Chapman et al., 2010).
In 2010, all state governors agreed to utilize a single calculation, the four-year
adjusted cohort graduation rate, to track dropout and ensure for standardized
accountability (Balfanz et al., 2013). To calculate this rate the annual number of on-time
graduates is divided by the number of first-time ninth graders, four years earlier (Balfanz
et al., 2013). Improvements have occurred across all rates over time, yet findings showed
that females and White and Asian/Pacific Islander students were more likely to graduate
on time and experience fewer instances of dropout in comparison to males and to African
American, American Indian/Alaska Native and Hispanic students (Chapman et al., 2010).
Student dropout can have serious impacts on individuals, communities, and
economies (Amos, 2008). Non-graduates can expect to have lower median incomes,
higher rates of unemployment, greater incarceration rates, and poorer health in
comparison to their graduate counterparts (Amos, 2008; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins
31
2011). Non-graduates earn on average, $10,000 a year less than those with a high school
diploma and over the course of a lifetime a college graduate will earn approximately $1
million dollars more than a high school dropout (Amos, 2008). Thus, researchers called
dropping out of high school “a million dollar mistake” (Amos, 2008, p. 8). Negative
effects of high school dropout on communities included economic hardship due to lower
tax contributions, a greater reliance on federal programs such as welfare and Medicaid,
and higher rates of crime (Amos, 2008; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins 2011).
Individuals that leave school are likely to be navigating toxic environments in
their homes, schools and neighborhoods that are not typical of the wider U.S. population
(Hynes, 2014). Many are exposed to violent behaviors, affected by negative family
health issues, and subjected to school environments and policies that are dangerous,
unsupportive or disrespectful (Hynes, 2014). Findings from the National Dropout
Prevention Center showed student dropout correlated with 25 risk factors in four major
areas: individual, family, community and school (Hammond et al., 2007).
Examples of individual risk factors included having special needs such as learning
disabilities, early adult responsibilities, poor school attendance, and misbehavior in
school (Hammond et al., 2007). Family risk factors included low socioeconomic status,
low education level of parents, needing to care for a family member and high family
mobility (Hammond et al., 2007). Community risk factors include urban and geographic
location, impoverishment, a high minority population, and high levels of violence and
drug-related crime (Hammond et al., 2007).
School related dropout risk factors are numerous and included school size, high
student-teacher ratio, student body characteristics (such as percentage of minority and
32
low-income students), student body academic performance and problems with
attendance, violence, and school safety (Hammond et al., 2007). Other school-related
risk factors included school policies and structures that can impede student promotion
such as high-stakes testing and standards-based reforms (Hammond et al., 2007). Lack of
relevant curriculum, uninteresting coursework, and harmful school discipline practices
can also cause students to leave school (Hammond et al., 2007). The aforementioned risk
factors can contribute to the student experience of educational trauma, which is the
unintentional ill-treatment or discrimination of students by an educational system (Gray,
2015). This type of trauma can impact individuals, families and communities and can
lead to feelings of helplessness and disempowerment (Gray, 2015).
The problem of high school dropout often reflects a disconnect with adults in the
academic community (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). When interviewed, non-
graduates cited compounding reasons for leaving school including parenthood, the need
to obtain employment, poor grades, lack of connection to, or dislike of school, unfair
school discipline practices, uninteresting classes, unsupportive teachers, trouble getting
along with teachers, and court involvement (Bloom et al., 2010; Burzichelli, Mackey, &
Bausmith, 2011; Hammond et al., 2007; Wilkins, 2011). Other factors include
homelessness, incarcerated parents and being in foster care, yet these types of risk factors
are often out of the control of young people who feel they must leave school in order to
meet basic needs (Hynes, 2014).
Non-graduates often remain in environments that are unsupportive of academic
and vocational achievement (Hynes, 2014). Young people value their connections with
others and the value placed on relationships can influence whether or not an individual
33
stays in school or drops out (Hynes, 2014). Researchers advised practitioners to provide
additional support to students experiencing risk factors and build upon student strengths
to encourage persistence and/or reentry (Hynes, 2014).
Researchers advised educational stakeholders to use caution when labeling a
student as ‘at-risk’ (Hickman & Wright, 2011). In a study exploring at-risk students
involved in a mentoring program, it was revealed that the earlier a student enrolled in the
program, the less likely he or she would be to complete the program and graduate high
school (Hickman & Wright, 2011). Findings indicated that the younger a student was
labeled as at-risk the more likely he or she would experience life-long problematic
behaviors (Hickman & Wright, 2011).
Student dropout is not a sudden event; student disconnection from school is a
long-term process (Hynes, 2014). There is no single, underlying risk factor that leads to
student dropout, yet dropout risks are higher when multiple risk factors are present
(Hammond et al., 2007; Wilkins 2011). Research showed that 63% of non-graduates
eventually obtain a high school credential within eight years of their original graduation
date (Bloom et al., 2010). Approximately 10% of non-graduates are persistently
disconnected; these individuals never re-engage with education or workforce
development programs (Balfanz et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011).
In a phenomenological study exploring student experiences of high school
dropout, researchers found that individuals who leave school do not want to be called
dropouts, they prefer to be called ‘non-graduates’ and their decision to discontinue formal
education as, ‘leaving school’ (Hynes, 2014). The term ‘dropout’ has negative
undertones that signify quitting and those that drop out of school are often perceived as
34
‘losers’ (Hynes, 2014). Researchers advised educational stakeholders to reframe the term
student dropout as ‘interrupted enrollment’ as this conveys a more positive outlook for
student return to school (Hynes, 2014). It is important to see beyond the data and
understand that non-graduates are not statistics, but unique individuals with hopes,
dreams and stories that deserve to be honored (Hynes, 2014).
Individuals that leave high school often show considerable resilience and are able
to recover from difficult situations, yet this resilience may not be sufficient to help them
re-engage with school (Hynes, 2014). These individuals need authentic connections with
adults and peers that care about them, support and guide them, and provide them with
access to educational programs and social services (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Drysdale,
Graham, & Borup, 2014; Hynes, 2014). An individual’s personal resilience, in
conjunction with social and institutional supports, can enhance the academic reentry path
(Hynes, 2014).
Created by the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences in
2002, the “What Works Clearinghouse” serves as an open-access, evidence-based
database for practices that work in education (Burzichelli et al., 2011). The
Clearinghouse contains information on dropout prevention and allows educational
stakeholders to research dropout prevention strategies, review program effectiveness,
identify programs that address special needs students, and make decisions as to which
strategies may generate success (Burzichelli et al., 2011). Proven effective dropout
prevention programs include those that make educational quality a top priority, report
accurate data, utilize early warning and intervention systems, have high expectations and
standards, promote teacher effectiveness and encourage parental engagement (Balfanz et
35
al., 2013). Educational stakeholders are encouraged to integrate student voices and ideas
into the development of student dropout prevention and reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014).
Researchers with America's Promise Alliance, Civic Enterprises and the Everyone
Graduates Center at Johns Hopkins University explained that a national, strategic plan,
like the “Civic Marshall Plan” can alleviate the dropout crisis (Balfanz et al., 2013).
When developing dropout recovery strategies, educational stakeholders are advised to
provide multiple, targeted pathways to education success, as there is no universal method
to re-engage students (Balfanz et al., 2013; Hickman & Wright, 2011). Recovery
programs and interventions should operate simultaneously to meet the needs of students
(Balfanz et al., 2013).
Other researchers believed that the problem of high school dropout should be
reframed as a public health issue as this action would bring other organizations, such as
health institutions and civil rights groups, into the dropout conversation (Miller et al.,
2010). Low adult literacy levels also pose a public health challenge as today’s increased
literacy demands can limit workplace opportunities and restrict access to healthcare
resources (Miller et al., 2010). Despite the fact that 40 million Americans have only the
most basic literacy, there is a lack of research focused on adult learners to inform
remediation efforts (Miller et al., 2010).
Researchers agreed that dropout factory schools, where only 60% of freshman
students make it to their senior year, should be the first targets of educational reform
efforts (Balfanz et al., 2013). There is no single, underlying factor that contributes to
student dropout and there is no single type of intervention that can end the dropout crisis
(Balfanz et al., 2013; Hammond et al., 2007; Hickman & Wright, 2011). Despite positive
36
trends in reducing student dropout and the emergence of innovative dropout prevention
strategies, there is still a significant need for research and continued efforts to reduce the
dropout rate.
Returning to High School
More than 6 million people nationwide, between the ages of 16 and 24 are high
school non-graduates (Balfanz et al., 2013). High school dropout recovery and reentry
programs allow non-graduates to have another chance to complete their high school
education (Wilkins, 2011). Dropout recovery involves student re-enrollment into
traditional schools, while reentry programs are non-traditional and allow for student self-
enrollment (Wilkins, 2011). Educational stakeholders have established high school
reentry programs as charter schools, as day or evening adult education centers, or as
online programs (Wilkins, 2011). Non-graduates can also opt to take a high school
equivalency exam, such as the General Educational Development (GED) test (Wilkins,
2011). Some high school recovery and reentry programs target a younger demographic,
while others focus on non-graduates that are significantly over-age, under-credited and
disconnected (Balfanz et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011).
Individuals who have left school may not realize there are options to return, they
may feel embarrassed to return, or may not feel welcome in school environments
(Hammond et al., 2007; Wilkins, 2011). To locate and re-engage non-graduates,
stakeholders can promote brick and mortar high school programs that are suitable for all
non-graduates (Wilkins, 2011). Brick and mortar programs may not require students to
have technical computer skills and can provide additional services such as one-on-one
staffing, on-site daycare and connections to social workers, mental health experts, and
37
counseling services (Bloom et al., 2010). Non-graduates can be located via telephone,
text, personalized letters, home visits, and through collaboration with community-based
organizations, re-engagement fairs, media campaigns and other forms of direct outreach
(Hynes, 2014; Wilkins, 2011).
Educational stakeholders can use a targeted approach to locate specific members
of the non-graduate population, such as those willing and able to go back to school online
(Wilkins, 2011). Participation in online high school requires students to have basic
computer skills to navigate the online framework, to complete and submit assignments,
and to communicate with instructors (Oliver et al., 2009). Aspects of the online
environment that appeal to this demographic include flexible scheduling, student-paced
content, on-demand access to diverse knowledge sources and the availability of
multimedia content and tools (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2009; Oliver
et al., 2009). Potential students can be located through online marketing, social
networking sites, and email campaigns (Wilkins, 2011). Educational stakeholders can
improve reentry program enrollment by addressing risk factors, utilizing a variety of
strategies, and providing multiple reentry points for non-graduates (Hammond et al.,
2007; Burzichelli et al., 2011; Wilkins 2011).
Credit recovery and credit accrual are important aspects of high school reentry
programs as students can retake failed coursework through online programs, obtain credit
by mastery testing, or obtain credit for life skills, community service or work experience
(Balfanz et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). All credit recovery and high school reentry
students by definition have special needs (Wilkins, 2011). Flexible programming,
meaningful curricula, robust services and supports, and one-on-one staff involvement can
38
help meet the special needs of students and reduce barriers to school completion (Balfanz
et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). Partnerships
between schools, job sites, daycares, and community-based organizations can improve
student re-enrollment and graduation rates (Wilkins, 2011).
For non-graduates who are under-credited and over-age, (individuals beyond age
24 who are no longer eligible for traditional public school and are far from meeting
diploma credit requirements), the return to traditional school is unrealistic (Bloom et al.,
2010). For these individuals, reentry options that incorporate school, career training
and/or college coursework are more feasible as students can earn a high school credential
while gaining career skills and/or college credit (Balfanz et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011).
Research findings showed that programs that incorporate career awareness and offer
participants monetary stipends are more successful in comparison to other programs
(Bloom et al., 2010). This demonstrates that paid work, such as job shadowing and
apprenticeship, is an effective student motivation tool (Bloom et al., 2010).
Reentry program facilitators and academic coaches can have a significant impact
on student academic success (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). It is important that
facilitators and coaches have a passion for working with non-graduates and provide
students with personalized learning experiences (Cavanaugh et al., 2013, Wilkins, 2011).
Other recommendations include low practitioner-student ratios and the active
engagement of program facilitators in students’ lives, such as listening to students’ needs,
collaborating with students to set educational goals, connecting students to community
resources, facilitating relationships with the students’ family members, and understanding
the students’ social and emotional needs (Wilkins, 2011).
39
Students with previous negative school experiences can struggle in high school
reentry programs and fear of failure can cause students to drop out again (Cavanaugh et
al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007). There are no national
dropout statistics specific to non-graduate populations, nor are there national statistics for
online education programs as they all operate in different manners (J. Wilkins, personal
communication, January 1, 2013). Some states operate schools for students within that
state and some operate independently, which results in different reporting requirements
(J. Wilkins, personal communication, January 1, 2013).
Students that leave reentry programs cited different reasons for attrition, other
than the reasons provided for initial drop out (Wilkins, 2011). Students may feel that
reentry programs do not meet their needs or they may have family-related issues that
interfere with coursework (Wilkins, 2011). High school reentry programs are often a last
educational resort for non-graduates and stakes are high; there is a real need to
understand student experiences to influence student outcomes (Wilkins, 2011). There is
also a need for research on how students generate positive academic outcomes despite
challenging circumstances (Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Research controversy on the subject of high school reentry programs included
concerns about success rates, academic rigor and lack of proven effective strategies
(Balfanz et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). High school reentry programs
that claim high success rates, such as the U.S. Department of Labor’s Job Corps and
YouthBuild USA, screen out individuals who do not demonstrate strong self-motivational
skills and these programs may not reach disconnected youth who are most in need
(Balfanz et al., 2013; Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). Given these filters, higher
40
success rates in these programs are statistically plausible. Regarding rigor, researchers
believed that if programs receive federal funding, they should adhere to the same high-
quality standards as those found in traditional education models (Balfanz et al., 2013;
Tucker, 2007). In addition, researchers believed there is a need for empirical research to
evaluate the effectiveness of specific high school reentry program strategies in order to
identify model programs and best practices (Bloom et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011).
There is controversy around the new General Educational Development (GED)
test (Mulhere, 2015). In 2014, the GED was updated to align with new Common Core
State Standards and the cost to take the exam doubled (from an average of $60 to $120);
as a result, the number of people earning a GED has declined significantly (Mulhere,
2015). In 2014, approximately 248,000 people took the test and only 86,000 earned a
GED in comparison to 2013 data, where approximately 800,000 people took the test, and
560,000 earned a GED (Mulhare, 2015). The non-profit American Council on Education
has historically overseen the GED exam, but this changed in 2011 when the large, for-
profit education technology company, Pearson, took over exam management (Mulhere,
2015).
Critics of the new exam explained that the test is more difficult, more expensive
and is only accessible by computer, which poses additional obstacles for an already
vulnerable population (Mulhere, 2015). Many states have stopped using the GED due to
the price increase and the availability of high school equivalency exams from other
vendors such as Educational Testing Services and CTB/McGraw-Hill (Mulhere, 2015).
GED testing officials explained the update was necessary to reflect today’s high school
rigor and transitions to new tests often indicate a temporary drop in the pass rate as many
41
rush to take the old test (Mulhere, 2015). Teachers also have yet to acclimate to the new
test format (Mulhere, 2015). Research showed that individuals with GEDs have lower
incomes than their high school diploma earning counterparts, their degree is not as valued
by employers, and they are not as successful in college (Quinn, 2014). Researchers
recommended that educational stakeholders focus on non-graduate and adult learner
education best practices versus simply teaching individuals how to pass a test (Quinn,
2014).
Online High Schools for Reentry Purposes
Emerging technologies have changed how and when learning occurs and can lead
to new models of education (Collins & Halverson, 2010; Tucker, 2007). New learning
technologies allow individuals to pursue educational interests on their own terms, outside
of traditional brick and mortar institutions (Collins & Halverson, 2010; Tucker, 2007).
The popularity of the Internet has led to public acceptance of online learning as an
established learning modality across all academic levels (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim &
Frick, 2011). Online learning is one of the fastest-growing trends in education and as
such, there is increased urgency to understand online students and learning environments
so as to improve student success (Roblyer, 2008).
Online high schools are transforming public and adult education and have
expanded educational opportunities for non-graduates (Balfanz et al., 2013; Collins &
Halverson, 2010; Tucker, 2007; Wilkins, 2011). Online high schools have existed since
the mid-1990’s and initial online programs catered to accelerated students by providing
access to advanced coursework and to specialized, non-local instructors (Roblyer &
Davis, 2008). Today’s online high schools are also used for credit recovery and reentry
42
purposes (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Online
high schools have a unique organizational model, and as such, they must take program
design, course quality, instructional methods and student achievement into consideration
(Molnar et al., 2014).
Curricula and instruction within the online model must meet quality standards as
determined by state and regional education boards (Oliver et al., 2009). Online high
school programs may align with the iNACOL (International Association for K–12 Online
Learning) Standards of Quality for Online Courses and/or the National Education
Association standards on curriculum, instructional design, and teacher quality (Oliver et
al., 2009). Some states require teachers to have an online teaching certification while
others allow educators in various certification areas to teach online (Oliver et al., 2009).
There are advantages to using online learning with non-graduates, especially for
those with special needs. Benefits include on-demand, individualized access to diverse
knowledge sources, enhanced student engagement and responsibility, lessened student
competitiveness, and reductions in student bullying (Collins & Halverson, 2009; Hart,
2012; Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick, 2011). Additional benefits include flexible
learning environments and schedules, credit recovery opportunities, student-paced
programming, and the availability of multimedia content and tools to assist those that
may be struggling (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011).
Online high schools are advantageous for individuals who are significantly over
age and far from meeting high school completion requirements as stigmas are lessened
(Balfanz et al., 2013). Students can opt to complete course work independently or using
a hybrid model which encompasses both online instruction and face-to-face support
43
(Wilkins, 2011). According to the research, a hybrid model is preferable for non-
graduates due to the provision of in-person support (Wilkins, 2011).
Student attrition from online courses is a known problem in both the United States
and internationally, and across all academic levels (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer,
2006). Some online high schools have reported dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour
& Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Students new to online learning can initially feel
overwhelmed and can experience feelings of anxiety and fear (Kim & Frick, 2011).
Other disadvantages of the online learning environment include technology and
communication challenges, technology-skill related problems, challenges in meeting the
unique needs of special needs students, and student feelings of isolation (Kim & Frick,
2011; Oliver et al., 2009). Other factors indicated in online student attrition included
perceived lack of time, low student motivation, cognitive overload and competing
priorities such as family and career demands (Kim & Frick, 2011). Student perception of
course difficulty can also lead to decreased motivation and increased anxiety (Kim &
Frick, 2011).
To alleviate the aforementioned concerns, educational stakeholders can screen
students for technical proficiency, require students to complete an online orientation prior
to starting coursework, and integrate online homerooms and web-based/phone-based
conferences into the curriculum (Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011). Regular
teacher/student communication is encouraged, especially for students with weak
independent work skills, poor self-motivation, poor time-management and special needs
(Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011). The use of calendar and project management
software can help online students manage deadlines and the number of online courses a
44
student can take at one time should be limited (Oliver et al., 2009; Wilkins, 2011).
Students in brick and mortar high school reentry programs often have access to
involved staff that provide personalized academic, social and emotional support or
connections to local businesses that provide students with meaningful training
experiences (Balfanz et al., 2013; Burzichelli et al., 2011). Due to the autonomous nature
of the online high school environment, students are often responsible for their own
learning and the aforementioned support systems are difficult, if not impossible, to
incorporate into an online program (Roblyer & Davis 2008; Wilkins, 2011). Online
course design factors which improve student motivation and achievement include
incorporation of real-world tasks and social learning activities, quality course content,
accessible learning support, user-friendly design, multimedia content, and a positive
learning climate (Bekele, 2010; Kim & Frick, 2011; Paechter, Maier & Macher, 2010).
Students with previous negative school experiences often struggle in high school
reentry programs and fear of failure can cause students to drop out again (Cavanaugh et
al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007). Career Online High
School (COHS) founder, Dr. Howard Liebman is an expert on educational trauma and
believed trauma can evoke a lifelong ‘flight or fight’ response (H. Liebman, personal
communication, May 19, 2014). His drive to remove barriers to student success helped
him establish an online education model centered on the provision of one-on-one student
support (H. Liebman, personal communication, May 19, 2014).
Research suggested that traditional brick and mortar classroom strategies for at-
risk populations such as the ‘5 C’s’ (connect, climate, control, curriculum and caring
community), also be addressed in online high school environments (Cavanaugh et al.,
45
2013). To address the 5 C’s, practitioners can: (a) help students make connections
between education and their future; (b) provide a safe, positive and caring learning
environment; (c) teach students how take control of their learning (i.e., promote
independence); (d) help students engage with the curriculum; and (e) demonstrate to
students that they are valued members of a caring community (Cavanaugh et al., 2013;
Drysdale et al., 2014). The importance of the instructor’s role in an online course is key
as quality teacher/student interactions and instructor support contribute to positive
learning outcomes and improved student satisfaction (Hartnett et al., 2011; Paechter et
al., 2010).
Online reentry program facilitation requires a unique skill set that is not present in
mainstream teacher education programs, and it is recommended that practitioners
undergo specialized professional development activities (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Oliver
et al., 2009; Tucker, 2007; Wilkins, 2011). Practitioners need to understand the varying
needs of students in online courses and how to apply effective online learning best
practices (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins, 2011). Researchers suggested that reentry
program facilitators identify mentors who are qualified, experienced educators and have
both special education and online teaching experience (Cavanaugh et al., 2013).
Although the online high school model is the fastest growing form of school
choice, controversy surrounds this topic (Molnar et al., 2014). There is lack of basic
statistical data such as the number of full-time online high schools in operation, the
number of students enrolled in these schools, and program expansion rates (Molnar et al.,
2014). In the 2012-2013 school year, 30% of full-time public online schools did not
receive state accountability ratings, and of those schools that did, only 33.76% (231
46
schools) were rated as academically acceptable (Molnar et al., 2014). There are
variations in online school policies as they relate to course completion and retention
metrics (Hawkins & Barbour, 2010). This lack of standardization results in stakeholder
inability to analyze differences between school programs and accurately understand
program effectiveness (Hawkins & Barbour, 2010).
Public, full-time online high schools typically serve few Black and Hispanic
students, low-income students or those with special education needs and the on-time
graduation rate is half the national average of 43% (Molnar et al., 2014). Researchers
criticized variance among online programs in regards to rigor and options for
personalization (Tucker, 2007). States continue to invest in and expand online schooling
despite a lack of high-quality, research-based evidence supporting this decision (Molnar
et al., 2014). In regards to for-profit online schools, stakeholders brought lawsuits
against one education management company for misleading investors by concealing
information on finances, student attrition and academic performance (Molnar et al.,
2014).
There is additional controversy in regards to online education programming for
special needs students, such as those at-risk, those with disabilities, credit recovery
students and high school non-graduates. In comparison to accelerated students within the
online learning model, credit recovery students are less apt to rate online courses as
“good” or “excellent” and are less apt to want to enroll in additional online courses
(Oliver et al., 2009). Credit recovery students self-reported significantly lower technical
skills than accelerated students, which led researchers to conclude that credit recovery
students, who by definition are academically disadvantaged, may be disadvantaged in the
47
online environment (Oliver et al., 2009).
Despite increases in online learning utilization there is still a dearth of empirical
evidence on online high schools, to include limited information on student performance,
student satisfaction and student retention in these environments (Hawkins et al., 2012).
There is a lack of information on student success and interactions within the online high
school model and resulting correlations with teaching best practices (Hawkins et al.,
2012). There is a need to develop and standardize online high school policies on course
completion and retention metrics, so as to provide the educational community with usable
data (Hawkins & Barbour, 2010). Data on online learning specific studies, such as those
that examine student attrition and outcomes in online learning programs, is also needed
(Artino & Stephens, 2009). There is a need for empirical research to understand how to
support students engaged in online high school reentry programs and to improve
understanding of online high school best practices.
Human Development, Learning, and Self-Efficacy
To improve understanding of the student experience of online high school reentry,
foundational information on self-efficacy, human development, and learning is included
in this review. The following content includes theoretical information based on the work
of Piaget, Hall, Bandura and Knowles, as well as information on practical applications,
theoretical limitations, and self-efficacy influences in learning environments. This
information provided perspective on the human learning experience and informed study
recommendations.
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980), approached human development
from a cognitive point of view (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Piaget made valuable
48
contributions to the field of developmental psychology and his efforts led to the creation
of constructivist learning theory (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Constructivists hold that
individuals create their own understanding of the world they live in through interactions
with their environment and with others (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
In his four-stage theory of development, Piaget explained that children’s ways of
thinking progresses through four different stages where children develop new cognitive
structures, or schemes (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Schemes are patterns of thoughts or
actions that children use to interact with their environment (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
The first Piagetian stage, the sensorimotor stage, occurs in infancy and includes simple
and action-oriented schemes such as reaching for, grasping and pulling objects, goal-
directed behavior and object permanence (Meece & Daniels, 2008). The preoperational
stage occurs during the preschool years and includes the development of symbolic
schemes, meaning children are able to represent objects and events with symbols such as
language, mental images and gestures (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
In the concrete operational stage, which occurs during the elementary school
years, children apply cognitive operations to problems that involve concrete objects
(Meece & Daniels, 2008). The last stage of cognitive development, the formal operations
stage, occurs in early adolescence and continues into adulthood and is demonstrated by
an individual’s ability to solve complex problems, infer possibilities, hypothesize, and
think ahead (Meece & Daniels, 2008). As individuals mature, they begin to understand
the world in relation to the cognitive operations they have developed in a process known
as assimilation (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Individuals modify existing cognitive
49
structures to understand new information in a process known as accommodation (Meece
& Daniels, 2008).
To apply Piagetian theory in the classroom, practitioners are advised to design
learning environments that meet students where they are, on a cognitive level, and
provide opportunities to challenge students as they encounter new information (Meece &
Daniels, 2008). Practitioners should encourage students to be active participants in the
construction of their own learning and to think for themselves (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
It is recommended that adult power be reduced in the classroom; practitioners are advised
to play the role of organizers, collaborators and guides as they help students learn how to
learn, facilitate the exchange of ideas and foster student exploration of ideas and concepts
(Meece & Daniels, 2008).
There are limitations to Piagetian stage theory as individuals can acquire
cognitive operations earlier and later than hypothesized and the context of an individual’s
experience can influence the specific skills developed (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Piaget’s
theory fails to take other factors into account that can affect cognitive development such
as family, culture, the quality and quantity of an individual’s education, medical
conditions, and emotional or physical trauma (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Critics hold that
the theory only covers a fraction of an individual’s lifespan, as individuals attain the
formal operations stage in adolescence and the remainder of the adult life experience
includes other stages (Meece & Daniels, 2008). Additionally, for practitioners, a
discovery-based classroom is not always the best option as explicit teaching and
demonstrations help students create knowledge (Meece & Daniels, 2008).
Adolescence is the time period from puberty into the early 20’s and involves
50
significant physical, social, cognitive and emotional changes, which in turn can have a
profound effect on motivation and learning (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006;
Weil, Fleming, Dumontheil, Kilford, Weil, Rees & Blakemore, 2013). Identity formation
plays an important role during adolescence, to include the development of cognitive and
metacognitive abilities (Schunk & Meece, 2006; Weil et al., 2013). Changes in family,
school and peer environments also impact adolescents’ beliefs in their abilities to
succeed, both in and out of school environments (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece,
2006).
American psychologist, G. Stanley Hall, (1844-1924), is considered the ‘father of
adolescence’ as he was the first psychologist to champion adolescent psychology as its
own branch worthy of study and he developed scientific methods associated with this
field (Arnett, 2006). Hall’s accomplishments were many; he was the first psychology
professor at John Hopkins University, he founded the American Psychological
Association, he launched the American Journal of Psychology and served as the first
president of Clark University (Goodchild, 2012). Hall based his seminal work and
approach to adolescent psychology on Darwin’s theory of evolution; Hall believed
human development was a biological evolution (Arnett, 2006). Prior to adolescence, Hall
believed children were more animalistic and less evolved in nature and adolescence
signified a time of rebirth, to include the emergence of human traits (Arnett, 2006).
Hall (1904) described adolescence as a time of ‘storm and stress’ and documented
the emotions of adolescents as vacillating between euphoria and depression and between
sensitivity and callousness, to include intense feelings of curiosity and an emphasis on
peer relationships. Hall (1904) noted additional aspects of the turbulent adolescent
51
experience to include parental conflict, moodiness, and risk-taking behavior. While
many facets of Hall’s research hold true today, his theories on eugenics, the role of
women in society, and the evolutionary status of people of color have been heavily
criticized and disproven (Goodchild, 2012). Research further demonstrated that not all
adolescents experience storm and stress as they mature (Arnett, 2006).
American psychologist Albert Bandura (1977b) approached child and adolescent
development from a social cognitive perspective. In his seminal work, Bandura was
particularly interested in the exploration of aggression in adolescent boys and in treating
aggressive behaviors by identifying sources of violence (Bandura & Waters, 1959). In
interviews with both aggressive boys and their parents, Bandura found that parents often
encouraged and reinforced their sons’ aggression towards others (Bandura & Waters,
1959). In a subsequent landmark study on aggression in children, Bandura identified that
when aggressive behavior is modeled, such as children witnessing someone interacting
aggressively with an inflatable ‘Bobo doll’, that children imitate aggressive behaviors
(Bandura, Ross, & Ross, 1961).
Bandura (1997) found that early self-efficacy development was influenced by two
factors, a child’s capacity for symbolic thought (the ability to understand cause and effect
relationships) and the capacity for self-observation and self-reflection. As children learn
that they are separate from other things and people, they begin to understand how their
actions can affect their environment (Bandura, 1997). A child’s development of language
and symbolic thought is associated with a capacity for self-awareness and sense of
personal agency (Bandura, 1997).
Studies demonstrated that during adolescence, student self-efficacy levels and
52
student academic interest drop as individuals become emotionally complex (Klassen,
2010). Declines in student self-efficacy beliefs are most noticeable during the student
transition from middle school to high school and these declines can carry-over into high
school (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Adolescents with learning disabilities can find
schooling to be particularly challenging as they often lag behind peers in academic skill
and academic self-confidence (Klassen, 2010). These deficits can result in lowered
persistence and decreased engagement on academic tasks (Klassen, 2010). Educational
stakeholders can support adolescents with learning disabilities by teaching students how
to set goals, evaluate academic progress and use academic help-seeking behaviors
(Klassen, 2010).
As adolescent cognition matures, individuals improve in their ability to analyze
and interpret their capabilities to complete tasks and obtain goals (Schunk & Meece,
2006). Metacognition, which is one’s ability to reflect upon thoughts and behaviors,
influences an individual’s ability to organize study activities (Cera, Mancini &
Antonietti, 2013; Weil et al., 2013). Metacognition processes relate directly to task
performance, as also seen in self-efficacy research (Cera et al., 2013; Weil et al., 2013).
Metacognitive experiences play a monitoring role and influence behavior by
providing individuals with information on implemented strategies, strategy effectiveness,
and outcome assessments (Cera et al., 2013). Metacognitive abilities increase during
adolescence and plateau in adulthood and can be observed as increased egocentricity, an
improved sense of self, and developed self-awareness (Weil et al., 2013). The adolescent
development period can be challenging and stressful for students, as well as those close
to them, due to the physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that occur during
53
this time (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Adolescents become more aware of task
performance during the same developmental timeframe as when they begin valuing the
judgments of others, developing identities and separating from their families (Weil et al.,
2013).
Family finances, parental education levels, social resources, and family use of
child-motivation techniques have a direct effect on adolescent self-efficacy (Fan &
Williams, 2010; Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006). Families with financial means
are often able to provide their children with a greater number of experiences and
exposures to positive academic and social models, thus improving their children’s self-
efficacy (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Socioeconomic status is a major predictor of high
school dropout (Balfanz et al., 2013), and children with a lower socioeconomic status are
more likely to experience learning difficulties, which in turn can result is lower self-
efficacy for learning (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006).
Although parental involvement in a child’s education can have a positive,
influential effect on student self-efficacy, too much parental involvement can have the
opposite effect (Fan & Williams, 2010). Researchers recommended studies on student
self-efficacy and student motivation outcomes based on the type and amount of parental
involvement provided (Fan & Williams, 2010). Researchers recommended that
practitioners provide additional support for students from a lower socioeconomic status in
order to foster student use of academic strategies and improve student academic self-
confidence (Klassen, 2010).
Schooling can influence adolescent self-efficacy through instructional practices,
the amount and type of teacher feedback and attention, grading practices, the use of
54
competition, and management of school transitions (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Research
showed that competitive classroom environments and too much teacher support can
decrease student self-efficacy, as these can make students feel incompetent (Schunk &
Meece, 2006). Practitioners can improve student self-efficacy by providing a supportive
classroom environment and promoting smooth transitions and structuring curriculum to
build on prior student knowledge (Klassen, 2010; Schunk & Meece, 2006).
Peers influence student self-efficacy as peer relationships contribute to adolescent
socialization and the views adolescents have of themselves (Schunk & Meece, 2006).
Vicarious experience, the personal witness of task attainment by others, is a known
source of personal self-efficacy (Bandura, 1977a). Adolescents that view their peers as
accomplishing, or not accomplishing, tasks or goals are more likely to believe that they
too, can succeed or fail based on what they have witnessed (Schunk & Meece, 2006). As
adolescents tend to select friends based on similarity to themselves, such as common
interests, academic and athletic ability, background experiences, gender, and ethnicity,
the potential influence of peer modeling and the effect on self-efficacy is greatly
enhanced (Schunk & Meece, 2006). Parents can influence the impact of peer modeling
by promoting the home environment as welcoming for their children’s friends (Schunk &
Meece, 2006).
Adult learning theory provides a framework for stakeholders to understand the
experiences and preferences of adult learners (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2014).
Stakeholders can use core principles of adult learning theory to develop effective adult
learning processes (Knowles et al., 2014). The most well-known theory of adult learning
is andragogy. Andragogy is a Greek term meaning ‘man-leading,’ and can be contrasted
55
with another Greek term, pedagogy, which means ‘child leading’ (Corley, 2012). Within
education, andragogy is the science of helping adults learn (Knowles, 1980). German
educator Alexander Kapp first utilized the term andragogy in this regard and German
historian and philosopher Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy developed the concept into an
educational theory (Corley, 2012). Educator Malcolm Knowles later popularized
andragogy in the U.S. (Corley, 2012)
There are six principles to andragogy: the learner's need to know, self-concept of
the learner, prior experience of the learner, readiness to learn, orientation to learning and
motivation to learn (Knowles et al., 2014). Knowles (2014) believed that as adults
mature, they become self-directed learners. Adult learners draw on their own experiences
to aid the learning process and new learning is most effective when immediately applied
(Knowles et al., 2014). Within andragogy, it is assumed that adults are ready to learn
when they take on new social or life roles, when a problem motivates them, or they are
internally motivated by their own desire to learn (Knowles et al., 2014).
To apply theoretical andragogy concepts within learning environments,
practitioners are advised to assess and personalize learning to meet the unique needs of
adult learners and ensure they understand why they are learning new knowledge, skills
and abilities (Knowles et al., 2014). Learning should be active and allow adult learners to
perform learning tasks (Knowles et al., 2014). Students should apply new learning
immediately to address real-world problems (Knowles et al., 2014).
Practitioners can support self-directed learning by using student self-assessments,
which identify learning gaps and allow for the development of learning objectives and
activities that align with identified areas of need (Corley, 2012). Practitioners can
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support self-directed learning by fostering positive student attitudes and encouraging
students to reflect on what they are learning (Corley, 2012). Within the online classroom,
practitioners should support adult learners to explore their own study topics and ensure
they understand why they are learning specific content (Frey & Alman, 2003). Online
activities should be problem-based, with application to relevant, real-life events (Frey &
Alman, 2003).
Researchers recommended studies to explore academic self-esteem and self-
efficacy beliefs regarding self-regulated learning behaviors (Zuffiano et al., 2013). Also
recommended are studies exploring metacognition and awareness of task performance in
relation to adolescent self-awareness and self-identity (Weil et al., 2013). Studies that
explore the relationship between adolescent delinquency, self-efficacy and goal setting
behaviors are recommended (Carroll, Gordon, Haynes, & Houghton, 2013).
The self-efficacy of urban youth warrants study, as there are correlations between
cultural and economic disadvantages and dropping out of high school (Hynes, 2014;
Schunk & Mullen, 2012). Researchers recommended studies exploring student
underestimation and overestimation of self-efficacy beliefs due to controversy on this
issue (Gonida & Leondari, 2011). To elucidate, some researchers found that student
over-estimation of academic self-efficacy resulted in positive outcomes such as improved
student self-confidence, effort and persistence, yet self-efficacy overestimations,
particularly among academically at-risk students, can result in poor social skills, behavior
problems, and lower academic competence (Gonida & Leondari, 2011). Research that
explores the adolescent and adult experience of self-efficacy in online programs can help
to fill literature gaps in the aforementioned topic areas.
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Student Motivation and Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy
In the online environment, student self-efficacy and academic motivation are
closely connected (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011). Motivation is a
process of sustainment in a goal-directed activity (Schunk & Mullen, 2012).
Academically motivated students demonstrate high levels of learning activity
engagement and persevere on tasks (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Bekele, 2010).
Motivation is a critical factor for student persistence in online learning, which can be due
to the autonomous nature of the online environment (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Bekele,
2010).
Research on student motivation to learn online is often approached from the
perspective of the student to include intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors (Hartnett
et al., 2011; Malinovski, Vasileva, Vasileva-Stojanovska, & Trajkovik, 2014). For
intrinsically motivated students, an autonomous online learning environment is ideal due
to opportunities to customize and adjust personal learning paths (Hartnett et al., 2011).
Other intrinsic motivational factors include personal satisfaction, personal interest, and
enjoyment in task completion (Hartnett et al., 2011). Intrinsically motivated students are
more persistent and more likely to achieve academic goals in the online environment in
comparison to their extrinsically motivated counterparts (Malinovski et al., 2014).
Extrinsically motivated students may participate in courses if they believe
coursework will improve their performance or if there is the promise of a desired award
(Cheng, Wang, Moormann, Olaniran, & Chen, 2012). Other extrinsic motivational
factors include negative consequence avoidance, the perception of tasks as valuable and
relevant, and the desire to meet others’ expectations (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick,
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2011; Paechter et al., 2010). Although intrinsic student motivation is longer lasting than
extrinsic motivation, external motivational factors, like good grades and social influence,
serve as effective drivers in online learning environments (Malinovski et al., 2014).
Research showed that student motivation to learn online is dependent upon situational
aspects, such as the nature of assignments and perceived relevance of assignments
(Hartnett et al., 2011). The following factors also influenced student motivation: (a) if
the course is a requirement; (b) students’ prior knowledge of material; and (c) student
belief that an online course is a way to earn good grades with minimal effort (Hartnett et
al., 2011).
Research findings demonstrated that self-efficacy theory adds significantly to the
online learning knowledge base as this framework has significant implications for student
achievement, motivation and self-regulation (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick,
2011; Oliver et al., 2009). Bandura (1986) believed that an individual’s self-efficacy
beliefs are key to the capacity to make choices. It is important for practitioners to be
mindful of and understand aspects of student self-efficacy in the online environment as
self-efficacy influences the choices students make, the amount of effort and persistence
exhibited on tasks, and the level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching
learning tasks (Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Researchers approached self-efficacy and online learning from different
perspectives and use the following definitions for relevant terminology: (a) Internet-
Based Learning (IBL) refers to the general online learning environment; (b) Academic
Self-Efficacy (ASE) indicates a learner’s perception of academic learning; (c) Computer
Self-Efficacy (CSE) indicates an individual’s perceived confidence in using a computer;
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(d) Internet Self-Efficacy (ISE) indicates an individual’s confidence in general skills and
knowledge in using the Internet; and (e) Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE)
indicates a learner’s confidence and self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online
course or in an online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). Research on student self-
efficacy in online learning environments typically falls into one of three categories:
general ISE, the interrelationship between ASE and IBL, and IBLSE (Tsai et al., 2011).
Research on CSE is more extensive in comparison to ISE due to the relatively
new innovation of Internet technology (Tsai et al., 2011). CSE research typically falls
into two categories: general CSE, which indicates an individual’s general beliefs about
computer skills, and application-specific self-efficacy, which indicates an individual’s
belief in his or her ability to utilize a particular computer application, such as Microsoft
Word (Tsai et al., 2011). With CSE, individuals are more likely to adopt new computer
technologies if they perceive that the technologies will be beneficial, if the technologies
are easy to use, and if individuals believe they will be successful in using them (Cheng et
al., 2012). Ease of technology use correlates with self-efficacy, outcome expectancy,
improved student confidence and intention to use technology, and positive user attitudes
(Cheng et al., 2012). CSE research findings have implications for software developers
and online learning program administrators as student experiences of the learning
environment are essential to student success (Cheng et al., 2012).
Additional research is needed on the practical application of IBLSE theory into
practice and development of standardized and operationalized online learning
terminology (Artino, Hemmer, & Durning, 2011; Tsai, 2011). Experimental design
studies are recommended to determine how interventions affect student self-efficacy and
60
student perceptions of online course quality (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Yang & Park,
2011). Student IBLSE is an evolving topic of study that warrants review given the extent
of educational stakeholder investment in this modality (Barbour & Reeves, 2009).
IBLSE correlates with student motivation in the online environment and is critical to
student persistence in autonomous online environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009;
Bekele, 2010). Research in this topic area can have significant impact for educational
stakeholders, program administrators, software developers, and students.
Self-Efficacy, Expectancy, and Self-Regulation in Online Learning Environments
Self-efficacy theory, the study’s theoretical framework, has significant overlaps
with other theories including expectancy theory and Self-Regulated Learning (SRL)
theory. Understanding the interconnections and differences between these theories
improved study data analysis. The following discussion provides background
information on the aforementioned theories, on the practical application of theories, and
information on self-efficacy theory overlaps and discrepancies.
In his seminal work, Vroom (1964) formulated the expectancy theory of
motivation as a means to understand employee motivation and choice in the workplace
and to guide management best practices. Expectancy theory indicated that individuals
are motivated to behave in certain ways based on perceived results of behavior and there
are correlations between perceived desirability of an outcome and an individual’s
motivation level (Lunenburg, 2011; Vroom, 1964). Findings indicated that self-efficacy
has a direct impact on expectancy and that self-efficacy can have a greater effect than
expectancy on goal attainment (Bandura, 1986). Researchers recommended additional
studies to improve understanding of the relationship between expectancy and self-
61
efficacy (Williams, 2010).
The expectancy theoretical model consists of three motivational variables:
expectancy, instrumentality and valence (Vroom, 1964). To elucidate: (a) expectancy
refers to an individual’s perception that greater efforts will yield greater results; (b)
instrumentality refers to an individual’s perception that greater efforts will result in
expected outcomes; and (c) valence refers to an individual’s perception of the importance
of the expected outcome (Vroom, 1964). Employee motivational levels can be
determined by examining relationships between these three variables (Vroom, 1964). An
individual with low motivation may not believe he or she can put forth the effort required
to obtain an outcome, may not believe the outcome is attainable or may not have a desire
to obtain the outcome (Vroom, 1964). Conversely, an individual that is highly motivated
may be confident that he or she can exert the required effort, may believe that the
outcome is attainable and may have a strong desire for the outcome (Vroom, 1964).
Tharenou utilized the expectancy theoretical model to identify workplace
environmental and situational factors that affected employee motivation to learn,
including organizational policies and supports, social interactions, and job challenges (as
cited in Cheng et al., 2012). In a seminal study, researchers adapted the expectancy
theoretical model to understand employee-learning efforts in the workplace (Mathieu et
al., 1992). Theoretical tenets for workplace learning included: (a) expectancy, as it refers
to an individual’s perception that training participation will lead to the acquisition of
knowledge, skills or abilities (KSA’s); (b) instrumentality, as it refers to an individual’s
perception that KSA’s gained from training will lead to specific outcomes, such as
respect from peers, increases in pay and improved job performance; and (c) valence, as it
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refers to the personal importance of training outcomes to the individual (Mathieu et al.,
1992).
Along a similar line, research on the topic of online learning and students with
disabilities demonstrated that motivation increases and learning occurs when students
make real connections with learning content and understand why they are learning it
(Cavanaugh et al., 2013). Student motivation is a necessary component for student
success within an online learning environment and when students believe that content is
relevant, motivation to learn independently increases (Cavanaugh et al., 2013).
Researchers applied expectancy theory to determine success factors of online
learning and computer technology adoption in the workplace (Cheng et al., 2012;
Paechter et al., 2010). Findings showed that employees were more likely to engage in
online learning activities if they believed the activities would improve on-the-job
performance and if management perceived and promoted the learning as valuable (Cheng
et al., 2012). Organizational support, such as the promise of monetary awards and
promotions based on online learning participation, fostered online learning adoption
(Cheng et al., 2012). Individuals were more likely to adopt new technologies if they
believed adoption would generate desired outcomes (Paechter et al., 2010).
Self-Regulated Learning (SRL) refers to the metacognitive, self-directed practices
and beliefs students use to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness
(Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986). SRL includes the selection and utilization of the
following learning strategies: goal setting, content review, rehearsal and memorization,
forming mental images, self-recording, and seeking assistance from others (Schunk,
2008; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). Bandura (1986) initially incorporated the construct of
63
self-regulation into social cognitive theory and defined it as a self-influence process
consisting of: (a) self-monitoring of one’s behavior to include causes and effects; (b) self-
judgment of one’s behavior to include the influence of personal morals, standards and
circumstances; and (c) self-reaction to one’s behavior to include self rewards and self-
punishments. In his seminal work, Zimmerman (1986) developed SRL theory to expand
upon social cognitive theory as it related to student learning processes and there are
connections to self-efficacy and SRL.
Researchers opting to study student SRL used a cyclical model with three phases:
(a) forethought, to include task analysis and self-motivation beliefs; (b) performance, to
include self-control and self-observation techniques; and (c) self-reflection, to include
self-judgment and self-reaction behaviors and beliefs (Zimmerman, 2008). The
forethought phase includes the sub-processes of student self-efficacy and expectancy, and
self-regulation correlates with positive self-efficacy beliefs (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010;
Zimmerman 2008).
Characteristics of proactive, self-regulated learners include self-confidence, high
self-efficacy, initiative and perseverance (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Zimmerman, 1990,
2008). Self-regulated, high-performing learners take responsibility for learning
outcomes, have an awareness of academic shortcomings, and utilize adaptive strategies to
mitigate deficiencies (Artino et al., 2011; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008). Students that
perceive they are not in control of their learning environments have low academic self-
efficacy and this can negatively affect the use of SRL strategies (Artino et al., 2011).
SRL theory is unique in comparison to self-efficacy and expectancy theory as SRL
indicates how students select, organize and create personal learning environments, versus
64
the indication of student beliefs or perceptions about learning tasks (Zimmerman, 1990).
Students adapt SRL processes to fit online learning environments and computer
technologies have emerged to assist students with SRL techniques (Winters, Greene, &
Costich, 2008). These technologies allow educational stakeholders to access data on
student utilization of SRL-support tools, such as note taking, content tagging, searching,
and using online help (Winters et al., 2008; Zimmerman, 2008). Educational
stakeholders can use this type of data to indicate students’ cognitive processes and to
develop strategies to support struggling students (Winters et al., 2008; Zimmerman,
2008). Student SRL behaviors can be developmentally progressive, meaning behaviors
may develop over time, and this can affect the type of support instructors provide to
students (Artino & Stephens, 2009).
To support SRL in the online classroom, practitioners can instruct students in
SRL strategies, set assignment deadlines and facilitate discussions to encourage self-
monitoring (Artino & Stephens, 2009). Practitioners are advised to provide students with
explicit instructional support during online learning activities and promote student self-
efficacy by modeling best practices (Artino & Stephens, 2009). Instructor support of
SRL processes can help to reduce student procrastination and build student critical
thinking skills (Artino & Stephens, 2009).
There is some controversy in the field as practical applications of SRL and self-
efficacy theories may not improve student outcomes in online environments (Yang &
Park, 2011). In one study example, researchers embedded SRL strategies into an online
course, to include strategies on improving self-efficacy, and then surveyed students about
strategy use (Yang & Park, 2011). Embedded self-efficacy strategies included peer
65
feedback, such as students encouraging and praising one another, and attribution
feedback such as students responding to positive peer feedback (Yang & Park, 2011).
The rationale for embedded strategies was based on Bandura’s (1977a) hypothesis that
personal self-efficacy expectations can be influenced by verbal persuasion (Yang & Park,
2011). Results indicated that the embedded self-efficacy strategies had no significant
effect on student use of SRL strategies in the online environment (Yang & Park, 2011).
Expectancy theory, SRL theory, and self-efficacy theory are frameworks that
practitioners can utilize to understand student motivation to learn in the online
environment. Among online students, high expectancy and self-efficacy levels and the
use of SRL techniques often indicated academic success (Artino & Stephens, 2009;
Cheng et al., 2012; Zimmerman, 2008). Self-efficacy and expectancy are interconnected
as the more confident an individual feels about the importance of a task, the more likely
he or she will exert effort to obtain a positive outcome (Vroom 1964). Research
indicated that self-efficacy had a direct impact on expectancy and had a greater effect
than expectancy on whether an individual achieved a goal (Bandura, 1986).
Summary
This chapter familiarized readers with current literature on topics relevant to the
study and demonstrated the need for research on the experiences of former non-graduates
enrolled in online high schools. The review provided foundational information in support
of the study purpose: to examine the phenomenon of student experiences of IBLSE and
online high school persistence, in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with
information to reduce student attrition. This review incorporated various seminal, current
and peer-reviewed resources to provide the appropriate perspective.
66
A review of the phenomenon of high school dropout indicated the gravity of this
national problem and information on high school reentry provided an overview of student
options to return to school. A review of the use of online high schools for reentry
purposes indicated the utilization of this modality with non-graduate populations and
information on self-efficacy, development and learning provided theoretical context on
the human learning experience. A discussion of student motivation and IBLSE provided
insight into the online student experience. Additional information on expectancy theory
and SRL theory, as they related to self-efficacy theory, provided perspective on theory
development, theory overlaps, and practical applications. Information on controversies
within the aforementioned topic areas was also discussed.
During the course of this study, several gaps in the literature were identified.
There is lack of basic statistical data, such as the number of full-time online high schools
in operation, the number of students enrolled in these schools, and program expansion
rates (Molnar et al., 2014). Empirical research is needed to evaluate the effectiveness of
high school reentry program strategies in order to identify model programs and best
practices (Bloom et al., 2010; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Wilkins, 2011).
Data is needed to understand how to support online high school students (Barbour &
Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher &
Pajares, 2008). There is a need to hear the voices of students and incorporate their ideas
into the development of high school reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014).
Data on online learning specific studies, such as those that examine student
attrition and outcomes in online learning programs, is lacking (Artino & Stephens, 2009).
There is a need to understand how learning occurs in the online environment, how
67
student motivation is fostered and sustained, and how existing theories can be adapted for
the online environment (Bekele, 2010; Hartnett et al., 2011; Tsai et al., 2011; Winters et
al., 2008). Research is needed on how students generate positive academic outcomes,
despite challenging circumstances (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Additional research is
needed on the practical application of IBLSE theory into practice and development of
standardized and operationalized online learning terminology (Artino, Hemmer, &
Durning, 2011; Tsai, 2011). Experimental design studies are recommended to determine
how interventions can affect student self-efficacy and student perceptions of online
course quality (Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Yang & Park, 2011).
Literature on child, adolescent and adult learning and development informed
study findings. Further studies are recommended to explore metacognition and
awareness of task performance in relation to adolescent self-awareness and self-identity
(Weil et al., 2013), as well as studies that explore the relationship between adolescent
delinquency, self-efficacy and goal setting behaviors (Carroll et al., 2013). Researchers
recommended additional studies to explore academic self-esteem and self-efficacy beliefs
in regards to self-regulated learning behaviors (Zuffiano et al., 2013).
The self-efficacy of urban youth and those with special needs warrants study, as
there are connections between cultural and economic disadvantages and dropping out of
high school (Schunk & Mullen, 2012). Researchers recommended the exploration of
student underestimation and overestimation of academic self-efficacy, as both positive
and negative student outcomes can result from this behavior (Gonida & Leondari, 2011).
Student self-efficacy and motivation studies, based on type and amount of parental
involvement, are also needed (Fan & Williams, 2010).
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Theory is an important aspect of educational pedagogy and is an essential
resource for practitioners in comprehending how learning happens, how students
approach learning tasks, and how student outcomes can be improved. Established
learning and motivation theories have undergone extensive testing by researchers, yet
theories are evolving due to the emergence of educational technologies and theory
modification will continue to develop over time. Practitioners can utilize theory to
inform educational practices and make research-based decisions. Practical application of
theory can improve course design, enhance teaching methods and inform organizational
policy.
Self-efficacy theory is perhaps the most significant framework that practitioners
can use to inform practice as theory application can influence student belief systems
(Maddux, 2012). Practitioners can use research-based strategies, based on self-efficacy
principles, to help students overcome fear of failure, to mitigate negative student
reactions towards learning tasks and to address students’ feelings of low academic self-
efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Helping students understand that their thoughts and
beliefs about learning tasks can influence their actual abilities to accomplish them can aid
students to focus on self-fulfilling prophesies they would actually like to experience
(Usher & Pajares, 2008).
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Chapter 3: Research Method
This chapter describes the research method for this qualitative, phenomenological
study to understand student experiences of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy
(IBLSE) and online high school persistence. Chapter sections include: the research
method and design, the study population and sampling method, materials and
instruments, data collection, processing and analysis processes, study assumptions,
limitations and delimitations, as well as information on ethical assurances.
Over the past decade, student enrollment in online high schools has increased
exponentially (Queen & Lewis, 2011), yet student dropout from these programs remains
a known problem with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009;
Roblyer, 2006). Despite stakeholder investment into online high schools and increased
student enrollment, there is little high-quality research on learning effectiveness in this
environment (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Queen
& Lewis, 2011; Roblyer & Davis, 2008). Although high student self-efficacy levels are
indicative of persistence in learning environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et
al., 2008), non-graduates can have low self-efficacy due to previous negative school
experiences and fear of failure can cause students to leave school once again (Cavanaugh
et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007; Schunk & Mullen, 2012).
The aforementioned research gaps and concerns present a problem as educational
stakeholders have a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence
in online high school environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Miller et al., 2010; Molnar
et al., 2014; Roblyer, 2006). As a result, stakeholders are unable to leverage research-
based data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions (Roblyer &
70
Davis, 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The purpose of this qualitative
phenomenological study was to provide educational stakeholders with this necessary
information.
The intent of the research questions was to generate data that revealed lived
student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence. Research Question 1
addressed the problem and data reflective of this question indicated connections between
IBLSE and learning outcomes. Research Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose and
data reflective of this question indicated ways educational stakeholders can leverage
student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence to reduce student
attrition and inform programming decisions.
Q1. What are the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online
high schools?
Q2. How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE
and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform online high school
programming decisions?
Research Methods and Design(s)
This qualitative phenomenological study described the phenomenon of student
experiences of IBLSE and persistence within an online high school. Qualitative self-
efficacy studies are more effective than quantitative studies in understanding the self-
efficacy sources students deem to have a greater impact on their academic success
(Bandura, 1997). A qualitative approach allowed for the exploration of the phenomenon
from the student’s point of view and indicated the meaning students attribute to this
experience (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). This approach generated rich data as verbatim
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participant interview transcription ensured for a comprehensive interview portrayal
(Moustakas, 1994). A qualitative design aligned with theoretical contribution as this
approach generated information on student self-efficacy in online learning environments
(Usher & Pajares, 2008).
A phenomenological, modified van Kaam research methodology was optimal for
the study as researchers utilized this methodology to understand the essence of shared
experiences and to convey fundamental meanings (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological
methods allow researchers to adopt holistic and inductive approaches to the exploration
of how others perceive events (Moustakas, 1994). Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), a
German mathematician and philosopher, developed phenomenology and Adrian van
Kaam, a Catholic priest and psychologist, further operationalized the methodology
(Bailey, 2013; Moustakas, 1997). American psychologist Clark Moustakas (1923 –2012)
adapted Husserl’s phenomenological approach to include modifications to van Kaam’s
method of analysis (Blau, 2013; Moustakas, 1994).
Husserl used the words ‘transcendental’ and ‘phenomenology’ interchangeably to
explain the research methods used to describe phenomena (Moustakas, 1994). Within
phenomenology, researchers used the process of epoché, which is a Greek term meaning
‘suspension of judgment,’ to remove themselves from the experience being studied and
reach a “transcendental state of freshness and openness, a readiness to see in an
unfettered way” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 41). Another phenomenology method is researcher
use of imaginative variation, which involves researcher use of imagination and reflection
to identify underlying themes, or units of meaning, within participant transcripts
(Moustakas, 1994).
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Another phenomenological approach is hermeneutical or interpretive
phenomenology, which comes from the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger
(Moustakas, 1994). Hermeneutical phenomenology involves researcher use of his or her
own experiences to interpret participant experiences and the researcher acts as an insider
versus a distant observer (Moustakas, 1994). This approach was not recommended for
this study, as the researcher did not have experience with the phenomenon under review.
In their critical review of the literature on self-efficacy in schools, Usher and
Pajares (2008) cited several studies that utilized a qualitative phenomenological
approach, including an interview protocol, to assess student self-efficacy. Other
researchers were successful in using a phenomenological approach to capture the lived
experiences of high school non-graduates (Hynes, 2014). It is important to see beyond
statistics and understand that data on student dropout consists of unique individuals with
hopes, dreams and stories that deserve to be honored (Hynes, 2014). Phenomenological
research is an effective method that allows others to hear the voices of online high school
students. A phenomenological approach addressed literature gaps in IBLSE and
achievement in online high schools (Hammond et al., 2007; Tsai et al., 2011; Tucker,
2007; Usher & Pajares, 2008; Wilkins, 2011).
The researcher considered other methodologies for the study, but they were not
appropriate based upon study goals. Quantitative methodologies use objective data
collection and analysis methods that did not align with the study’s self-efficacy theory
framework or the study’s goal to understand the phenomenon from the experience of
study participants (Maxwell, 2013). Quantitative methods do not generate rich, detailed
descriptions that make a study unique (Moustakas, 1994).
73
The researcher explored other research designs, but they were not appropriate for
the study. A case study would allow for in-depth investigation of individuals and
programs through observation, interview and document review, but this method would
not allow for exploration of lived experiences (Yin, 2014). A grounded theory approach
would not fit as this method involves the development of theory and this study was
framed by self-efficacy theory (Maxwell, 2013). Narrative inquiry was a less desirable
approach as this method involved studying individuals through the stories they tell about
their lives and would not be applicable to understanding core essences of the
phenomenon under review (Maxwell, 2013).
Ethnography is similar to phenomenology and was under consideration as a
research design. Ethnography involves holistic descriptions and interpretations of
cultural behaviors and cultural groups over a prolonged period while a phenomenological
study focuses on understanding meaning through the lens of the individual participant
(Maxwell, 2013). The study may have ethnographic elements due to the nature of the
research, but the study’s focus is on the unique lived experiences of the phenomenon and
their relation to theory, making the phenomenological study the preferred design route.
Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory served as the study’s framework and lens
to evaluate findings. This theory was appropriate as application indicated foundational
information about student belief systems and what students perceived themselves to be
capable of accomplishing in an online learning environment (Tsai et al., 2011). Self-
efficacy correlates with academic achievement and study data indicated relationships
between student self-efficacy and academic success in the targeted domain (Artino &
Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
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Population
The setting for the study was Career Online High School (COHS), which is a
private school within the world’s first accredited online, private school district, Smart
Horizons Career Online Education (“About Us,” 2015). The district, located in
Pensacola, Florida, was founded by educator Dr. Howard Liebman in 2009 and COHS
was launched in 2010 (“About Us,” 2015). The school is a division of ed2go, which is an
online learning provider for adults and ed2go is owned by Cengage, an international
education services company (“About Us,” 2015). COHS is accredited by the AdvancED
Accreditation Commission, which is the national commission that confers the Southern
Association of Colleges and Schools Council on Accreditation and School Improvement
accreditation seal (“Accreditation,” 2015).
Smart Horizons Career Online Education program contacts for this study included
Dr. Howard Liebman, Superintendent and Chief Executive Officer, Wendy Kauffman,
Chief Operating Officer, Teresa Salafrio, Director of Academics and Principal of
Schools, and Dr. John H. Padgett Jr., Director of Strategic Partnerships. The researcher
did not have a prior relationship with the school and received permission to conduct a
study with COHS and publish the name of the school, district, and program managers.
Permission documentation is located in Appendix A.
The Smart Horizons Career Online Education district has partnerships with career
colleges (e.g., Brown Mackie, City College), major corporations (e.g., Walmart,
McDonald’s, Taco Bell), public libraries (e.g., Los Angeles, Sacramento, Cincinnati,
Fountaindale, State of New Jersey), correctional facilities (e.g., Florida), workforce
boards (e.g., Chicago, Seattle), and non-profit organizations (e.g., National Urban
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League, Clinton Global Initiative) (“Leadership,” 2015). There is also an international
partnership in South Africa (“Announcements,” 2015). As of August 2015, COHS had
2,766 active students enrolled and 1,498 graduates (W. Kauffman, personal
communication, June 29, 2015).
Approximately 20% of COHS students self-enroll (private pay), while others
enroll through partnerships with career colleges (20%), correctional facilities (12%),
school districts (10%), public libraries (20%), and corporations/workforce boards (18%)
(W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). The average program-
completion time is 10-12 months and 72% of students matriculate into post-secondary
programs (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015). Approximately 42%
of COHS students are employed, 68% are African American or Hispanic, 71% are
female, and the average student is 27 years old (W. Kauffman, personal communication,
June 29, 2015).
COHS offers complete, 18-credit, career-based high school diplomas geared
towards helping adults prepare for the workplace (“About Us,” 2015). The school’s
mission focuses on ensuring non-graduates receive the education they need to enter
today’s workforce, with diplomas and credentialed career certificates available in the
following areas: General Career Preparation, Childcare and Education, Certified
Protection Officer, Certified Transportation Services, Homeland Security, Office
Management, Retail Customer Service Skills, and Food and Customer Service Skills
(“About Us,” 2015).
Students must officially withdraw from traditional high school in order to enroll
into COHS. The minimum age requirement to self-enroll is 16, but different partner
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programs may have different age restrictions (W. Kauffman, personal communication,
June 29, 2015). The English proficiency level for COHS coursework is grade 5-6 for
core academic courses and grade 8 or higher for career courses (W. Kauffman, personal
communication, June 29, 2015).
New COHS students receive a New Student Checklist and complete an online
orientation within the school’s Learning Management System (LMS) (W. Kauffman & T.
Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). COHS students start with career
course electives, which creates early engagement and is intrinsically motivating as
content is of personal student interest (Hartnett et al., 2011; Malinovski et al., 2014 ;W.
Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). The COHS program
uses a mastery model where students can retake failed coursework or exams until they are
passed (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014).
COHS program software includes remediation activities, as well as audio options
for students that prefer to have content read aloud (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal
communication, June 27, 2014). Struggling students can take advantage of one-on-one
certified academic instructor support and technology support is always available (W.
Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). In locations where
COHS has partnerships with career colleges, there are on-site computer labs and
facilitators to support program participation (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal
communication, June 27, 2014).
COHS academic coaches play a critical role in establishing a trust-based
relationship with students and are essential to tracking student progress, communicating
with students on a regular basis and in maintaining student motivation (W. Kauffman &
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T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). Prior to enrollment, academic
coaches discuss school readiness factors with students, including motivation to return to
school, commitment/ time available to dedicate to school work, access to relevant
technology and the Internet, and relevant technology skills. Partner programs with
required on-site participation may assess for student readiness to attend regular, in-person
sessions (W. Kauffman, personal communication, June 29, 2015).
Academic coaches spend the majority of their time engaged in student follow-up;
their primary responsibility is student motivation and ensuring students are on-pace to
graduate within 18 months of program commencement (W. Kauffman & T. Salafrio,
personal communication, June 27, 2014). For a fee, students can receive extensions
beyond the 18 months, but this practice is strongly discouraged (W. Kauffman & T.
Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). LMS software with tracking and
reporting capabilities allows academic coaches to monitor student activities and extended
student inactivity results in a phone call from the student’s academic coach (W.
Kauffman & T. Salafrio, personal communication, June 27, 2014). Although there are
many mechanisms in place to mitigate student dropout, the COHS attrition rate mirrors
other similar online schools, with student attrition around 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009;
Roblyer, 2006).
Sample
Study participants included a purposive sample of five participants, ages 16 and
over, who completed at least three COHS courses, or graduated within the past year.
There are no rules regarding sample size in qualitative studies and research often
included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010). Purposive, or purposeful sampling, is a non-
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probability sampling method that involves the selection of individuals from a predefined
group (Maxwell, 2013). The study excluded individuals that completed fewer than three
courses, as they may not have had the breadth of experience required to speak about the
phenomenon under investigation. Also excluded were individuals that graduated over a
year ago, as they may not have been able to recall experiences in as vivid detail as more
recent graduates. COHS enrollment is only open to individuals ages 16 and older that
have completed eighth grade and have officially withdrawn from traditional high school.
Thus, the population was reflective of this program requirement. Study participants were
working towards, or received, a COHS diploma and career certificate in any of the
aforementioned fields of study.
Participants included those that were solely virtual, meaning they did not have an
affiliation with a COHS partner organization and access to site-based support services, as
well as those able to take advantage of site-based support. Participants included those
that transferred high school credit into COHS, as well as those that started COHS from
the first semester of ninth grade. Students with completion extensions were included in
the study. The study population was appropriate to the study’s problem as all participants
had experience with the phenomenon under review and were able to verbalize their
experiences and provide recommendations for students that might be struggling.
COHS program managers assisted in the recruitment of participants. Program
managers identified a cross-representation of students and considered the following
factors: (a) student demographics, such as gender, age, educational attainment level, and
geographical location; (b) the availability and student use of on-site computer labs and
on-site program facilitators; and (c) student motivation levels. Use of a criterion
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sampling strategy ensured all participants had experience with the phenomenon under
investigation (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). As the sample is not random, findings are
not generalizable to other populations, programs or school districts. There are no rules
regarding sample size in qualitative studies and research often included 5 to 25
participants (Mason, 2010).
As previously mentioned, the COHS model utilizes academic coaches to provide
individualized support for students. Coaches regularly communicate with students by
telephone and email and foster a trust-based relationship to maintain student motivation
and track student progress. COHS program managers worked with the academic coaches
to contact study participants, via email or telephone, depending on the participants’
preferred method of communication. Coaches used the Participant Recruitment
Email/Script in Appendix B. Once academic coaches and program managers received
written or verbal permission from interested participants, they shared participant contact
information with the researcher, who followed up with participants.
As the study population is purposive, and the pool of study participants was
limited, a general recruitment posting was not an effective way to solicit participants.
Personal solicitation ensured participants met study criteria. The researcher took care to
mitigate compromising the voluntariness of the agreement to participate and ensured
potential participants did not feel pressured or obligated to volunteer due to relationships
with academic coaches. Clear scripting within the Participant Recruitment Email/Script
(Appendix B) highlighted that participation was voluntary and not participating had no
bearing whatsoever on COHS program success or relationships with academic coaches.
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Materials/Instruments
A semi-structured Interview Guide consisting of open-ended questions and
supportive scripting aided the researcher in identifying patterns and themes related to
self-efficacy in an online learning environment (see Appendix F). Interviews allow
researchers to understand objective and subjective aspects of an individual’s self-efficacy
beliefs, including how beliefs influence performance (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Other
researchers successfully used interview protocols to capture the lived experiences of non-
graduates engaged in high school reentry programs (Hynes, 2014). A semi-structured
interview process allowed for follow-up questions when clarification was needed (Kvale
& Brinkmann, 2015). The semi-structured format allowed for adaptability as
conversation naturally digressed from the original, planned questions (Kvale &
Brinkmann, 2015).
There is no standardized approach to self-efficacy measurement as self-efficacy is
relative to specific tasks, environments and situations (Bandura, 2006). Study interview
questions were based on Bandura’s (2006) recommendation that researchers develop
custom measurement tools to fit the particular domains under review. Self-efficacy
research evaluated at domain-specific levels helps improve result validity (Bandura,
1997, 2006). The interview questions were specific to the online learning domain and to
the domain-specific construct of IBLSE. Question design aligned with Bandura’s
(1977a) four theorized sources of self-efficacy: performance accomplishment, vicarious
experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological and emotional states. Bandura’s (2006)
‘Guide for Constructing Self-Efficacy Scales’ aided question development, along with
sample qualitative self-efficacy interview questions found within Usher and Pajares
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(2008), and sample phenomenological interview questions found within Moustakas
(1994).
To establish protocol credibility and transferability, the researcher used non-
leading interview questions to ensure for unbiased responses from the participants’ own
experiences (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015). The questions helped the researcher to
understand the context of the participants’ experiences, to construct their experiences,
and reveal meanings behind experiences (Flood, 2010). Questions that may have evoked
an emotional response, such as those related to online program challenges or past
schooling experiences, were located at the end of the interview to allow for the
establishment of interviewer/interviewee rapport.
The researcher emailed experts with extensive experience in the fields of self-
efficacy research, online learning and IBLSE, and asked them to review all interview
questions. The researcher edited to questions based on feedback from: (a) Dr. Dale
Schunk, former Dean and current Professor at the University of North Carolina at
Greensboro; (b) Dr. Ellen Usher, Associate Professor, Director of the P20 Motivation and
Learning Lab and Chair of the Educational Psychology Program at the University of
Kentucky; and (c) Dr. Chin-Chung Tsai, Chair Professor of the Graduate Institute of
Digital Learning and Education at the National Taiwan University of Science and
Technology. The aforementioned authors’ research was used extensively in support of
this study. Expert feedback helped reduce study risks and ensured for the credibility and
dependability of the interview tool (Cozby, 2011).
Data Collection, Processing, and Analysis
Once participants were identified, the researcher emailed students using the
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Participant Introductory Email, located in Appendix C. This email included the
Participant Informed Consent Form (Appendix D). Once the signed informed consent
documentation was received from participants, the researcher sent the Interview
Scheduling Email (Appendix E) to provide background information on self-efficacy and
to schedule the initial telephone interview. Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy terminology
was modified to improve participant understanding: (a) performance accomplishment
was replaced with ‘mastery experiences’; (b) vicarious experience was replaced with
‘observing others’; (c) verbal persuasion was replaced with ‘verbal persuasion by others’;
and (d) physiological and emotional states was replaced with ‘mood’ (National
Association of School Psychologists, 2010).
To comprehend the phenomenon under review, the researcher used a semi-
structured Interview Guide (Appendix F) to conduct a telephone interview of a purposive
sample of five students that completed at least three courses at Career Online High
School (COHS) or that graduated within the past year. The intent of the interview was to
explore the perceptions and lived experiences of non-graduates as they related to IBLSE
and online high school persistence. Prior to the start of each interview, the researcher
conducted a brief review of the Informed Consent documentation (Appendix D), to
include participant permission for audio recording. The interview did not continue
without participant permission to record. Scripting within the Interview Guide
(Appendix F) allowed the researcher to address any questions related to the definition of
self-efficacy and the theorized sources.
The researcher ensured the interview climate was comfortable for the participant,
which allowed the participant to respond honestly and comprehensively (Moustakas,
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1994). Interviews lasted approximately one hour and the semi-structured interview
process allowed for follow-up questions when clarification was needed (Kvale &
Brinkmann, 2015). Although the researcher prepared for follow-up interviews (Appendix
G), no additional data was required. The researcher used a digital recorder and
transcription software, Dragon Naturally Speaking, to capture and transcribe participant
conversation verbatim, which allowed for the reconstruction of participants’ personal
experiences (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2015).
Once interview transcription was complete, member checking occurred. Member
checking is a process in which the researcher checks back in with participants once
interviews are completed and transcribed (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher contacted
participants with a Member Check Email/Transcript (Appendix H) and asked participants
to review, confirm and recommend changes (Maxwell, 2013). When the individual
textural descriptions were complete, the member check process was repeated to allow
participants to review individual textural descriptions to ensure they reflected lived
experiences.
Epoché is a Greek term meaning ‘suspension of judgment’ (Moustakas, 1994). In
the phenomenological research process, epoché, or ‘bracketing’ involves the researcher
refraining from judgment and setting aside bias in order to reach a “transcendental state
of freshness and openness, a readiness to see in an unfettered way” (Moustakas, 1994, p.
41). Prior to interviewing participants, and throughout all phases of research, the
researcher used bracketing to set aside personal knowledge, attitudes and assumptions
regarding the phenomenon under review (Moustakas, 1994).
The use of journaling helped the researcher to record and reflect upon thoughts,
84
beliefs, and ideas that arose during the data collection and data analysis phases.
Journaling helped identify and mitigate researcher prejudices. The researcher engaged in
self-reflection of her own beliefs on topics such as online education, high school dropout,
education policy, poverty, immigration, and religion, and used reflection and imaginative
variation to craft the study’s textural and structural themes.
Phenomenological analysis of interview data followed a modified van Kaam
methodology (see Figure 1) and involved the processes of phenomenological reduction,
imaginative variation and synthesis (Moustakas, 1994).
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Figure 1. Moustakas’ (1994) modified van Kaam method of data analysis
During the phenomenological reduction process, individual textural descriptions
were developed for each participant (Moustakas, 1994). This process included individual
analysis of each transcript and the listing and grouping of every expression related to the
86
experience of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school (Moustakas, 1994). Initial
statements were all given equal value (horizonalization; Moustakas, 1994). From this
list, overlapping and repetitive statements were combined to identify the invariant
elements in a process known as reduction and elimination (Moustakas, 1994). These
elements were then clustered, labeled thematically, and checked for validity against the
complete transcript to establish core themes, which were used to create individual
textural descriptions (Moustakas, 1994).
The researcher then used imaginative variation, which is using imagination and
reflection to identify underlying themes, or units of meaning (Moustakas, 1994). From
this process, individual structural and textural-structural descriptions were created to
describe the meanings and essences of the phenomenon (Moustakas, 1994). A composite
description was then developed and all relevant data was synthesized to represent the
study participants as a whole (Moustakas, 1994).
As part of the data analysis process, the researcher identified and related domain-
specific expressions of student self-efficacy to Bandura’s (1977a) four theorized sources
of self-efficacy: performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion,
and physiological and emotional states. Examples of described student self-efficacy
experiences included: (a) positive attitudes toward tasks; (b) demonstrations of coping
mechanisms; (c) demonstrations of effort expended and maintained despite obstacles; and
(d) demonstrations of self-motivation techniques (Bandura, 1977a).
Computer-Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software (CAQDAS) managed
study data. After reviewing several CAQDAS software platforms, the researcher selected
ATLAS.ti based on functionality and capability to support phenomenological analysis
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processes such as managing, coding, sorting, and retrieving data. This tool facilitated the
coding process and aided in connecting data components to identify patterns and themes
(Saldana, 2013). Coded data identified alignment and misalignment with the theoretical
propositions of Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory and the student experience of
IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments.
The data collection, processing, and analysis plan was appropriate and aligned
with the study’s purpose to examine student experiences of IBLSE and online high
school persistence, in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with data to reduce
student attrition. This plan indicated responses to the research questions: (a) What are the
student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools?; and (b) How
can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to
reduce student attrition and inform online high school programming decisions?
Data collection from multiple participants generated extensive empirical
information on the phenomenon under investigation. Self-efficacy correlates with
academic achievement and the study indicated relationships between student self-efficacy
and academic success in the targeted domain (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al.,
2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Understanding student IBLSE and
persistence in online high school environments can provide insight into the shared
characteristics of students in these programs.
Assumptions
There were several assumptions in regards to the study population and research
design. The researcher assumed participants were truthful in their responses to the
interview questions and that they fully shared their stories with a reasonable amount of
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accuracy. To promote participant honesty, a brief review of the informed consent
document highlighted aspects of the study such as anonymity, confidentiality and the
ability to withdraw from the study at any time. This review confirmed assumptions that
participants understood participation was voluntary, that they understood the study’s and
the value of their input. Additionally, this review allowed participants to understand that
the researcher intended no harm and was an ethical professional in the education
community. The researcher assumed basic participant understanding of self-efficacy
construct and the theorized sources of self-efficacy.
A key philosophical assumption of a qualitative study design is that individuals
create their own reality as they interact in their own societal worlds and this results in
individualized, subjective meanings of experiences (Moustakas, 1994). Another
assumption was that much could be learned through in-depth study of a limited number
of participants (Marshall & Rossman, 2011). The researcher assumed the qualitative
research process allowed for the interpretation of the experiences of others and that the
phenomenon descriptions were from the participant’s point of view (Moustakas, 1994).
The researcher assumed that the use of bracketing would aid in setting aside
personal researcher knowledge, attitudes and assumptions about the phenomenon under
review (Moustakas, 1994). The researcher assumed the application of the theoretical
framework was appropriate for the study and that the use of a modified van Kaam
methodology would generate common themes (Moustakas, 1994). It was assumed that
the criterion sampling method ensured participants met study criteria and that the expert-
reviewed interview protocol would generate the intended results.
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Limitations
Although the sample size of five study participants helped ensure that study data
was manageable and generated rich, thick data, the greatest study limitations were the use
of a single study site, the limited number of participants involved, and the limited
participant demographic. Due to the nature of the researcher/study site relationship,
greater access to student data was restricted. These limitations could lead to questions of
study quality, yet there are no rules regarding sample size in qualitative studies and
research often included 5 to 25 participants (Mason, 2010). As the study sample was not
random, and only involved students that attended online courses at COHS, findings are
not generalizable to other populations, programs or school districts. As only one data
source was used for this study, there was no opportunity for data triangulation, which
reflected a limitation.
A proactive approach to identify and address study limitations and potential
credibility and transferability threats helped mitigate study criticism. There are inherent
limitations in qualitative studies as the data and interpretations are subjective and not
precisely quantified (Cozby, 2011; Yin, 2014). To mitigate criticism and strengthen
study credibility and transferability, the researcher defined constructs in specific terms,
related concepts to the study framework, and cited published research where terms were
operationalized (Yin, 2014). Within the study, the construct of IBLSE was clearly
defined and the interview protocol and data analysis process were aligned with Bandura’s
(1977a) sources of self-efficacy. Findings were aligned to known, published research.
The interview protocol was a study limitation as the researcher developed this
new tool. Self-efficacy protocols applied in too broad a fashion may only reflect an
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individual’s ambiguous, generalized capabilities, or attitudes about capabilities, versus
self-efficacy assessments that are applied to a criteria-based task (Pajares, 1995). The
study’s protocol was not based on a criteria-based task and data was reflective of a
variety of aspects of Career Online High School including program enrollment, online
coursework and working with an academic coach. As such, this wide scope represents an
additional study limitation.
The researcher’s experience as a novice interviewer was a limitation. The
interview protocol mitigated researcher bias and kept the researcher on task (Yin, 2014).
As the interviews took place over the phone, there was no opportunity to factor
participant body language or facial expressions into the data, which was a limitation.
Another limitation was a lack of familiarity with the participants and a lack of
opportunity and time to build a trusted relationship. Although the researcher’s use of
bracketing supported study result credibility, transferability and dependability, the
researcher’s biases, beliefs, and personal experiences may be seen as potential limitations
to the interview process and to the data analysis process (Moustakas, 1994). The
researcher followed a meticulous study design to minimize researcher bias and prevent
generation of inaccurate or misleading data (Moustakas, 1994).
Delimitations
Several characteristics limited the study’s scope and defined its boundaries.
Delimiting factors included the research problem and phenomenon under investigation,
the study’s purpose, research questions, research design, purposive sampling method and
the theoretical framework. The study site was a delimitation as research only took place
in affiliation with Career Online High School. The study population was not delimited
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geographically as the online school is accessible nationwide. The study was delimited by
reentry pathway and only involved students that self-enrolled (private pay) or enrolled
through corporate or library partnerships. COHS students enrolled through school
districts or correctional facilities were not included in this study.
To meet study criteria, all participants needed to have completed at least three
courses at COHS or needed to have graduated within the past year. COHS enrollment is
only open to individuals ages 16 and older, that have completed eighth grade and have
officially withdrawn from traditional high school. This study was focused on the
experiences of former non-graduates. Study focus was not delimited by the experiences
of adult learners or the use of career-focused education in online high schools.
Participants may have been working towards, or may have received, a COHS diploma
and career certificate in any of the COHS fields of study.
Ethical Assurances
The Northcentral Institutional Review Board (IRB) granted study approval prior
to any data collection (Dissertation Resource Manual, 2015). IRB approval indicated
study integrity and adherence to ethical principles. The study aligned with the Belmont
Report which outlined basic ethical principles for behavioral research with human
subjects including: (a) respect for persons (acknowledge autonomy, protect those with
diminished autonomy, ensure subjects participate willingly and with adequate
information); (b) beneficence (maximize benefits, minimize possible harm); and (c)
justice (ensure for equal distribution of study burdens and benefits on study subjects)
(National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research, 1979).
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The population studied was considered vulnerable as it included minorities and
the economically disadvantaged; no additional burdens were placed on study participants
(National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research, 1979). Study participants were autonomous adults that provided
informed consent to participate in the study. Participants were required to submit a
signed copy of the Participant Informed Consent Form, which is located in Appendix D.
This non-technical, jargon-free document included: (a) the study’s purpose and
procedures; (b) information on deception; (c) participation requirements; (d) the names
and numbers of research personnel; (e) compensation information; (f) potential risks and
benefits of participation; (g) clarifications of anonymity/confidentiality procedures; and
(h) information regarding the participant’s right to withdraw from the study (Cozby,
2011). The researcher was prepared to read aloud the informed consent documentation
for individuals with disabilities or secure translators for individuals with limited English
proficiency (Morton & Cunningham-Williams, 2009).
The researcher used an Interview Guide (Appendix F) to review the informed
consent documentation and obtain verbal permission to audio record the session. The
interview did not continue without participant permission to record. The researcher
reminded participants that they could stop the study at any time and did not need to
respond to questions that made them uncomfortable. Individuals studied may have
experienced educational or other trauma while enrolled in traditional high school, and as
such, the potential for psychological stress, fear, and anxiety was possible during the
interview process (Cozy, 2009). Examples of sensitive issues for non-graduates include
leaving school, family, homelessness, teen pregnancy and learning disabilities (Balfanz et
93
al., 2013).
Researcher presence can compound participant stress as individuals may be asked
to reflect upon dramatic or unpleasant life events (Cozby, 2011). To mitigate the
potential of participant stress, questions were worded in a sensitive and respectful manner
and questions which may have evoked an emotional response (e.g., “Tell me about your
past schooling experiences; what were you like as a learner?”) were located at the end of
the interview to allow for the establishment of interviewer/interviewee rapport (Cozby,
2011). The researcher provided personalized attention to study participants and
conducted the study with extreme care and sensitivity (Yin, 2014). If participants utilized
non-standardized English during the data collection process, the researcher interpreted
transcriptions in order to protect participant identity and ethnicity and to avoid reader
misunderstanding (Oliver, Serovich, & Mason, 2005). When the researcher interpreted
transcriptions, care was taken to ensure analysis and results were unaffected by
alterations and that interpretations were respectful to participants (Oliver et al., 2005).
Two rounds of member checking ensured for interview data credibility and
reduced the threat of data misinterpretation (Maxwell, 2013). The researcher contacted
participants with a Member Check Email/Transcript (Appendix H) and asked participants
to review, confirm and recommend changes (Maxwell, 2013). When the individual
textural descriptions were complete, the member check process was repeated to allow
participants to review individual textural descriptions to ensure they reflected lived
experiences. During the data collection process, the researcher worked to ensure
participants had a positive reaction to the study’s purpose and felt empowered as a result
of study participation (Moustakas, 1994).
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The researcher stored all electronic research data on a computer that was
password and security protected and backed-up data to an external storage drive on a
nightly basis. Data hardcopies were stored in a locked filing cabinet within a locked
room. Data and research materials were only accessible to the researcher and the
dissertation chair. The researcher did not attach signed informed consent forms to
interview transcriptions. Within the reported data and findings, the researcher replaced
the names of participants with pseudonyms to ensure for anonymity. The researcher took
great care to reassure study participants that all data was private and confidential. After
five years, the researcher will destroy all research materials by shredding all hard copies
and permanently deleting all electronic files.
Conducting ethical research is more than ensuring participants provide informed
consent and that IRB approval is granted; ethical research involves commitments to study
participants, (e.g., confidentiality, privacy, respect, beneficence, justice), that researchers
must honor (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical
and Behavioral Research, 1979). Ethical considerations must take priority over all other
aspects of a study, no matter how impactful the research. When working with
marginalized and vulnerable populations it is of critical importance that there is implicit
trust between participants and researchers (Cozby, 2011). Study participants should
understand and feel that the researcher has their best interest at heart (Cozby, 2011). An
ethical, trustworthy approach to research helps ensure study results are accepted by the
wider educational community and paves the way for additional research in the study topic
area (Cozby, 2011).
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Summary
This chapter described the research method for this qualitative, phenomenological
study to explore student experiences of IBLSE and online high school persistence.
Information on the origins of phenomenology was discussed, along with information on
the appropriateness and relevance of this method for the study. The study's use of a self-
efficacy framework was reviewed. Detailed information on the study setting, program
contacts, and population was provided, to include COHS demographics, attrition rate and
program structure overview. The role of the COHS academic coaches in fostering a
supportive, student-centered learning environment was highlighted.
The study's sample was outlined, to include participant selection criteria and the
purposive sampling strategy. Participant-facing documentation was described to include
recruitment scripting, introduction and scheduling emails, informed consent
documentation, and member check information. The development and intent of the semi-
structured Interview Guide was explained, including alignment with Bandura's (1977a)
theorized sources of self-efficacy. Protocol transferability and dependability was
reviewed to include feedback from experts in the fields of self-efficacy research, online
learning, and IBLSE.
Data collection, processing, and analysis were reviewed within this chapter,
including a detailed overview of the steps of the modified van Kaam methodology
(Moustakas, 1994). Information researcher use of bracketing and journaling to mitigate
researcher bias was discussed. This chapter included information on CAQDAS software
used for this study and the coding process. Study assumptions, limitations, and
delimitations were included, along with a detailed overview of ethical assurances. The
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researcher followed a meticulous study design to minimize researcher bias and prevent
generation of inaccurate or misleading data (Moustakas, 1994).
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Chapter 4: Findings
The purpose of this qualitative phenomenological study was to examine student
experiences of online high school persistence and Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy
(IBLSE) in an effort to provide educational stakeholders with data to reduce student
attrition and inform programming decisions. The construct of IBLSE indicates student
self-belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or in an online learning activity
(Tsai et al., 2011). Phenomenological analysis of interview data followed a modified van
Kaam methodology to generate common participant themes (Moustakas, 1994). This
chapter includes study results and evaluation of findings. This chapter also includes an
analysis of study findings and comparison of results based on other research in the field.
Results
As the researcher had no prior affiliation with Career Online High School
(COHS), there was a formal process established to obtain confidential student contact
information. Over the course of six months, the researcher worked closely with Teresa
Salafrio, Director of Academics and Principal of Schools, who in turn worked with the
COHS academic coaches to obtain student verbal agreement to participate in the study.
The COHS principal was diligent in identifying participants and in following-up with
the researcher on interview progress.
As the researcher only received contact information for up to three students at a
time, and no additional names were received until those three either completed the
interview process or decided not to participate, this resulted in a significant time
investment for each round of the data collection process. The researcher emailed 22
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students in total. Seven students returned the informed consent documentation and five
completed the interview process.
The researcher gathered study data via telephone, using a semi-structured
Interview Guide (Appendix F) designed to capture the lived student experiences of
IBLSE and persistence within on online high school. Each interview was approximately
one hour in length. Participant interviews were transcribed and analyzed, resulting in
56.5 pages of transcription, with an average of 11.3 pages per participant.
Unique study codes were created and ATLAS.ti software linked codes to
relevant quotes. Codes not significant to the research question or phenomenon under
review were eliminated. Often codes were combined and a new code name was
established. During the initial review of the participant transcription data
(horizonalization), an average of 59.2 codes were generated per participant transcript. A
second review, relating the codes directly to the research questions (reduction and
elimination), generated an average of 33.8 codes per transcription. A third review
(clustering, thematizing and validating) resulted in an average of 8.2 codes per
participant transcript. This final data was then used to create the individual textural
descriptions for each participant.
The researcher used the techniques of epoché, phenomenological reduction, and
imaginative variation to develop individual textural, structural and textural-structural
descriptions for each participant. The individual participant textural and structural
themes were integrated to create composite textural and composite structural
descriptions for all study participants as a whole. A final composite textural-structural
description for the entire study was developed by integrating composite textural and
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composite structural descriptions. This synthesis included a summary of common and
unique themes that described the essence of the student experience of IBLSE and
persistence within online high schools. The use of journaling helped to mitigate
researcher bias and as researcher ideas and beliefs emerged, they were documented in
journal format and reflected upon. If ideas were relevant, they were included in the
findings and connected to the literature. The study literature served as a critical guide to
analyze and interpret the study data.
Two rounds of member checking ensured for interview data credibility and
mitigated data misinterpretation threats (Maxwell, 2013). In the first round of member
checking, all study participants received a copy of their interview transcript and were
asked to recommend edits, changes or additions. In the first round, only one participant
requested edits to her transcript. In the second round of member checking, all study
participants received copies of their individual textural descriptions. They were asked to
ensure descriptions reflected their perspective and to provide feedback. All participants
were in agreement with their descriptions.
Demographics. As shown in Table 2, four females and one male participated in
the study; they ranged in age from 22 to 36 years old. Three of the participants were
recent COHS graduates while two were current students. Despite limited study
participation, study demographics represented multiple forms of school pathways, which
was an unintended division identified in the data. Two participants enrolled into COHS
based on a partnership with their local library, one student enrolled through a corporate
partnership, one enrolled through a career college, and one enrolled independently. The
four female participants cited their occupation as a stay-at-home mom and had two to
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four children. The male participant cited his occupation as warehouse supervisor and he
did not have children. Three of the participants transferred high school credit into
COHS and two participants started COHS from the first semester of ninth grade. In the
data and the findings, participant names were replaced with pseudonyms to ensure for
anonymity.
Table 1 Participant Demographic Information
Participant Gender Age Enrollment Status
Transferred Credit
Partner Program
Present Occupation
Children
1 Linda Female 31 Graduate Yes Library Stay-at-home mom, currently homeschooling
2
2 David Male 22 Graduate Yes Corporation Warehouse supervisor
0
3 Maya Female 27 Current student
No Library Stay-at-home mom
2
4 Jessa Female 36 Current student
No Career College
Stay-at-home mom
4
5 Valerie Female 34 Graduate Yes N/A, Private Pay
Stay-at-home mom
2
Research questions. The study problem, a lack of information on student
experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools and the consequential
inability of educational stakeholders to leverage data to reduce student attrition and
inform programming decisions, was addressed through Research Question 1: What are
the student experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools? Research
Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose: How can educational stakeholders leverage
student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform
online high school programming decisions? A discussion of individual textural,
structural, and textural-structural descriptions and composite textural, structural and
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textural-structural descriptions are presented in alignment with Research Question 1.
Data reflective of Research Question 2 is located in Chapter 5, Practical Applications.
Individual textural, structural and textual-structural descriptions. To develop
the individual textural descriptions, each participant transcript was analyzed to list and
group every expression related to the experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online
high school (Moustakas, 1994). Initial statements were given equal value in a process
known as horizonalization (Moustakas, 1994). From this list, overlapping and repetitive
statements were combined to identify the invariant elements in a process known as
reduction and elimination (Moustakas, 1994). These elements were then clustered,
labeled thematically and checked for validity against the complete transcript to establish
core themes. The researcher used the core themes to create the individual textural
descriptions (Moustakas, 1994).
The researcher used imaginative variation to identify underlying themes, or units
of meaning, within study data (Moustakas, 1994). The individual structural and textural-
structural descriptions were created out of this process. These descriptions provide a
synopsis of the underlying themes that described the individual student experiences of
IBLSE and online high school persistence. In essence, what are the underlying themes
and qualities that support an individual’s belief in the ability to persist and succeed in an
online course or an online learning activity?
Participant 1-Linda’s individual textural description. Linda is a 31-year-old
recent COHS graduate and a stay-at-home mom. She has two children, a daughter who
is four and a son who is almost two. Linda has a strong sense of self-advocacy,
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determination, and perseverance and these characteristics influenced her IBLSE. In
describing how she learned about COHS she explained:
Someone had listed a website for the library about a book sale. So, when I went
on the website, I joined the mailing list and a couple weeks later this opportunity
was emailed to me, saying if you know someone in need, please fill out this
application. I did so and that’s how it started.
Linda’s library has a partnership with COHS and the library had a rigorous
scholarship application process that Linda completed including email, phone, and in-
person interviews. Linda’s graduation commitment to the library was a driving force in
her desire to succeed; she did not want to let the library scholarship team down. She
explained:
I didn’t know if I was going to pass by the skin of my teeth or get straight A’s.
I did have a high self-efficacy; I knew I could do it. There was no question. I
mean the gift was given to me, the scholarship, I see this as a gift. I’m not
going to fail anyone.
Linda is passionate about her children’s education and safety and as a result, she
has opted to homeschool her children. This passion was another driving force in her
decision to go back to school online and persevere to obtain her high school diploma.
Although the state where Linda resides does not require homeschooling parents to have
high school diplomas to deliver instruction, the majority of states in the U.S. do, and
some require college credits. Linda wanted the flexibility to relocate and not worry
about her own credentials as a homeschooling parent.
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Now that Linda has her diploma, she feels the opportunities for her are endless
and she has newfound self-confidence. In regards to earning her diploma, she
explained:
It made me feel like I could conquer anything because my high school
experience was 13 years ago and I hadn’t even seen an algebraic equation in 13
years. So when I saw (the equations), it was kind of overwhelming, but the fact
that I was able to do it, just kind of instilled this confidence.
Linda is not sure if she wants to continue her education as she has concerns that
she might struggle in college based on past schooling experiences. She also has two
young children at home that need her. If required, she would consider, “some basic
teaching courses, online style, or a community college, if needed for certain states to
homeschool.”
Linda knows that should she decide to go back to work her employment
opportunities are significantly expanded. She explained:
I know that there’s so many job opportunities now that I can do, because I
didn’t have that high school diploma. I’m pretty well educated, even without
my diploma I carry myself well and I just think that there’s so many things now
that I can do. As far as if they offer training, if it’s an office job at a dentist’s,
answering phones and there’s training involved, I have the confidence now to
do even better in an interview because I know I have that diploma. I worked in
restaurants for years as a waitress and as a bartender and I always wanted to
become a restaurant manager…I’d like to get back into that field, something on
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a management spectrum. I would probably love to go back to the restaurant and
do some training, like bookkeeping, or something in the medical field.
Linda’s faith in God has been inspirational for her and helped her to succeed
online. She explained:
I really felt that this was a gift on my faith, a gift from God, to give me this
high school diploma so that I can start the process of homeschooling, which
I’ve been praying on too…I definitely know that this is all God’s will, so for
me, I’m going to follow through with any clear gifts I receive from God.
Obtaining a high school diploma versus a GED was important for Linda and involved
her faith, “I never wanted a GED, especially now with Common Core involved…I have
been praying on this situation for at least ten years because it’s always bothered me.”
Prior to leaving traditional high school, Linda was in the second semester of
12th grade. Once she transferred her earned credits to COHS, she only had six formal
credits to complete, along with the career course prerequisites. She was able to
complete the COHS program within six weeks. During that time, Linda worked
persistently to complete her courses and balance her education with caring for her
children. In regards to coping through this process Linda explained, “Let’s just say the
kids watched a lot of PBS Kids because I plugged in for like 8 hours a day and
sometimes I would stay up through the night!”
Linda’s self-awareness and ability to self-advocate and self-regulate helped her
to be successful in the online high school environment. When asked to select a source
of self-efficacy that had the greatest impact on her belief in her ability to achieve
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online, Linda selected performance accomplishment. To illustrate this choice she
explained:
I didn’t have anyone verbally, other than the high school… checking in on me,
or the library checking in on me, I didn’t really have anyone rooting for me
necessarily. I have a two-year-old and a four-year-old and my husband works
70 hours a week, so he wasn’t even here. Not many people know that I never
finished high school. It’s kind of been like a dirty little secret. I didn’t have
that. I guess I have to say that I was there once before, I can do this again… I
just knew because I did 4 ½ years of high school, I was like, I should be able to
finish those last six credits.
In reflecting on her past schooling, Linda shared that as a child, she moved
around a lot. High family mobility caused Linda to feel disconnected from school, “I
attended two elementary schools, two middle schools, and two high schools, so I never
really stayed long to stick with the learning curve of one school and one set of kids.”
She explained that the traditional high school environment was not in alignment with
her visual learning style:
I also have a short attention span and I can’t really retain things well when I’m
being spoken to, so I definitely have to see it with my eyes. I guess when I see
things in front of me I’m able to retain them easier.
On the contrary, the inherent visual-based nature of an online high school program, like
COHS, supported Linda’s needs as a self-identified visual learner.
While some COHS classes were particularly challenging for Linda, for the most
part, she found the courses to be surprisingly easy and she enjoyed the online learning
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experience. Her biggest challenges were with the math courses. She explained, “I’m
awful at math, beyond division and long hand—I can’t do algebra. I can’t. So that was
like a grueling two weeks for me. And when I got through that, it was like, ‘all right!’”
Linda used help-seeking behaviors to overcome academic challenges:
I got help from my husband at night; he’s a chef, so he has to be good in math.
So he was able to help me some and a lot of prayer! Seriously, to get you
through. I know math is what brought my GPA down because I was at a 3.0 for
a long time. I got a 70%, the bare minimum to finish it and had to retake the
test a lot of times.
Another challenging aspect of the program was disappointment and confusion
during Linda’s initial COHS registration. The confusion may have come from the
newness of the library program partnership, as Linda was the first person to graduate
under the new arrangement. A library staff member helped Linda sign-up and told her
to “…go ahead and click on ‘security guard’ to start the program.” Selecting a different
career certificate was not an option and based on her homeschooling goals, she would
have preferred a certificate in Child Care and Education. Linda completed the Certified
Protection Officer prerequisites on-site in the library as part of the scholarship
requirement. The library wanted to ensure that she would be successful. Although
Linda’s COHS academic coach was later informed of the registration error, it was too
late to make the change. To Linda’s credit, she quickly completed the prerequisites, “I
had to commit… they gave me maybe two weeks’ time in the library… I did it in two
days.”
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Linda also demonstrated resilience and the ability to make the best of a bad
situation:
The security training did give me some courses on computers and computer
training and how to generally deal with subordinates. There were also some
extensive chapters on dealing with management or being a manager with
employees below you and that was helpful. I can’t necessarily use the
certificate, but there were some things definitely in there from a management
situation that I’ll be able to use or remember.
Personalized support from her COHS academic coach and motivational
technology within the COHS learning platform were nice to have, but Linda did not
feel dependent upon these to be successful. She explained:
Every time you finished a course or semester…they emailed you, like “Great
job,” or, “We saw that you got an A on this.” There were these generic little
sticker icons, they would see that I was working on something, or finishing
something and they would email me…but even if I didn’t get that, I would still
be doing it, but it was a nice little reminder that I’m almost done.
Linda shares the following advice for those that might be struggling at COHS:
Utilize everything that’s given to you. It’s fairly easy to get hold of your
academic coach, so just reach out—do what you need to do to get that help. If
it’s something that you really want, it’s not very hard to do schooling in the
comfort of your own home. There is no excuse of having to go drive
somewhere for different classes, different hours. You control the hours when
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you want to do it. It works around your life, your schedule. It’s kind of a no-
brainer.
She also has sincere appreciation for the COHS program:
I don’t even mind if my kids went to Career Online High School because I feel
that if they are successful with homeschooling and I know I can’t do high
school for them, I would absolutely, 110% put all of my money into this
program for them because it was so amazing and it was so helpful.
Now that Linda has graduated, she sees opportunities to support others that are
completing their high school diploma online. She explained, “It’s funny because I just
found out that I know someone through a church that I used to attend…that’s doing
this…she’s on my Facebook page. I was like, does she know I did this? Does she have
any questions?”
Participant 1-Linda’s individual structural description. Linda’s individual
structural description has nine structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to
persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: self-advocacy, self-
regulated learner, support, high level of IBLSE, performance accomplishment identified as
most influential self-efficacy source, diploma required for future goals/ understand the
importance of education on success, perseverance and resilience, sense of responsibility
to others, and belief in a higher power.
Participant 1-Linda’s individual textural-structural description. Linda has a
strong sense of self-advocacy. Linda took the initiative to enroll into COHS and wanted
to earn her diploma and improve her homeschooling capabilities. Linda often used self-
regulated learning strategies to help her overcome challenges. She used help-seeking
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behavior by reaching out to her husband for math support and advises others who might
be struggling, to ask for help. She had a self-awareness of her visual learning style and
her learning challenges, such as her short attention span. Linda understood how to
balance home responsibilities with her education requirements.
Linda expressed that she had a high self-efficacy to succeed within the online
environment and stated that performance accomplishment was the most impactful
source in regards to her belief in her ability to achieve online. She absolutely knew that
she would complete the program; there was no doubt in her mind. The scholarship
application process that Linda completed strengthened her self-efficacy; she invested
too much time and effort into the process to fail. Linda felt that because she had
completed four and a half years of high school, all the way up to the second semester of
her senior year, that she should be able to complete her online classes without major
difficulty. Completing difficult courses, such as Algebra, strengthened Linda’s self-
efficacy and self-confidence in her ability to succeed in the online environment.
Linda has many future personal and family goals that were only achievable by
completing her high school diploma, including being able to homeschool in the US, go
to college, and rejoin the workforce in a higher capacity. In regards to homeschooling,
the majority of states in the U.S. require homeschooling parents to have a high school
diploma. As homeschooling works best for Linda’s family, she felt it was imperative
that she obtain her diploma in order to avoid negative consequences. Some states
require homeschooling parents to have college credits. Linda now feels capable, as she
is eligible to enroll into college to obtain the education she needs to teach her children.
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Linda’s overall understanding of the importance of education on success was a
consistent theme.
In regards to going back to work, Linda knows that her diploma affords her a
wide range of opportunities. Once the children are grown, Linda looks forward to
working in a medical office or in a management role in the restaurant business. She no
longer fears the job interview process; her diploma has given her new confidence.
Linda’s resilience and perseverance to overcome challenges had an impact on
her ability to persist in her online classes. The scholarship application process was
rigorous and even an upsetting glitch at the beginning of the program where Linda was
assigned the Certified Protection Officer career elective courses versus Child Care and
Education, did not dissuade her from completing the program. Linda had a positive
attitude and was able to make the best of a bad situation. She found relevant aspects of
the training that she would be able to use in the future.
Linda found ways to manage her school workload and balance the needs of her
children and she often worked on school into the night. Algebra classes were
particularly challenging for Linda and she found tutoring support from her husband.
She retook the final math test several times and did not give up.
Linda had a strong sense of responsibility to others to obtain her high school
diploma. Commitments to the library and scholarship program motivated Linda; she
did not want to let anyone down. Linda felt responsibility towards her children and it
was of critical importance that she earn her diploma in order to homeschool.
A strong faith in a higher power and in the power of prayer helped Linda make
the decision to go back to school and persist in her classes. She felt that the scholarship
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was a gift from God and God’s will so that she could stay home and provide her
children with a Christian homeschooling experience. Prayer also helped her overcome
challenges presented by difficult math coursework.
Participant 2-David’s individual textural description. David is a 22-year-old
COHS graduate. He immigrated to the United States after a major natural disaster in his
home country. As a survivor, David demonstrated resilience and a fervent desire to
persevere despite all obstacles and challenges. These characteristics influenced David’s
IBLSE. David explained:
Considering what life has presented me and where I've come from… reflecting on
my accomplishments and failures as a young adult who never had a father figure
to seek guidance from, I kept true to myself and maintained my desire to
persevere. Being a survivor…taught me to understand that it’s not okay to
abandon my dreams.
Upon arrival in the US, David enrolled in a traditional high school program and
received a certificate recognizing the basic credentials for completion but unfortunately,
it was not inclusive of school credits from David’s home country. When David tried to
use the certificate to enroll in college he learned it was not valid for college admission.
He was very frustrated and explained, “I couldn’t go anywhere and the school–they
didn’t want to push me in my career.”
David encountered additional challenges between the time he left traditional high
school and enrollment into COHS. He tried to enroll in community college but was
unable to pass the entrance exam due to the language barrier. As a non-native speaker of
English, he explained:
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I was struggling in school because English was a personal challenge for me and
in order for me to pass any test in English…it was really hard. My dreams of
going back to school were still in the forefront of my mind and I didn't want to
lose sight of this goal. However, every school I contacted provided me with the
same information of the basic requirement of a high school diploma or GED
needed in order to pursue my education.
Not to be dismayed, David found employment with a major U.S. corporation that
had an employer partnership with COHS. He explained:
Entering into the COHS program was not an option I sincerely considered, but I
thought to myself, “What else, besides a paycheck, can (this company) offer me to
pursue my dream?” I started researching the education and career links (on the
employee benefits portal). I decided to enroll in my first prerequisite course for
office management with a high school diploma.
David had to demonstrate to his employer that he was capable of completing the
prerequisite courses. He explained:
Upon completion of the course, I received an email from COHS, which offered
me a scholarship that enabled me to finish my high school education and I
received my diploma. Needless to say, I was elated! Right now that I have my
diploma, it really helped me. Right now, I qualify for anything, in any industry.
Although COHS was able to transfer David’s traditional high school credits into
their program, David ended up having some course duplications. He explained:
I did not have to take a lot of classes because I had certain classes from high
school. I said to (the company-based program coordinators), “I have a transcript.”
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They realized that I was already taking courses that I didn’t really need and they
did the evaluation from classes I already had from the high school.
David did not find the COHS course content to be particularly challenging based
on his prior high school experience:
There was really no challenge for me. I already completed high school, so I know
about (the subjects). Certain things I’ve taken twice or probably like three times
because I came from (another country) and there were certain things I knew
already. Then when I went to (the U.S. high school), I took those classes again
and when I signed up for the online classes, they were the same thing. There was
no big challenge.
Shortly after enrollment at COHS, David graduated with a career certificate in Office
Management. He explained:
It was supposed to take me two years to finish…but I was putting a lot into my
education. I told myself I didn’t want to wait that much longer. It took me two
months to do all of the program.
David has a passion for education and he knew a high school diploma was
required for his future goals:
I had a timeline and I wanted to go back to college. I was really, really motivated
to go ahead and complete those classes so I could receive my diploma on time.
Now that I have my diploma, I can continue my endeavor to pursue computer
programming and business management courses. My first objective is to be a
tennis coach…nationwide. That’s my main goal. Secondly, I’m going to
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(University name withheld) and (my employer) decided to assist me on that…my
tuition is already paid, then my classes will start on April 6.
Family is of critical importance to David and was his primary motivator to
succeed online. David is dedicated and committed to caring for his mother and sister,
especially in consideration of the devastation back home and other family stressors. For
David, education is essential to supporting himself and his family. He explained:
It was just me and my mom, in the house and my little sister and everything is
falling on my back. I have to work hard. I cannot be in street. I cannot do certain
things that will probably make my mom disappointed. I’m really close to my
mom and everything is just me, my mom and my little sister.
He elucidated:
I still believe an education is one of the most prestigious rewards (that) no one
can take from you. I believe education is really, really important for everybody.
We need education in life.
At one point, David considered joining the military after he was unable to get into
college:
I was deciding about going into the army and I was thinking about taking the test
and passing it. When I told my mom, “Hey mom, I’m probably going to leave
and go into the Army,” she cried. And I said, “Ok, I can’t do anything.” When it
comes to things you need, for your career and for your life–you have people who
believe in you. You can’t go ahead and just dismiss that and make people
disappointed. Like I said, my mom is my everything and everything I’m doing
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right now is just to make her happy. Then, moving forward, seeing if I can just
take her where I want her to be.
At times, David felt like leaving COHS but keep himself on track by using
motivational techniques and finding support from others:
When I went to work, I sometimes would forget about myself, or I had to deal
with a situation at home. I had to deal with my own life and sometimes I felt like
dropping everything and walking away. But hey, I have people on my side that
tell me, “You have to do something for yourself.” So, I sped up and did what I
needed to do, for myself. There’s no way out. I can just get myself out from
where I stay right now.
David often employed self-regulated learning strategies to help him succeed, “I
have a foreign language. Some of things I would do is research certain words. Some
things I don’t really know and then I have to ask somebody.” During the COHS
program, David focused on his coursework:
We all know what is best for ourselves…(with) certain things, you really need to
just focus, focus. Break your addiction to certain things. If you know for a fact
that social networking is not going to help you out then do what is best for your
life. It’s time now to just focus on the future.
David had a high self-efficacy to succeed online; he also had a desire to support
others who may be in a similar situation:
I had a high, high, high belief….everything I do; I never had support from
anybody. It’s just me; I’m by myself. I never had anyone tell me, “This is
exactly what you need to do for yourself.” Sometimes I would ask people for
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advice, but you know sometimes when you ask people stuff you already know—
then you know it twice! I can push myself and then I can push other people to
motivate them, to do what’s best for them.
David was able to draw on his experience as a tennis coach to keep him motivated
during his COHS enrollment, “I’m always thinking about winning, I always go for the
win. So anything I’m doing, I want to win. I hate losing. I hate…being the guy in the
corner, with the blues. I never want to fail.”
Although the content of the COHS classes was not particularly difficult due to
David’s prior high school experience, he did find the workload and time management to
be a challenge. He explained:
Taking online classes was really challenging for me, at the time I was working the
holiday season, the nights before Thanksgiving, Black Friday and things like that.
Sometimes I would work 12-13 hours a day and then come back home. (On)
Black Friday I told myself… I need to complete at least one lesson. But when I
came back home I was really exhausted. But then I sat down on my computer and
I prayed to God. I said, “God, help me make it through.” That was the day that
made me understand that I can do anything if I put my mind to it. It was really
challenging for me, but I put a lot of work into it, a lot of dedication. It helped me
out.
David found the support and involvement of his academic coach and his
employer’s support staff to be essential to his success:
The online course team and my academic coach were always there for me and
provided me with follow-up calls and emails every time I completed a lesson with
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words of motivation and appreciation. I would complete one lesson and she
would email me saying, “You’re doing a great job.” That helped me understand
that I have somebody who cares about what I’m doing right. Anytime I had a
question; she was always available at that time. Anytime I needed her; she was
just there to listen to me. Anytime I saw her email, I knew I’m never alone.
She’s there for me.
David is proud of his accomplishments and he has sincere appreciation for both
his employer and COHS for affording him the opportunity to earn his high school
diploma online:
My whole online experience has been fantastic, challenging, but I succeeded and I
am proud of what I accomplished! Right now I’m just happy with the fact I put
my mind to Career Online High School, to not only complete those classes but to
receive my diploma. That’s the first thing I want to say—thank you, thank you
Career Online High School, for everything you provided to me. I never thought I
could do it. I’m way appreciative of the fact that it was there for me.
In regards to his employer, David explained:
(The company’s) continuing education programs offered to all associates is one of
the highlights….a rewarding benefit of working for the company. The (company)
learning team is so amazing for offering such a great opportunity for all associates
to succeed in their personal and professional life.
David offers the following advice to others that may be considering going back to
high school online:
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I believe it's not important where you've come from, your background or your
age. It's never too late to reinvent yourself but more importantly, you should
never abandon your dreams. I did not know how beneficial and rewarding the
program was until now. It’s common sense business. If I can do it, you can do it.
Participant 2-David’s individual textural-structural description. David’s
individual structural description has nine structural themes that underlie his belief in his
ability to persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: perseverance
and resilience, self-advocacy, sense of responsibility to others, self-regulated learner,
high level of IBLSE, support, belief in a higher power, performance accomplishment
identified as most influential self-efficacy source, and diploma required for future goals/
understand the importance of education on success.
Participant 2-David’s individual textural-structural description. Family is of
critical importance to David and was his primary motivator to succeed online. David is
dedicated and committed to caring for his mother and younger sister, especially in
consideration of the devastation back home and other family stressors. He did not want
to disappoint his mother or do anything that might shame the family. A sense of
responsibility to others and wanting to improve the ability to provide for family,
motivated David to earn his high school diploma and enroll in college.
For David, education is an essential means to improve his standing in life; he
viewed education as a prestigious reward that no one could take from him. Obtaining his
high school diploma was a necessary step towards realizing his dream of enrolling in
college. David understands the myriad career opportunities that are available, now that
he has his diploma.
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David’s experience as a natural disaster survivor and as an immigrant in pursuit of
the American Dream made him resilient and able to persevere to overcome challenges.
He also has strong self-advocacy skills. David encountered many challenges while trying
to further his education, including learning that his traditional high school certificate was
not valid for college admission. Yet, he did not let this dismay him. He held on to his
dream of college and found a way to continue his education through a COHS partnership
program offered by his employer. Although COHS was able to transfer David’s
traditional high school credits, David ended up having course duplications. This did not
deter David from moving forward, despite some frustration.
As a non-native English speaker, David experienced challenges with the language
and in succeeding in school. He was unable to pass a community college entrance exam
due to the language barrier, yet he persevered. Although the content of the COHS classes
was not particularly difficult due to David’s prior high school experience, he did find the
workload and time management to be a challenge. As a full-time employee of a large
retail corporation, David found it challenging to stay focused on his coursework during
the busy holiday season. Despite his exhaustion, David was able to dedicate time to
schoolwork and sometimes worked through the night.
David shared many examples of self-regulated learning techniques that helped
him persist in the online environment, including goal setting. Although he was given 18
months to complete COHS coursework, he graduated within two months of starting
school. During that time, he put a lot of energy into his studies. David found support
from his colleagues and family and found his COHS academic coach to be essential to his
success.
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David explained that schoolwork required dedication and focus and he recognized
that certain habits, like procrastinating online, would not help him to graduate. David is
future-oriented; he does not let mistakes or situations from the past hold him back. In
regards to balancing school and career, David was able to use self-motivation techniques
and prayer to help him stay focused.
David expressed that he had a high self-efficacy to succeed within the online
environment and stated that performance accomplishment was the most impactful source
in regards to his belief in his ability to achieve online. Prior to enrolling into COHS,
David completed similar courses both in his native country and in a traditional U.S. high
school. Thus, he was very comfortable with the COHS content and online format. David
is very independent and knows how to push himself to succeed. He explained that once
he put his mind on graduating, he knew that nothing would stop him. As a natural
disaster survivor and tennis coach, David understood the significance of not letting go of
your dreams.
Participant 3-Maya’s individual textural description. Maya is a 27-year-old
COHS student and a stay-at-home mom. She has two young boys, ages five and seven.
Both children are autistic and have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).
Maya enrolled in COHS through a partnership with her local library and began COHS at
the start of the ninth grade curriculum. She expected to graduate with her high school
diploma and career certificate in Child Care and Education within two months of the
study interview date.
Maya’s children are her main source of inspiration to graduate; she wants to be a
role model for them and improve her ability to support them. Maya explained:
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Being able to go to school online really helps me to focus on school and
improving myself as a person, I suppose as a mom too, to disabled children.
Eventually, I will get a job that can support my family and that’s the ultimate goal
for me, to be able to support my family and not have to rely on public assistance.
And to see my kids, to be a very good role model for them. To say, “Yeah, I have
some obstacles, but you can do it—work as a team and we can achieve our goals,
together.”
Maya’s dedication to her children and their education may stem from her own
experience as a special needs student with undiagnosed ADHD. In talking about her
background, she explained:
Even though I worked hard in school, I was at a second to third grade area in
school and so I ended up dropping out because I wasn’t going to be able to do
twelfth grade tests at the end…I moved a lot, so I went to a lot of different
schools. I was very shy…and because I was so shy, I only had a few friends. I
wasn’t the popular kid. So, I think that I tried to be perfect. I think that’s what
made me realize later that I have ADHD. I did the questionnaire and I’m like,
“Oh my God, I have ADHD this whole time.” I would try so hard to be perfect
and do my best and I remember beating myself up if I didn’t get that A or get a
good grade. And then it was a bad cycle. So, I don’t even know when I started to
fall behind. I remember always being behind and trying to catch up and not
catching up. So as a kid, that you know, wasn’t diagnosed with ADHD early on, I
can relate. That’s why I try so hard to make sure I get all the information I can for
my boys to benefit them, get all the therapies I can get for them, do all the
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techniques they suggest, just so they can have a better future than what I had. I
know the benefits of early intervention.
Maya’s knows how to manage her undiagnosed learning disability and use self-
regulated learning skills which has positively influenced her IBLSE. When her self-
awareness was commended during the interview she explained:
The reason why I have an awareness is because of my sons. When they were
diagnosed with autism and ADHD, I had to learn some of the techniques to help
them and then I learned that I have ADHD. I guess I was diagnosed as a child,
but they never told me or my mom. It explained a lot when I was in school,
having such a hard time and now it’s easier because I’m aware of it.
During courses, Maya tries to pace herself and set realistic goals:
I try to finish a semester a week so that I can get done faster but some lessons are
longer than others. I also have ADHD and I tend to make goals that are not
reasonable, so I’m learning not to make my goals too hard for me, trying to make
them more realistic. I don’t want it to be set in stone because I do tend to beat
myself up if I don’t make my goals.
She was encouraged by seeing her progress in the COHS online course room, “seeing all
the courses getting done, all the semesters and everything getting done– that’s what
motivates me.”
Maya uses self-regulated learning techniques to overcome learning challenges:
Right now, I’m on World Literature and reading is not my strong suit. I also
don’t like how they dissect poems and plays and everything. They kind of kill the
feeling, the art of the writing. So I’m having difficulty with that because it makes
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me bored. I’m like, “Yeah, ok, I get it, setting and all that,” but I’m having
trouble with that because it’s so boring and tedious. World History was hard
because it was a lot of information. You weren’t sure what you were going to be
tested on. So I wrote tons of notes and how to dissect what I’m going to need for
the test. When lessons are too long, I forget what the beginning of the semester
information is, so I have to go read over that. When it’s too long and too wordy,
it kind of loses its effect. And I don’t know if that’s the same for other students,
but for me, it’s too much.
She found other ways to stay focused on difficult coursework:
I have snacks with me; sometimes I have Jolly Ranchers to suck on. In school
when they would have those standardized tests they would give us a sucker and
they said it would help you focus, so I’ve been using that, just to try to keep my
mind from wandering off. When it gets too long, my mind starts wandering
around, “Did I do this? Did I do that?” I keep telling myself I need to focus;
that’s helping.
Although Maya has worked at a fast food restaurant and has been a busy stay-at-
home mom, once she graduates, she looks forward to a career helping others. She
explained:
I was thinking about being a social worker or a coordinator at the Regional
Center or at the Health group because I really want to help families with children
that are disabled. I also want to help the parents, because I know a lot of parents
that do so much for their kids and that are wore out, or when they’re at the
beginning of their journey and their kid just got diagnosed with something. They
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don’t really know where to turn, or what services, or where to go. I want to be the
person that can say, “Hey, there are support groups here, services” and be a
support to them. Because I know as a parent, that it really impacts a lot, not only
the children but also the parent. They’re the one that has to do all the work and I
want to be an inspiration to them. Or if they’re like me and didn’t graduate high
school and I can say, “Hey, I didn’t graduate high school, I went back to high
school and I did the therapies with my boys and I juggled everything. You can
too. Yes, it’s not going to be easy, but you can do it.”
Maya had a high self-efficacy to succeed online and used visualization to stay
motivated:
I’m definitely determined and I’m so close that I can almost taste it! I want the
whole shebang; I want the graduation with the hat, the frame with my high school
diploma. I can see it, I believe I can do it and I’m going to do it. I didn’t put in
all this time and effort just to quit now.
Maya is very proud of her accomplishments and as a result, her self-confidence has
improved.
When asked to identify the self-efficacy source that had the greatest impact on her
IBLSE she selected verbal persuasion and was able to share numerous examples. She
explained, “…my son’s therapist (said) that I was smart because I had figured out
techniques that other therapists had tried to teach… so then he encouraged me to go back
to school.” Maya’s tutor at the library was also supportive in helping her realize her
academic potential:
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My tutor, she’s listening to some of the lessons with me and she said, “This is
like college, they’re preparing you for college,” and I was like, “Yay, I can do
college!” Before I was like, “I can’t even finish high school” and now I have the
hope of being able to go to college and get a degree. So, now I don’t even need
tutoring anymore…My tutor (says) “You’re very smart and everything is falling
into place.”
As Maya had a tutor through the library, she was not reliant on her COHS
academic coach. She found the COHS coursework to be self-explanatory:
I’m pretty much doing it on my own. If I need help, I email her and she’s great to
come back and answer any questions, but I really haven’t been needing her help.
Even though the courses seem hard, I’m able to do it. I don’t know if it’s because
I have more confidence, because I’m doing so well, or the fact that it’s very
broken down and gives you everything that you need, right there, so you really
don’t need a teacher or someone, right there.
Maya’s mother also provided support:
My mom helps me by watching my boys for a half-hour, whatever I need to do
courses. My mom tells me she’s proud of me and she helps clean the house
because obviously I’m busy. She gives me the support I need to be able to focus
on school. I’m grateful that my mom is here.
Obtaining her high school diploma gives Maya a sense of encouragement and
hope for the future. She explained, “For the first time in my life I’m excited. My future
is a lot brighter and everything, I’m very happy!” Maya shares this motivational advice
for others that might be struggling in an online high school program:
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Find something that motivates you, that one thing. For me, it’s my children.
Maybe it’s the fact of having that diploma and picture yourself getting that
diploma, picture yourself wearing that hat, that gown, hearing your name being
called. Picture it all and keep going, you’ve got to keep that motivation going. I
know it’s hard, trust me it’s hard. Some days I’m too tired, I don’t want to work
on school, but I have a picture of my son, with his little hat and everything when
he graduated from pre-school and I look at it and I’m like, “I want a picture with
my cap and gown, like he does,” and I use that to keep myself going and focused.
Don’t try to be perfect, just try to do your best, focus, take notes, use different
colored pens if that helps, highlighters, whatever helps you study, use it. Use
every tool you can find. Use it and win it!
She clarifies for those considering enrolling:
My advice is, if you want it, go after it, but if you have second thoughts and
you’re not sure, don’t start it. Make sure this is what you want, not what other
people want—it’s what you want for yourself. In the end, it’s going to be you
who has to do it, so make sure it’s what you want.
Maya has a positive outlook and appreciation for the online model:
I’m so glad that there’s a program like this for all the people that had trouble in
high school…being bullied can cause you to not do so well in school or problems
at home and then being able to go to school online, later–when everything is
settled and being able to finish, it’s so great!
Participant 3-Maya’s individual structural description. Maya’s individual
structural description has seven structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to
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persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: perseverance and
resilience, self-regulated learner, high level of IBLSE, support, sense of responsibility to
others, verbal persuasion identified as most influential self-efficacy source and diploma
required for future goals/ understand the importance of education on success.
Participant 3-Maya’s individual textural-structural description. Maya’s
children are her main source of inspiration to graduate; she wants to be a role model for
them and improve her ability to support them. In conjunction with a sense of
responsibility to her family, Maya understood the importance of education on her
success. It was important that her children see her as successful in a career and not
reliant on public assistance. As Maya’s children have special needs, she wants to do
everything she can to support them, including improving herself. Maya has been able to
demonstrate to her children, her own ability to succeed despite challenges. A high school
diploma is required for Maya’s future goals, which may include college plans as Maya
aspires to be a social worker. She wants to be a role model for other parents with
disabled children, or for those who are looking to go back to high school.
Maya has a strong self-awareness as a learner and actively employs self-regulated
learning strategies. As an individual with undiagnosed ADHD, she has learned
techniques to stay focused on coursework and overcome learning challenges. She
demonstrated both perseverance and resilience. Maya sets realistic goals and uses
visualization and motivational self-talk to see herself graduating. She has let go of
perfectionist tendencies that held her back in the past. She uses help-seeking strategies
and finds support in her child’s therapist and from her tutor in the library. For Maya,
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failure is not an option—graduation is so close that ‘she can taste it’; it is a visceral
experience.
Given Maya’s aforementioned strengths, Maya’s IBLSE is very high—there is no
doubt in her mind that she will persist and succeed within the online environment. As
Maya has worked her way through the COHS program, her self-confidence and self-
esteem have blossomed. She has a positive outlook and knows she will graduate and
perhaps go on to college. Maya identified performance accomplishment/participant
modeling as having the greatest effect on her IBLSE, yet the examples she shared aligned
with a preference for verbal persuasion. For example, the verbal encouragement
provided by her child’s therapist was the sole reason Maya decided to go back to school.
He told Maya she was smart enough to complete high school courses and could obtain
her high school diploma. Maya’s library tutor was instrumental in helping Maya stay
focused on her goals and in helping her see the possibilities beyond high school. Maya’s
mother also played a role in verbally supporting Maya’s academic goals.
Participant 4-Jessa’s individual textural description. Jessa, a current COHS
student, is a 36-year-old mother of four and grandmother of two. She is a recently
divorced single parent and lives with her youngest daughter who is eleven. A few
months ago, Jessa became homeless and this stressful situation motivated her to return to
high school in order to reclaim her independence. She explained:
Last year, maybe in September, I became homeless and I was homeless all the
way up until January of this year and that was a big experience for me because
I’ve never had to go through the situation that I went through. I lost everything. I
mean everything that I had. It was hard, tough, because me and my kids were
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separated. And then I end up piling up on my best friend and her nine kids. So
during that time I went through that, it gave me a chance to reevaluate my life and
really get to where I have determined that I have to have a career established. I
don’t want to get in that predicament again, where I have nowhere, no one, all
alone, no one to help me. Just to totally depend on someone– that’s not me.
Coming from a person who’s been independent since fourteen…that was just a
real big wake-up call for me and a learning experience. So now, every time that
I’m doing my lessons, I think about where I just came from, where I’m at now
and where I want to be.
Jessa aspires to go into the field of radiology. In the past, she has worked in
healthcare but needs her high school diploma in order to pursue her career. She
explained:
I hope to graduate high school and what’s crazy is that I have a few college
credits. I’d like to finish high school and take up a little more learning so that I
can apply to the program because I want to do radiology. I’ve always wanted to
work in the medical field. I’ve been a medical assistant; I’ve done CNA
(Certified Nursing Assistant) work. I’ve been a medical technician and it’s
something about helping and I just want to do radiology.
Initially, Jessa learned about COHS when she attempted to enroll in a medical
education program:
The guy who called me back was talking to me about coming to enroll in the
program and then I got scared about going and I asked him what all he was going
to need. And he said, “What could interfere with me coming?” And I told him,
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“Not having a high school diploma because the other schools that I went to didn’t
require a high school diploma. And I just never finished the program.” He said,
“Well, that’s definitely something that you have to have for our program, but the
thing about it is, we actually have a high school program.”
Jessa’s journey to obtain her high school diploma has not been an easy one, but
her determination to complete high school demonstrated the value she places on
education and is a testament to her ability to persevere. These characteristics have
positively influenced Jessa’s IBLSE. In traditional high school, Jessa was a quick
learner, but she left school because she was, “just being rebellious…and in 96, I was
pregnant with my second child, so it was just like, who cares? I was living on my own
anyway, so it didn’t bother me.”
At one point, Jessa was enrolled in another high school program that turned out
to be a diploma mill. She explained:
I went to another high school program before and I ended up passing and got a
high school diploma to only find out that the program was not accredited… they
said that the school was not really a school. It was just a place that was taking
people’s money and making up a diploma.
At the time of the interview, Jessa had completed nearly nine credits and opted
not to enroll in a career certificate program, as a concentration in healthcare/radiology
was unavailable. Due to problems obtaining her high school transcript, Jessa had to start
the COHS curriculum over from the beginning of 9th grade. This particular challenge has
negatively affected Jessa’s IBLSE. She explained that her current IBLSE level is,
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“medium-high” and at times the course duplications made her feel like dropping out of
the program. She explained:
(My self-efficacy) was high at first because…when I first enrolled they told me
that they would transfer credits from my traditional high school, so if they
transferred the credits over from my traditional high school, then I probably
wouldn’t have to be there so long…I did three years in high school. I started
online classes January 26 and here it is March 25, I still have yet to get those
credits. So I’m doing all this work over, so it did discourage me for a moment. I
felt like giving up because they were saying that the semester was so long.
Jessa experienced challenges with her COHS partner program, as all students
were required to be on-site in the computer lab three days a week, for four hours each
day. For Jessa, this was difficult as she does not live close to the partner program,
parking is expensive, and she needs to be home after school for her daughter. Jessa
explained:
That’s what frustrates me because everything is online, but you still have to go in.
You’re just in a classroom with more students and you’re still online. You know,
nobody is doing the same subject or anything like that. You’re just in this
classroom, logging in online for three, or four hours, but I don’t feel that has a
purpose, so I really don’t like that. And if you don’t come and make that three
days they call you and talk about putting you on probation. Why would you put a
person on probation if they are doing their work and they’re still online? (After a
recent surgery) the whole time that I was home, my work was getting done. I
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didn’t fall behind. I was still on-pace. As long as you’re getting work done,
you’re passing your grades, it shouldn’t matter if you come in or not.
The COHS partner program has not integrated in-person tutors into the on-site
program and Jessa did not feel supported by the staff. She explained:
We have the lady that’s in charge of the high school program, but…she basically
doesn’t really know anything. She assigns your classes, but as far as if you’re
stuck on a problem, she tells you to Google it.
Despite these challenges, Jessa has found learning online to be relatively easy due
to the student-paced nature of the program. She explained:
Learning online—it’s easier, as well as it is hard…it’s easier because I don’t have
anyone standing over my shoulder. I’m not on a time schedule, whereas
something has to be done, at a certain time. I’m not on a timeframe. But harder,
because sometimes you get through problems and the way they have it set up, it’s
very difficult to try to go back through some things once you are testing.
Jessa is proud of her accomplishments thus far:
They set it up so that you could do one semester in two weeks and within the first
three days, I had already earned four credits, so that was a big accomplishment
for me…starting off as a new student and in three days I had already earned four
credits. I felt awesome! I think I’m doing pretty great for a person who has been
out of high school almost 20 years!”
The self-efficacy source with the greatest influence on Jessa’s IBLSE was
vicarious experience (observing others). Jessa explained:
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I have a best friend; we’ve been best friends for 29 years, (since) second grade.
We went to the same school and we’ve always been real close and good friends.
So during the six months where I was going through some very hard times and
downfalls, she was there. We were just talking to each other and we realized
that… she had a big secret that she didn’t want to tell anybody. I said, “Hey!
That’s not bad because guess what—I don’t have my high school diploma
either!” So, we both sat back and we laughed about it…I told her, “You know
what? That will be something that we can do. We started school together, we
might as well finish school together.” I just felt that if she can do it, I know I can
do it because she has nine kids… I’m only at home with an eleven-year-old. If
she can still maintain a home and go to school and get these grades and
stuff…we can do this. Her brother calls us Bonnie and Clyde!
As well as receiving support from her best friend, Jessa is supported by her
mother and her best friend’s brother. Jessa felt supported by her COHS academic coach,
“She corresponds pretty often. She lets you know that you did a good a job with the
course; you completed this course in a timely manner, at your own pace and things like
that.”
Jessa offers the following advice for others considering enrolling into an online
high school program:
I feel that people who don’t do so good in an online class are people who are
trying to hide things, as far as, they’re embarrassed, or they don’t know. They
don’t want people to know that they’re in a high school program or they just don’t
have support. So, I advise people that if you’re in the high school program and
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you’re having trouble, find someone that you know that’s in the room with you,
that you can talk to, and get close to, and ask for help. There’s nothing wrong in
looking to get help.
Participant 4-Jessa’s individual structural description. Jessa’s individual
structural description has seven structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to
persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: perseverance and
resilience, self-regulated learner, support, medium to high level of IBLSE, vicarious
experience identified as most influential self-efficacy source, sense of responsibility to
others, and diploma required for future goals/importance of education on success.
Participant 4-Jessa’s individual textural-structural description. One of
Jessa’s strengths is her ability to persevere and demonstrate resilience despite challenges.
With perseverance, Jessa overcame homelessness and realized the importance of a high
school diploma in improving her ability to support her family and in reclaiming her
independence. This sense of responsibility to others helped Jessa persevere within the
online program. Although she encountered numerous obstacles such as an inability to
transfer credits, having to be on-site several days a weeks and an unsupportive partner
program manager, she maintained her drive to complete coursework.
A high school diploma is required for Jessa’s future career goals. She has
experience in the healthcare field and her goal is to complete high school and enter a
radiology training program. She is enrolled in a COHS partner program that provides a
bridge to a medical training school and she already has a few college credits under her
belt. As previously mentioned, Jessa’s recent experience with homelessness caused her
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to realize that a high school diploma is critical to ensuring she does not find herself in
that precarious situation again.
The self-efficacy source with the greatest influence on Jessa’s IBLSE has been
vicarious experience (observing others). Jessa enrolled into COHS and the partner
medical school with her childhood classmate and best friend of 29 years. Jessa finds
inspiration and drive in the fact that her best friend has nine children to care for while
going to school and she is making it work. Jessa believes that if her friend can complete
school under her circumstances, why can’t she, as she only has one child at home. As
classmates, Jessa and her best friend are able to share the online high school journey
together and this is another source of motivation.
Jessa is supported by her mother and her best friend’s brother and feels supported
by her COHS academic coach. In regards to advice for struggling students, Jessa
recommended they identify a classmate that they see regularly, talk and get close to them,
and ask for help. This also aligned with Jessa’s preference for vicarious experience as the
primary influence on her IBLSE.
Participant 5-Valerie’s individual textural description. Valerie is 34 years
old; she is married and a stay-at-home mom to two children. She is also a recent COHS
graduate and received a career certificate in Child Care and Education. This certificate
meets the 120 hours of professional development required for her to apply for the
national Child Development Associate (CDA) credential.
Valerie explained how she learned about COHS:
I was working at a daycare… about five years ago and some co-workers were
getting their CDA…and I was inquiring about that and through my employer.
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(My) co-worker…mentioned that is how she obtained the 120 hours she needed
for her CDA.
A high school diploma was required for Valerie’s future goals. She explained, “I
want to go and become a teacher… I would like to pursue my bachelor's in elementary
education.” She has already started the college application process. Valerie is proud to
be a graduate. She explained, “It was a huge sense of relief and excitement and you
know—it’s an accomplishment. It felt great… (it’s a) thing that I’ve wanted to do. I’ve
wanted to obtain my high school diploma for a very long time.”
Valerie attempted to earn her GED prior to enrolling into COHS, but she
encountered difficulties with the schedule. The COHS online model supported Valerie’s
needs for flexibility. It took Valerie 18 months to complete the COHS program and
during that time she continued to demonstrate her ability to persevere and be resilient, “I
started Smart Horizons before, for a few months and I quit due to just not being able to
balance that and home life. Then I started back.”
Over 18 months, Valerie worked with three different COHS academic coaches.
She described the coach she worked with the longest as, “amazing.” Valerie explained
that she had high IBLSE based on her prior experience with high school coursework. She
explained, “I already had most of the knowledge that I needed to succeed.” Valerie
identified verbal persuasion as the self-efficacy source with the biggest impact on her
belief in her ability to succeed online:
I feel like the coaches are just great. I would have bad days where I just didn’t
want to do anything. You know you have your home life and things going on and
you feel that there’s just not enough time in the day and you go a whole two days
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without doing any work. And then you get a call from your learning coach,
saying, “You can do this, come on. You only have a few more left.” So, that was
great.
In traditional high school, Valerie was a fast learner and enjoyed schooling.
When she became pregnant, she made the decision to withdraw and move away. In
regards to completing the COHS program, Valerie found balancing family and home life
with school to be the biggest challenge:
You leave high school, you grow up and you have a family and you have to learn
how to balance those things all over again. You have to learn how to balance,
kind of like working and family. You just kind of have to learn to find a happy
medium.
In regards to tackling difficult academic subjects she explained, “Some of the
literature was probably a little challenging. The math was challenging, in some areas.
There were challenging areas just like in high school.” Valerie found that “discipline and
tutoring” from family members helped her overcome challenges. Valerie also used self-
regulated learning strategies to succeed, “You have the discipline and you just do it and
pay attention and leave the room if there are distractions and things like that. You can get
through it.” Valerie’s skills and strategies positively influenced her IBLSE.
Overall, Valerie found learning online to be what she expected from a challenging
online high school environment:
We all have our challenges and of course, with me being out of high school for so
long, you’re kind of rusty in some areas. I had some experience with K-12
(online courses). My oldest daughter, I homeschooled her with the K-12
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curriculum a couple of years ago and it kind of reminded me of that. Some
people, they hear about online school and I guess they kind of have it in their
minds that you don’t really get anything out of it, or you don’t get much or it’s not
the same, but really it is. I mean, I don’t think people realize that it is challenging
and it pretty much is like a homeschool setting.
While completing the COHS program, Valerie received support from her
husband, “He was just supportive with my toddler. He picked up the slack around the
house and helped me with her so that I could concentrate.” Other family members
provided verbal and moral support. When asked what they did to help, Valerie
explained, “Just talks about having a bad day. Telling me, ‘You know you can do it, it’s
not much longer.’” Valerie’s faith in God also influenced her belief in her ability to
succeed in an online high school environment.
Valerie shared the following advice for students that are struggling at COHS or
those that are considering enrolling:
I would say to just don’t give up because the end result is great… it’s a good
program and I encourage anyone that is thinking about it to go ahead enroll as fast
as they can and not delay. I’m thrilled. I don’t know what I would have done
without this program. Well, I know what I would have done—I would still be
sitting here, wondering what I’m going to do about my future and where I’m
going to go in life. And how I’m going to– because getting your GED, it’s just
not the same and I’ve tried that numerous times and it never works. Honestly, I
think this was the key to open another door for my future and my family as well.
So, I’m very grateful for this online program.
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Participant 5-Valeries’s individual structural description. Valerie’s individual
structural description has nine structural themes that underlie her belief in her ability to
persist and succeed in an online course or online learning activity: diploma required for
future goals/importance of education on success, perseverance and resilience, self-
regulated learner, support, self-advocacy, sense of responsibility to others, high level of
IBLSE, belief in a higher power and verbal persuasion identified as most influential self-
efficacy source.
Participant 5-Valeries’s individual textural-structural description. Valerie
aspires to be an elementary school teacher and a diploma is required for her future goals.
Her desire to obtain her CDA was a driving force behind her decision to return to school
and stay engaged. She has already started the college application process. Valerie
acknowledges that furthering her education will help secure her future and allow her to
improve the support she provides for her family. As someone that has previously worked
in childcare, who has homeschooled a child and is going into a teaching career, Valerie
places a high value on education. Valerie also demonstrated a strong sense of self-
advocacy.
The journey to obtain her high school diploma has not been an easy one for
Valerie. She tried in the past to obtain her GED but balancing in-person classes and
family proved too challenging. When Valerie first enrolled into COHS, she again
encountered challenges balancing school and home life. At one point, Valerie stopped
and then restarted the COHS program. With perseverance and resilience, Valerie was
able to obtain her diploma within the 18 months allotted for program completion.
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Valerie used various self-regulated learning techniques to stay on track. She
found verbal, moral and academic support from others including her family and COHS
academic coaches. Valerie’s husband was able to care for her toddler and take care of the
household, which allowed Valerie to concentrate on her studies. Valerie used self-
discipline to avoid distractions and stay focused on her goals. Her faith in God also
helped to support her IBLSE.
Valerie had a high sense of IBLSE, as she felt confident and had experience with
the high school content. Valerie had experience using a virtual program to homeschool
her older child and felt comfortable with the format. The online, student-paced nature of
the COHS program met Valerie’s need for schedule flexibility. Valerie identified verbal
persuasion as having the greatest influence on her IBLSE and this was evident based on
the examples shared during the interview. She found great support in the COHS
academic coaches as their frequent calls and words of encouragement helped Valerie to
persist. Valerie’s family members also provided verbal and moral support as she
completed the program.
Composite textural, structural and textural-structural descriptions.
Integration of the individual participant textural, structural and textural-structural themes
led to the creation of composite textural and composite structural descriptions,
accounting for all participants as a whole. This synthesis includes a summary of
common and unique themes that described the essence of the student experience of
IBLSE and persistence within online high schools.
Composite textural description. Eleven major composite themes were
identified from the interview data and are presented with significant study participant
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quotes that aligned with each of the themes. The themes are: perseverance and
resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on
success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others,
support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified
self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious
experience. Six themes were consistent across all participants: perseverance and
resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on
success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others and
support. The remaining five themes were significant enough to warrant their own
distinction. Seven minor composite themes were noted as relevant to understanding this
phenomenon including: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school
students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude
for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope
and increased self-confidence.
Table 2 indicates the composite textural themes, along with their respective
definitions. Figure 2 indicates the consistent and unique composite themes among
participants.
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Table 2
Composite Textural Themes and Definitions
Textural theme
Definition
1. Perseverance and resilience
Demonstrating a drive to overcome challenges and recover from adversity
2. Diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on success
Understanding the necessity of a high school diploma in obtaining future goals (i.e., enroll in college), and having an awareness of the importance of education on success (i.e., to improve the ability to support family and enhance financial circumstances)
3. High level of IBLSE
Demonstrating strong belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity
4. Self-regulated learner
Demonstrating practices and beliefs to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness such as goal setting, study skills, self-motivation techniques and seeking assistance from others
5. Sense of responsibility to others
Drive to obtain a diploma is based on feelings of responsibility to others, such as wanting to improve family financial circumstances, not let someone down, or make someone proud
6. Support
Having a connection with caring adults that provide academic and moral support
7. Self-advocacy
Demonstrating the ability to speak or act for oneself, make choices and decisions that impact one’s life
8. Belief in a higher power
Believing in a higher power, having faith in something bigger than oneself, belief in the power of prayer
9. Performance accomplishment identified as most influential self-efficacy source
Identifying performance accomplishment (an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal) as the most influential self-efficacy source
10. Verbal persuasion identified as most influential self-efficacy
Identifying verbal persuasion (attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion) as the most influential self-efficacy source
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source 11. Vicarious experience identified as most influential self-efficacy source
Identifying vicarious experience (personal witness of task attainment by others) as the most influential self-efficacy source
Figure 2. Composite Themes by Participant
Perseverance and resilience. All study participants demonstrated perseverance
and resilience in regards to IBLSE and persisting within an online high school. These
two themes are presented together as they have similar characteristics, yet they are
distinctive. Perseverance reflects an individual’s drive to overcome challenges and
improve personal circumstances while resilience is an individual’s capacity to recover
from adversity (Hynes, 2014).
Linda, a COHS graduate who learned about COHS through a local library
partnership, experienced a rigorous scholarship application process. Program enrollment
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challenges did not impact her belief in her ability to complete the program and neither did
difficult math content. The following quote from Linda demonstrates this theme, “I got a
70%, the bare minimum to finish and had to retake the test a lot of times.”
David is a COHS graduate from a corporate partnership program. His experience
as a natural disaster survivor and immigrant made him resilient and able to persevere to
overcome challenges. When David learned that his traditional high school certificate was
not valid for college admission and he had to retake high school courses due to credit
transfer issues, this did not deter him from moving forward. The following quote from
David illustrated this theme:
Considering what life has presented me and where I've come from… reflecting on
my accomplishments and failures as a young adult who never had a father figure
to seek guidance from, I kept true to myself and maintained my desire to
persevere. Being a survivor…taught me to understand that it’s not okay to
abandon my dreams.
Maya is a current COHS student who enrolled through her local library. As an
individual with undiagnosed attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), Maya used
techniques, such as visualization and motivational self-talk, to help her persevere when
coursework became challenging. As a mother of two young boys with autism and
ADHD, Maya wants her children to see her as someone who knows how to overcome
challenges. Failure is not an option and graduation is so close that “she can taste it.”
Maya tells her children, “Yeah, I have some obstacles, but you can do it—work as a team
and we can achieve our goals, together.”
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Jessa is a current COHS student who enrolled through a career college
partnership. Demonstrating resilience, Jessa overcame homelessness and many
educational disappointments prior to enrolling into COHS. Within the online program,
Jessa demonstrated perseverance as she encountered obstacles such as an inability to
transfer credits, having to be physically on-site at the career college several days a week
and lack of support from her partner program. The following quote from Jessa illustrated
this theme:
During that time I went through, it gave me a chance to reevaluate my life and
really get to where I have determined that I have to have a career established. I
don’t want to get in that predicament again, where I have nowhere, no one, all
alone, no one to help me. Just to totally depend on someone–that’s not me.
Coming from a person who’s been independent since fourteen. That was just a
real big wake-up call for me and a learning experience. So now, every time that
I’m doing my lessons, I think about where I just came from, where I’m at now
and where I want to be.
The journey to obtain a high school diploma was not easy for COHS graduate,
Valerie. Valerie tried obtaining her GED, but balancing in-person classes and family
proved too challenging and she left the GED program. When Valerie first enrolled into
COHS, she again encountered challenges balancing school and home life. At one point
Valerie stopped and then restarted the COHS program. She worked with three different
academic coaches over the span of 18 months. With perseverance and resilience, Valerie
was able to obtain her diploma. The following quote illustrated this theme:
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…getting your GED, it’s just not the same and I’ve tried that numerous times and
it never works. I started Smart Horizons before, for a few months and I quit due
to just not being able to balance that and home life. Then I started back.
Diploma required for future goals/understanding the importance of
education on success. All study participants expressed needing a diploma in order to
achieve future goals and emphasized the importance of education to their success. These
themes combined reflect the idea that a high school diploma is a necessary ‘ticket’ to new
opportunities; attaining this education level is critical to overall personal, family and
financial success. This theme reflects a goal-orientated mindset.
All study participants were mature adults who experienced a disruption in their
traditional high school education and their subsequent experiences, as parents and
caregivers, fostered a depth of insight into the importance of education on success. Two
of the female participants, Linda and Valerie, were experienced homeschoolers. They
both demonstrated a heightened awareness of learning success factors, for both
themselves and for their children. Another participant, Maya, was actively involved in
supporting her special needs children. The topic of children and education was a passion
that Linda, Maya and Valerie shared.
Linda has many future personal and family goals that were only achievable with
the completion of her high school diploma, including homeschooling, enrolling in college
and going back to work in a higher capacity. As a homeschooling parent, Linda
understands the importance of a quality education. The following quote from Linda
illustrated this theme:
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Some states require you to have college credits, but now I can do that with a high
school diploma! I know that there’s so many job opportunities now that I can do,
because I didn’t have that high school diploma. As far as if they offer training, if
it’s an office job at a dentist’s, answering phones and there’s training involved, I
have the confidence now to do even better in an interview because I know I have
that diploma.
For David, education is important and essential to improving his standing in life.
Earning his high school diploma was a necessary step towards realizing his dream of
enrolling in college. David understands the myriad career opportunities that are now
available to him with this degree. The following quote from David illustrated this theme:
My dreams of going back to school were still in the forefront of my mind and
didn't want to lose sight of this goal. Now that I have my diploma, I qualify for
anything, in any industry. I had a timeline and I wanted to go back to college. I
was really, really motivated to go ahead and complete those classes so I could
receive my diploma on time. Now that I have my diploma, I can continue my
endeavor to pursue computer programming and business management courses. I
still believe an education is one of the most prestigious rewards (that) no one can
take from you. I believe education is really, really important for everybody. We
need education in life.
For Maya, being a role model for her children and improving her ability to
provide for them is her motivation to graduate. She knows a diploma is required to
secure her family’s future. She aspires to go to college and wants to become a social
worker. The following quote from Maya illustrated this theme:
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Being able to go to school online really helps me to focus on school and
improving myself as a person, I suppose as a mom too, to disabled children.
Eventually, I will get a job that can support my family and that’s the ultimate goal
for me, to be able to support my family and not have to rely on public assistance.
I was thinking about being a social worker or a coordinator at the Regional Center
or at the Health group because I really want to help families with children that are
disabled.
Jessa’s experience with homelessness helped her realize the importance of a high
school diploma in improving her ability to support herself and her family and in
reclaiming her independence. She worked in healthcare in the past but needs her diploma
to pursue her career. The following quote from Jessa illustrated this theme, “I’d like to
finish high school and take up a little more learning so that I can apply to the (radiology)
program. I’ve always wanted to work in the medical field.”
Valerie aspires to be an elementary school teacher and a diploma is required for
her future goals. She has already started the college application process. Valerie felt that
furthering her education would secure her future and allow her to improve the support she
provides for her family. Valerie places a high value on education; she has worked in
childcare, she has homeschooled a child, and is going into a teaching career. The
following quote from Valerie illustrated this theme:
I don’t know what I would have done without this program. Well, I know what I
would have done—I would still be sitting here, wondering what I’m going to do
about my future and where I’m going to go in life. Honestly, I think this was the
key to open another door for my future and my family as well.
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High level of IBLSE. Study participants demonstrated this theme by expressing
a high level of belief in the ability to succeed in an online course or online learning
activity. Four student participants indicated a high level of belief, while one participant,
Jessa, described her IBLSE as “medium-high.”
For example, Linda “absolutely knew” she would complete the program. The
rigorous scholarship application process strengthened her self-efficacy, as she felt she
invested too much time and effort to fail. As Linda had prior experience with senior-
level coursework, she felt confident in mastering the COHS curriculum. The following
quote from Linda exemplifies this theme:
I did have a high self-efficacy; I knew I could do it. There was no question.
(Completing my high school diploma) made me feel like I could conquer anything
because my high school experience was 13 years ago….but the fact that I was
able to do it, just kind of instilled this confidence.
David had extensive experience with senior-level coursework and as a result, his
IBLSE was very high. David’s experience as a tennis coach helped him maintain a high
level of self-efficacy to succeed online. The following quote from David illustrated this
theme:
I had a high, high, high belief (to succeed) in everything I do. I’m always
thinking about winning; I always go for the win. So anything I’m doing, I want to
win. I hate losing. I hate…being the guy in the corner, with the blues. I never
want to fail. I already completed high school so I know about (the subjects).
Certain things I’ve taken twice, or probably like three times because I came from
(another country) and there were certain things I knew already.
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Maya had a high self-efficacy to succeed online and used visualization techniques
to stay motivated. The following quote exemplifies this theme:
I’m definitely determined and I’m so close that I can almost taste it! I want the
whole shebang; I want the graduation with the hat, the frame with my high school
diploma. I can see it, I believe I can do it and I’m going to do it. I didn’t put in
all this time and effort just to quit now.
Jessa explained that her IBLSE level was “medium-high” as she had experience
with high school coursework, but her self-efficacy was influenced by challenges with
transfer credits and on-site partnership program requirements. The following quote from
Jessa illustrated this theme:
(My self-efficacy) was high at first because…when I first enrolled they told me
that they would transfer credits from my traditional high school, so if they
transferred the credits over from my traditional high school, then I probably
wouldn’t have to be there so long…I did three years in high school. I started
online classes January 26 and here it is March 25; I still have yet to get those
credits. So I’m doing all this work over, so it did discourage me for a moment.
Valerie also had experience with traditional high school coursework and in using
an online school program to homeschool her older child, which helped her to feel
comfortable with the online program format. The following quote illustrated this theme,
“I already had most of the knowledge that I needed to succeed.”
Self-regulated learner. All study participants demonstrated the use of Self-
Regulated Learning (SRL) practices and beliefs such as setting goals, using study and
self-motivation techniques and seeking assistance from others.
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Linda found ways to balance caring for her children with completing coursework.
She knows her learning style and uses her preference for visual learning to help her retain
information. She sought out academic tutoring support from her husband. The following
quote illustrated this theme, “Let’s just say the kids watched a lot of PBS Kids because I
plugged in for like 8 hours a day! And sometimes I would stay up through the night.”
David used many SRL techniques, including goal setting. David’s goals of
graduating from high school and enrolling in college kept him motivated. When
necessary, David sought support from his academic coach and members of the corporate
partnership/education team. As a non-native speaker of English, David developed
strategies to help him learn the local language. He understood that schoolwork required
dedication and focus and he recognized that certain habits, like procrastinating online,
would not help him graduate any sooner. David used his experience as a tennis coach to
motivate himself and focus on success. The following quote illustrated this theme:
“Break your addiction to certain things. If you know for a fact that social networking is
not going to help you out—then do what is best for your life.”
Maya used SRL skills to manage coursework and to manage her undiagnosed
ADHD. As her own children have ADHD, Maya has learned to apply to herself, the
same techniques she uses to support her children. Maya uses goal setting, visualization,
and study skills to stay focused. The following quote illustrated this theme:
I try to finish a semester a week so that I can get done faster, but some lessons are
longer than others. I also have ADHD and I tend to make goals that are not
reasonable, so I’m learning not to make my goals too hard for me. (I’m) trying to
make them more realistic. World History was hard because it was a lot of
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information. You weren’t sure what you were going to be tested on, so I wrote
tons of notes and how to dissect what I’m going to need for the test. When
lessons are too long, I forget what the beginning of the semester information is, so
I have to go read over that.
The following quote illustrated Maya’s ability to use visualization and SRL
techniques:
…picture yourself getting that diploma, picture yourself wearing that hat, that
gown, hearing your name being called. Picture it all and keep going, you’ve got
to keep that motivation going. I know it’s hard, trust me it’s hard. Some days I’m
too tired, I don’t want to work on school, but I have a picture of my son, with his
little hat and everything when he graduated from pre-school and I look at it and
I’m like, “I want a picture with my cap and gown, like he does,” and I use that to
keep myself going and focused. And don’t try to be perfect, just try to do your
best, focus, take notes, use different colored pens if that helps, highlighters,
whatever helps you study, use it. Use every tool you can find.
Jessa also used SRL techniques to stay focused on success. She enrolled into
COHS with her best friend who helped her remain motivated. Jessa knows how to pace
herself to independently complete coursework. The following quote illustrated this
theme, “(After my surgery) the whole time that I was home, my work was getting done. I
didn’t fall behind. I was still on-pace.”
Valerie found balancing family and home life with school to be the biggest
challenge, yet she was able to use SRL techniques to stay focused. She sought out
tutoring support when necessary. The following quote illustrated this theme, “You have
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the discipline and you just do it and pay attention and leave the room if there are
distractions and things like that. You can get through it.”
Sense of responsibility to others. This theme was developed based on study
participants’ drive to graduate based on a sense of responsibility to others, such as wanting
to improve family financial circumstances, not let someone down, or make someone
proud. This theme was consistent across all study participants.
Linda felt it was of critical importance to earn her diploma in order to legally
homeschool her children. In addition, Linda’s graduation commitment to the library
partnership team was a driving force in her desire to succeed. The following quote
illustrated this theme, “… the gift was given to me, the scholarship, I see this as a gift.
I’m not going to fail anyone.”
Family is of critical importance to David and was his primary motivator to earn
his high school diploma and enroll in college. David is committed to caring for his
mother and sister, especially in consideration of natural disaster devastation back home.
For David, education is essential to supporting himself and his family. The following
quote illustrated this theme:
It was just me and my mom in the house and my little sister and everything is
falling on my back. I have to work hard. I cannot be in street. I cannot do certain
things that will probably make my mom disappointed. When it comes to things
you need, for your career and for your life–you have people who believe in you.
You can’t go ahead and just dismiss that and make people disappointed. Like I
said, my mom is my everything and everything I’m doing right now is just to
make her happy.
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With Maya, her children are her main source of inspiration to graduate; she wants
to improve her ability to support them. Maya explained:
Eventually, I will get a job that can support my family and that’s the ultimate goal
for me, to be able to support my family and not have to rely on public assistance.
(In traditional high school) I remember always being behind and trying to catch
up and not catching up. So as a kid, that you know, wasn’t diagnosed with
ADHD early on, I can relate. That’s why I try so hard to make sure I get all the
information I can for my boys to benefit them, get all the therapies I can get for
them, do all the techniques they suggest, just so they can have a better future than
what I had. I know the benefits of early intervention.
Due to her recent experience with homelessness, Jessa feels a strong sense of
responsibility to her family and wants to improve her ability to support them. When she
became homeless, she “lost everything” and she was separated from her children.
Reflecting on this experience keeps Jessa motivated to graduate. The following quote
exemplifies this theme:
(Being homeless) gave me a chance to reevaluate my life and really get to where
I have determined that I have to have a career established. I don’t want to get in
that predicament again, where I have nowhere, no one, all alone, no one to help
me.
Valerie understood that a high school diploma was necessary to secure her future
and improve the support she provides to her family. The following quote illustrated this
theme, “(Earning my diploma) was the key to open another door for my future and my
family as well.”
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Support. The theme of support involved study participants connecting with
caring adults that provided academic and moral support. This theme was consistent
across all participants.
Linda found support from her husband, especially when she needed tutoring
assistance with challenging math content. While Linda found the support of her
academic coach nice to have, she did not feel it was essential to her success. The
following quote illustrated this theme:
I got help from my husband at night. He’s a chef, so he has to be good in math.
So he was able to help me some. (In regards to my academic coach), every time
you finished a course, or courses within credits or semesters they emailed you,
like, “Great job,” or, “We saw that you got an A on this.” They would see that I
was working on something or finishing something and they would email me. But
even if I didn’t get that, I would still be doing it, but it was a nice little reminder
that I’m almost done.
On the other hand, David found the support and involvement of his academic
coach, as well as the COHS corporate partner support staff, to be essential to his success.
Knowing he had support made him feel he was not alone in his education journey. David
found support from his mother who encouraged him to complete school and pursue his
dreams. The following quote illustrated this theme:
Ms. (name withheld), she was my academic coach. I would complete one lesson
and she would email me saying, “You’re doing a great job, keep up with the good
job,” and that makes me understand that I have somebody who cares about what
I’m doing right. Anytime I had a question; she was always available at that time.
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She’d call me on the weekdays. She’d say, “How are you doing? Are there any
courses you are having a problem with?” Anytime I needed her, she was just
there to listen to me. Also with email, anytime I see her email, I know I’m never
alone. She’s there for me.
Maya made the decision to go back to school when her child’s therapist told her
that she was capable of returning. The library partnership program identified a local tutor
to provide Maya with academic support. Her mother provided support by caring for her
children and doing housework, allowing Maya to focus on school. The following quote
illustrated this theme:
If it weren’t for (my child’s therapist) pointing out that I can do it and my tutor
saying that, “You’re very smart and everything is falling into place,” and plus
seeing all the courses getting done, all the semesters and everything getting done–
that’s what motivates me.
Jessa and her best friend enrolled into COHS together and made a commitment to
support each other. Jessa also found support from her best friend’s brother, as well as her
academic coach. The following quote illustrated this theme, “(My academic coach)
corresponds pretty often. She lets you know that you did a good a job with the course;
you completed this course in a timely manner, at your own pace and things like that.”
Over 18 months, Valerie worked with three different COHS academic coaches.
She described the coach she worked with the longest as, “amazing”. Valerie also found
support from her husband and other family members. The following quote illustrated this
theme, “(My husband) was just supportive with my toddler. He picked up the slack
around the house and helped me with her so that I could concentrate.”
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Self-advocacy. The study’s definition of self-advocacy is participant
demonstration of the ability to speak or act for oneself, to make choices and decisions
that impact one’s life (Ryan & Griffiths, 2015). Although all participants were self-
advocates, data from three participants identified this theme.
For example, Linda contacted the local library herself to learn more about the
COHS scholarship opportunity. She displayed a strong sense of independence and self-
determination and was driven to obtain her degree to solidify her ability to homeschool.
The following quote from Linda illustrated this theme:
I didn’t have anyone verbally, other than the high school… checking in on me or
the library checking in on me, I didn’t really have anyone rooting for me
necessarily. I have a two-year-old and a four-year-old and my husband works 70
hours a week, so he wasn’t even here. Not many people know that I never
finished high school. It’s kind of been like a dirty little secret. I didn’t have that.
David expressed a strong sense of self-advocacy and independence. As a natural
disaster survivor and immigrant, David has learned to depend only himself. He
researched the COHS program offered by his employer and made the decision to enroll.
The following quote from David illustrated this theme:
Because everything I do, I never had support from anybody. It’s just me. I’m by
myself. I never had anyone tell me, “This is exactly what you need to do for
yourself.” Sometimes I would ask people for advice, but you know sometimes
when you ask people stuff you already know—then you know it twice!
Everything I do is just on my own. I can push myself and then I can push other
people to motivate them, to do what’s best for them.
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Valerie demonstrated self-advocacy characteristics by researching COHS and the
affiliated career certificate in Child Care and Education to meet requirements for her
Child Development Associate (CDA) application. She did not enroll through a
partnership program; she paid for school herself. The following quote from Valerie
illustrated this theme:
I was working at a daycare in (state), about five years ago and some co-workers
were getting their CDA… and I was inquiring about that and through my
employer. And the co-worker I was working with mentioned that is how she
obtained the 120 hours she needed for her CDA, through this program.
Belief in a higher power. This theme involved participant belief in a higher
power, having faith in something bigger than oneself, and belief in the power of prayer.
This theme was identified from the transcripts of three participants, Linda, David, and
Valerie.
A strong belief in a higher power and in the power of prayer helped Linda make
the decision to go back to school and persist in her classes. Prayer helped her overcome
challenges presented by difficult math coursework. The following quote illustrated this
theme:
I really felt that this was a gift on my faith, a gift from God, to give me this high
school diploma so that I can start the process of homeschooling, which I’ve been
praying on too…I definitely know that this is all God’s will, so for me, I’m going
to follow through with any clear gifts I receive from God. I never wanted a GED,
especially now with Common Core involved…I have been praying on this
situation for at least ten years because it’s always bothered me.
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For David, prayer helped him to overcome challenges associated with going to
school and working long hours during the busy holiday season. The following quote
illustrated this theme:
I remember it was Black Friday, I was working like 12 hours a day and then I
went back home at like 11 at night. I told myself I know that day, I need to
complete at least one lesson. But when I came back home I was really exhausted.
I wanted to go to bed. But then I sat down on my computer and I prayed to God.
I said, “God, help me make it through.” That was the day that made me
understand that I can do anything if I put my mind to it.
Valerie mentioned during the interview that her faith in God was an important
influence on her belief in her ability to succeed. She explained, “We have to believe in
somebody else other than us.”
Performance accomplishment identified as most influential IBLSE source.
Two study participants, Linda and David, self-identified performance accomplishment as
having the most influence on their IBLSE. Performance accomplishment is an
individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal (Bandura, 1977a). The following
quote from Linda illustrated this theme, “I was there once before, I can do this again. I
just knew because I did 4 ½ years of high school, I was like, I should be able to finish
those last six credits.”
Prior to enrolling into COHS, David completed similar courses both in his native
country and in a traditional U.S. high school. Thus, he was very comfortable with the
COHS content and online format. The following quote illustrated this theme:
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There was really no challenge for me…I already completed high school, so I
know about (the subjects). Certain things I’ve taken twice or probably like three
times because I came from (country name withheld) and there were certain things
I knew already. Then when I went to (high school name withheld), I took those
classes again and when I signed up for the online classes, they were the same
thing.
Verbal persuasion identified as most influential IBLSE source. Two study
participants, Maya and Valerie, identified verbal persuasion, as the most influential self-
efficacy source. Verbal persuasion occurs when others attempt to influence an
individual’s behavior through suggestion (Bandura, 1977a). Maya’s son’s therapist was
instrumental in helping her decide to go back to school and her mother provided verbal
support. Maya’s tutor at the library was supportive in helping her realize her academic
potential. The following quote illustrated this theme:
My tutor, she’s listening to some of the lessons with me and she said, “This is like
college, they’re preparing you for college,” and I was like, “Yay, I can do
college!” Before I was like, “I can’t even finish high school” and now I have the
hope of being able to go to college and get a degree. So, now I don’t even need
tutoring anymore. My tutor (says), “You’re very smart and everything is falling
into place.”
Valerie also selected verbal persuasion as the self-efficacy source that had the
greatest impact on her IBLSE. She acknowledged the verbal support provided by her
husband, family members, and academic coaches. The following quote illustrated this
theme:
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I feel like the coaches are just great. I would have bad days where I just didn’t
want to do anything. You know you have your home life and things going on and
you feel that there’s just not enough time in the day and you go a whole two days
without doing any work. And then you get a call from your coach saying, “You
can do this, come on. You only have a few more left.” So, that was great.
Vicarious experience identified as most influential IBLSE Source. One study
participant, Jessa, self-identified vicarious experience as the most influential self-efficacy
source. Vicarious experience is personal witness of task attainment by others (Bandura,
1977a). Jessa enrolled into COHS with her childhood classmate and best friend of 29
years, which is motivating for her. The following quote illustrated this theme:
I told (my best friend), “You know what? That will be something that we can do.
We started school together, we might as well finish school together.” I just felt
that if she can do it, I know I can do it because she has nine kids. I’m only at
home with an eleven-year-old. If she can still maintain a home and go to school
and get these grades and stuff, we can do this!
Minor composite themes. Seven minor composite themes were noted in the
findings and were relevant to understanding the overall student experience of IBLSE and
persistence within an online high school. These include a positive student outlook and
participant desire to support other online high school students and/or potential students.
Participants expressed satisfaction with the COHS learning experience and the self-
paced, independent nature of the program, as well as gratitude for the opportunity to earn
their degree online through either a scholarship or corporate partnership program. All
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participants felt proud of their accomplishments at COHS and earning a diploma gave
them a renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence.
Composite structural description. Eleven composite themes were identified:
perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance
of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of
responsibility to others, support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the
following participant-identified self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment,
verbal persuasion and vicarious experience.
Composite textural-structural description. The eleven themes that emerged
from the data clearly illustrated the student experience of IBLSE and persistence in
online high schools. Six themes were consistent across all study participants:
perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance
of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of
responsibility to others and support. An additional five themes were unique but
warranted greater attention: self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following
self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion, and vicarious
experience. Seven minor composite themes were noted as relevant to understanding this
phenomenon including: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school
students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude
for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope
and increased self-confidence.
In discussing challenges in the online high school program environment,
participants reflected on past challenges as their motivation to succeed. All participants
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experienced a major life challenge, including surviving a natural disaster, overcoming
homeless and high family mobility, the experience of teen pregnancy and single
parenthood, raising disabled children and living with an undiagnosed learning disability.
Participants demonstrated their ability to persevere and show resilience when they
encountered challenges in the online environment.
All participants were goal-oriented and recognized that a high school diploma was
required for attainment of life goals. They strongly expressed the importance of
education on their success; a diploma was either necessary for admission into a college or
medical program or to the pursuit of a career goal. Study participants recognized the
increased opportunities affiliated with having a high school diploma, such as the
improved ability to support family with new job opportunities and the ability to earn a
living wage. For participants that were parents, there was an additional emphasis on
education as a critical factor for success. Several participants demonstrated strong self-
advocacy behaviors that helped them achieve their educational goals.
Having a high level of IBLSE was a consistent theme across all participants. For
many, there was no doubt that they would graduate from COHS. They absolutely knew
they would earn their high school diplomas. Participants often felt that past high school
experiences gave them the foundation and confidence needed to finish school online.
Other participants had prior experience with online learning, either as a homeschooling
parent or with online college courses, and felt comfortable with the online program
format. Support from others also led to a high level of IBLSE.
All participants expressed a clear understanding of their academic strengths and
weaknesses and understood how to use a variety of SRL techniques to overcome
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challenges and maintain progress. For example, participants used goal setting,
visualization, time management, and study techniques. They asked for and received
tutoring and moral support from academic coaches, family, and friends. Several
participants had an understanding of their learning style and used this information to
comprehend new content. Others had a strong sense of self-advocacy.
Participants wanted to obtain a high school diploma out of a sense of
responsibility to others, either to: (a) improve their ability to provide for family; (b) not
let someone down; or (c) make someone proud. Several participants were solely
responsible for caring for other family members and expressed an urgency to obtain a
high school diploma in order to improve family circumstances. One participant felt
responsible to her local library scholarship committee. Not graduating would have meant
throwing away a valuable gift and letting others down. Other participants wanted to
make their families proud by graduating; they wanted to be viewed as a success or as a
role model for others.
The theme of support was consistent across all study participants. Participants
found a great deal of value and support in their relationships with the COHS academic
coaches. Encouraging words, emails, and notifications from coaches helped participants
stay motivated. They felt their academic coaches were true partners in their success.
Others received support from family members in the form of tutoring, child care, and
moral support. Some participants relied on support from library tutors or corporate
partner program staff. One participant found support from her child’s therapist who
convinced her that she was capable of earning a high school diploma. The theme, belief
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in a higher power, also served as student support as individuals felt strengthened by their
faith.
When asked to identify the self-efficacy source with the greatest impact on their
IBLSE, participants provided a variety of responses. Two participants identified
performance accomplishment, two identified verbal persuasion, and one identified
vicarious experience. Participants that identified performance accomplishment felt that
prior traditional high school courses provided the foundational experience needed to be
successful. There was a strong belief that, “I’ve done this before, I can do it again.” As
challenging COHS courses were completed, this compounded participant belief in
success.
Two individuals identified verbal persuasion as the self-efficacy source with the
greatest impact, as they felt influenced by the verbal support of others. One participant
was strongly influenced by the positive encouragement she received from her son’s
therapist, her library tutor, and her mother. Another participant found the verbal support
provided by her academic coach and family members to be critical to her success as they
listened when she was having a difficult day, encouraged her to press on, and reminded
her of how far she had already come.
One participant identified vicarious experience as the self-efficacy source with the
greatest impact. This individual enrolled into COHS with her best friend and was
motivated by knowing that her friend was successful despite having nine children. She
felt that if her friend could succeed under challenging circumstances, she could too.
There were several minor composite themes identified from the data. The
majority of study participants exhibited a positive outlook on life; they were ready to
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move on from the limitations of the past towards a brighter future. Many participants
talked about a desire to support struggling online high school students and/or motivate
non-graduates to return to school online.
All of the students expressed satisfaction with the COHS online learning
experience and appreciated the self-paced, independent nature of the program. All
participants had busy lives and were challenged to balance work, school, and family.
Some participants tried to go back to school through an on-site adult education program,
but were unsuccessful due to challenges managing school and family. For these busy
individuals the online format was the only manageable option.
Students affiliated with a library or corporate partnership program expressed
gratitude for the ability to earn a degree through a scholarship or as an employment
benefit. All students expressed being proud of their COHS accomplishments. Some
were proud to have completed difficult classes after being out of school for a significant
amount of time or in earning their high school diploma and reaching the finish line.
These accomplishments resulted in a renewed sense of hope and increased self-
confidence to succeed in the future.
Evaluation of findings
This phenomenological study involved the exploration of lived student
experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools, through the use of a self-
efficacy framework. IBLSE is a construct used to indicate student self-belief in the
ability to succeed in an online course or online learning activity (Tsai et al., 2011). In
their critical review of the literature on self-efficacy in schools, Usher and Pajares (2008)
cited several studies that utilized a qualitative phenomenological approach, including an
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interview protocol, to assess student self-efficacy. Other researchers successfully used a
phenomenological approach to capture the lived experiences of non-graduates (Hynes,
2014).
This study added credibility to the use of a phenomenological methodology to
explore the experiences of non-graduate populations in online learning environments.
This research approach allowed the phenomenon to be understood from the experience of
study participants and generated rich, detailed participant descriptions (Maxwell, 2013;
Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological research is an important methodology as it allows
the voices of marginalized groups, like high school non-graduates, to be heard (Hynes,
2014; Moustakas, 1994).
The study problem, a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and
persistence in online high schools and the inability for educational stakeholders to
leverage this data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions, was
addressed through Research Question 1: What are the student experiences of IBLSE and
persistence within online high schools? The following evaluation of findings indicated
the researcher’s interpretation and alignment of study themes to the knowledge base.
Research Question 2 addressed the study’s purpose: How can educational stakeholders
leverage student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and
inform online high school programming decisions? Data addressing practical application
recommendations is located in Chapter 5.
Study findings aligned with Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory. Self-efficacy
is one’s belief in one’s competence to perform tasks and attain goals (Bandura, 1977a).
Individuals have differentiated self-efficacy beliefs as they relate to specific functional
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domains, meaning that an individual’s expectations about performing a task is relative to
a particular situation (Bandura, 2006). To align with self-efficacy and functional domain
parameters, the study focus was the student experience of IBLSE within an online high
school environment. Student self-efficacy in this domain is indicative of student
motivation to enroll into an online course, student persistence, achievement of student
goals, and student satisfaction with online coursework (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Kim &
Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011).
To meet study criteria, all participants needed to be COHS graduates or had to
have completed at least three COHS courses. Thus, all participants had experience with
academic success in an online learning environment. During interviews, all participants
indicated that they had a high self-efficacy to succeed in an online course or online
learning activity and all cited examples of how their self-efficacy directly influenced their
ability to persist. Students with self-professed high self-efficacy levels may be at an
advantage, as student over-estimation of self-efficacy can result in higher student
motivation, higher achievement levels, and improved student self-confidence, in
comparison to students with a more realistic sense of their capabilities (Bandura, 1997;
Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk & Meece, 2006).
The researcher aligned participant self-efficacy examples with Bandura’s (1977a)
four hypothesized sources of personal self-efficacy expectations: performance
accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion and physiological and
emotional states. Performance accomplishment, or personal mastery, refers to an
individual’s personal accomplishment of task or goals (Bandura, 1977a). This self-
efficacy source is known to have the greatest effect on personal self-efficacy as repeated
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successes or failures can raise and lower personal efficacy expectations (Bandura, 1977a,
1986). Researchers supported personal mastery by providing individuals with tangible
evidence of their success (Maddux, 2012).
Participants shared information on the influence of personal mastery experiences
on their IBLSE. Participants felt that prior experiences with high-school-level course
work, or with online courses, gave them the confidence and motivation needed to believe
they could succeed. This finding aligned with research on students’ prior knowledge of
course material as a motivational factor (Hartnett et al., 2011). For some students, seeing
courses marked as complete in the course room heightened their sense of personal
mastery.
The second self-efficacy source, vicarious experience, refers to the personal
witness of task attainment by others (Bandura, 1977a). Individuals that view their peers
as accomplishing, or not accomplishing tasks or goals are more likely to believe that they
too, can succeed or fail based upon what they have witnessed (Schunk & Meece, 2006).
A commonplace use of this source to influence individual self-efficacy is in mainstream
media, where often advertisers will feature testimonials for products such as weight loss
and smoking cessation (Maddux, 2012). The testimonial message is that real people have
accomplished similar, often challenging goals, and “so can you” (Maddux, 2012).
Support groups, where individuals share personal experiences, can also enhance self-
efficacy (Maddux, 2012).
Within the research study, one study participant’s IBLSE was influenced by
vicarious experience as she was motivated by seeing her best friend succeed online,
despite challenges. Going to school with her friend helped the participant remain
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motivated and engaged. The participant’s self-efficacy was influenced by observation of
her friend’s behavior (a single mother raising nine children) and the related consequences
of her behavior (succeeding in school) (Bandura 1977b; Maddux, 2012).
Another identified student strategy related to both performance accomplishment
and vicarious experience is visualization. Visualization involves imagining oneself or
others in hypothetical situations and these imaginary beliefs can build self-efficacy
(Bandura, 1977a; Maddux 2012). According to Bandura (1994), visualization is not a
self-efficacy source but a, “cognitive, psychological process through which self-efficacy
beliefs impact human functioning” (p. 80). In the research study, one participant
demonstrated a strong preference for visualization to help her attain her goals. The
participant imagined herself in a photograph, wearing her graduation cap and gown and
visualized her high school diploma in a frame. This example reflects performance
accomplishment as the participant was “seeing herself” graduate. The participant also
had a picture of her son in a graduation cap and gown and she used this image as
motivation to stay focused on graduation. This example reflects vicarious experience,
where seeing someone else (her son) achieving a goal (graduating), influenced the
participant’s self-efficacy.
The third self-efficacy source, verbal persuasion, refers to attempts by others to
influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion (Bandura, 1977a). Researchers
successfully applied this self-efficacy source by helping people believe they can cope
with situations that have overwhelmed them in the past (Bandura, 1977a). The
effectiveness of verbal persuasion in influencing others’ self-efficacy depends upon
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several factors including the expertise level and perceived trustworthiness of the person
providing feedback (Maddux, 2012).
Two study participants felt that verbal persuasion was the most influential self-
efficacy source on their belief in their ability to persist and succeed in online. For one
participant, her child’s therapist was her inspiration to return to school because he
convinced her that she could succeed. Her library tutor was instrumental in helping her
realize her academic potential beyond high school. Another participant found the support
of her COHS academic coach to be essential to her success, especially during challenging
times.
The theme of support was consistent across all study participants and aligned with
both vicarious and verbal persuasion self-efficacy sources. Participants found value and
support in their relationships with COHS academic coaches as their encouraging words,
emails, and notifications helped participants stay motivated. Other participants received
support from family members and friends in the form of tutoring, childcare, and moral
support. Some participants relied on support from library tutors or corporate partner
program staff.
Research showed that individuals who leave high school often need assistance to
become re-engaged; this can occur through authentic connections with adults and peers
that care about, support and guide them (Hynes, 2014). Reengagement is fostered when
students feel part of a caring community that values them as individuals and as learners
(Cavanaugh et al., 2013). As learning within the online model is autonomous, on-going
access to academic, technical and moral support is vital to student success (Cavanaugh et
al., 2013). The COHS model aligned with this research as the learning experience is
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individualized; students are assigned academic coaches who understand their learning
goals and help foster a sense of belonging to the wider education community (Cavanaugh
et al., 2013). Support provided by corporate, library, or career college partnerships, in the
form of tutors and on-site computer labs, also influenced student success and aligned with
the aforementioned research.
Bandura’s (1977a) fourth hypothesized self-efficacy source is physiological and
emotional states which indicates an individual’s mood, attitude, emotional and
physiological response in consideration of a goal or task. Self-efficacy is influenced
when individuals learn to associate poor performance or perceived failure with a negative
physiological response, and associate success, or perceived success with a positive
physiological response (Bandura, 1977a; Maddux, 2012). Thus, when individuals are
aware of having a negative physiological response in consideration of a goal, they will be
more likely to doubt their ability to achieve the goal and vice versa, a more positive
physiological response will generate feelings of confidence in consideration of the goal
(Bandura, 1977a; Maddux, 2012). Perceived self-efficacy beliefs can fluctuate due to
changes in personal conditions, such as an individual’s motivation level or state of mind
(Schunk & Meece, 2006).
Although this self-efficacy source was not self-identified by study participants as
having a strong influence on their IBLSE, interview data revealed significant evidence of
behavioral alignment to physiological and emotional states. For example, participants
discussed their emotional responses to challenging high school content and one
participant exclaimed, “I’m awful at math, beyond division and long hand—I can’t do
algebra. I can’t.” The participant’s physiological and emotional states (anxiety, distress)
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most likely had an impact on her IBLSE and her belief in her ability to pass the math
course.
Overall, the majority of participants expressed a positive emotional response in
regards to their IBLSE and positive outlook was identified as a minor theme. A student’s
emotional state can influence how they interpret experiences (Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Students can misinterpret a pessimistic outlook as a sign of inability, which can in turn
diminish self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Conversely, a positive student outlook
can raise self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and achievement, resulting in enhanced well-
being (Usher & Pajares, 2008). Other minor themes that may be categorized under
physiological and emotional states include participant gratitude for scholarship
opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments and feeling a renewed sense of hope and
increased self-confidence.
The theme, sense of responsibility to others, can also be categorized under the
self-efficacy source of physiological and emotional states. Study participants expressed a
strong desire to succeed online in order to improve their ability to provide for their
families, make others proud, or not let others down. This emotional reaction in
consideration of a goal (graduation) positively influenced participant self-efficacy and
motivation to succeed (Bandura, 1977a). This finding aligned with data on extrinsically
motivated students who may participate in learning activities out of a desire to meet
others’ expectations (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick, 2011; Paechter et al., 2010).
Several participants were solely responsible for caring for other family members.
These individuals expressed an urgency to obtain a high school diploma in order to
elevate family circumstances. One participant felt responsible to her local library
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scholarship committee. Not graduating would mean throwing away a valuable gift and
letting others down. Other participants wanted to make their families proud by
graduating and wanted to be viewed as a success or as a role model by others. A minor
composite theme that emerged from the findings was study participant desire to give back
and support other online high school students and/or encourage potential students. While
this theme may have emerged as a result of the purposive sampling method, it also may
indicate a sense of fellowship or responsibility to others experiencing a similar life path
(Hynes, 2014). These study findings aligned with qualitative, phenomenological data
from The Center for Promise (Hynes, 2014), where non-graduates cited a desire to return
to school in order to: (a) support their families; (b) be seen as role models for their
children; and (c) have the ability to give back to the community.
The theme, belief in a higher power, emerged from the transcripts of three
participants who explained the impact of their faith on their self-efficacy. This theme is
related to an individual’s physiological and emotional states as belief in God and the use
of prayer influenced participant mood and fostered participant motivation to succeed.
For one participant, a strong belief in a higher power and in the power of prayer helped
her make the decision to go back to school and persist in her classes. Other participants
used prayer as a coping mechanism to overcome challenges with difficult coursework and
to help manage work and school responsibilities.
There is little research on students’ belief in a higher power and academic self-
efficacy, but there is data correlating belief in a higher power and use of prayer with
health-related self-efficacy (Molter & Abrahamson, 2015; Oman & Bormann, 2015;
Pérez & Smith, 2015). Researchers found that among those with cancer and sickle cell
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disease, scripture reading and prayer improved patient confidence in managing disease
symptoms (Molter & Abrahamson, 2015; Pérez & Smith, 2015). Among military
veterans with Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) patient use of mantras, (short,
sacred phrases based on spiritual traditions) fostered self-efficacy to manage PTSD
symptoms (Oman & Bormann, 2015). Among women who experienced abuse by a
significant other, spiritual coping processes promoted self-efficacy for resilience and
healing (Drumm et al., 2014).
Several minor study theme findings aligned with the category of influencing
physiological and emotional states, these include: positive student outlook, pride in
COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence, and
gratitude for scholarship opportunities. These themes involved student mood and attitude
in consideration of a task and aligned with positive psychology research findings on
psychological health and happiness (Maddux, 2012). Findings also aligned with research
on resilience among high school non-graduates as these individuals are known to
demonstrate personal agency, courage, and optimism about the future (Hynes, 2014).
Study findings aligned with social cognitive theory and the concept of self-
regulation, which is the self-influence process of self-monitoring one’s behavior
(Bandura, 1977a, 1986). Self-regulation correlates with positive self-efficacy beliefs and
is a self-influence process consisting of: (a) self-monitoring of one’s behavior to include
causes and effects; (b) self-judgment of one’s behavior to include the influence of
personal morals, standards and circumstances; and (c) self-reaction to one’s behavior to
include self rewards and self-punishments (Bandura, 1986; Shea & Bidjerano, 2010;
Zimmerman 2008). In essence, individuals identify goals, regulate behavior in pursuit of
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goals, and use past knowledge and experience to inform self-regulating behaviors
(Maddux, 2012).
In the field of education, SRL refers to the metacognitive, self-directed practices
and beliefs students use to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness
(Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986). Students that can self-regulate in an autonomous
online environment are at an advantage as SRL includes utilization of learning strategies
such as goal setting, content review, rehearsal and memorization, forming mental images,
self-recording, and seeking assistance from others (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Cavanaugh
et al., 2013; Paechter et al., 2010; Schunk, 2008; Shea & Bidjerano, 2010; Zimmerman,
1990, 2008). Characteristics of proactive, self-regulated learners include self-confidence,
high self-efficacy, initiative and perseverance (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Zimmerman,
1990, 2008). Self-regulated learners also take responsibility for learning outcomes, have
awareness of academic shortcomings and utilize adaptive strategies to mitigate
deficiencies (Artino et al., 2011; Zimmerman, 1990, 2008).
In the research study, all participants expressed an understanding of their
academic strengths and weaknesses and understood how to use SRL techniques to
overcome challenges and maintain progress. For example, participants applied goal
setting techniques, visualization, time management, and study techniques. They also
asked for and received tutoring and moral support from academic coaches, family, and
friends. Several participants understood their learning style and used this information to
comprehend new content. The use of SRL techniques influenced student IBLSE and
persistence as students understood how to obtain needed academic skills and self-monitor
learning effectiveness.
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The study theme, perseverance and resilience, closely aligned with the theme of
self-regulation. Perseverance is an individual’s drive to overcome challenges and
improve personal circumstances while resilience is an individual’s capacity to recover
from adversity (Hynes, 2014). Research on high school non-graduates demonstrated that
individuals who leave school often show great resilience and the ability to recover from
difficult situations (Hynes, 2014). Resilience is a human norm, yet individuals who leave
high school are often recovering from traumatic and toxic situations that are not typical of
the wider U.S. population such as physical and mental abuse, being a witness to violence,
teen pregnancy and early financial responsibilities (Hynes, 2014). These individuals
need authentic connections with adults and peers that understand, care for, and support
them, and guide them to educational programs and social services (Cavanaugh et al.,
2013; Drysdale et al., 2015; Hynes, 2014). An individual’s personal resilience, in
conjunction with social and institutional supports, enhances the academic reentry path
(Hynes, 2014).
During research interviews, study participants discussed the challenges of the
online high school environment and reflected on past difficult life experiences as
motivation to succeed. All participants experienced major life challenges, such as
surviving a natural disaster, overcoming homeless and high family mobility, teen
pregnancy, and single parenthood, raising disabled children and living with an
undiagnosed learning disability. In several instances, participants found strength in
knowing they overcome obstacles and were able to apply this knowledge to overcome
difficulties online.
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Other study themes overlapped with the theme of self-regulated learner. These
included: diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education on
success, high level of IBLSE, support, self-advocacy and positive student outlook. The
aforementioned student characteristics aligned with data on effective self-regulated
learning behaviors and beliefs (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman,
2008). Study data aligned with research correlating high student IBLSE and student
achievement, motivation and self-regulation in online learning settings (Artino &
Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Tsai et al., 2011).
The study theme, diploma required for future goals/understand importance of
education on success, aligned with research on expectancy theory and aspects of
extrinsically motivated learners (Hartnett et al., 2011; Kim & Frick, 2011; Paechter et al.,
2010; Vroom, 2006). Expectancy theory indicated that individuals are motivated to
behave in certain ways based on perceived results of behavior, with correlations between
perceived desirability of an outcome and an individual’s motivation level (Lunenburg,
2011; Vroom, 1964). In education, expectancy refers to an individual’s perception that
coursework will lead to the acquisition of knowledge, skills or abilities, and to specific
outcomes, such as respect from peers, increases in pay and improved job performance
(Mathieu et al., 1992).
Expectancy is influenced by valence, which is a motivational variable used to
indicate an individual’s perception of the importance of the expected outcome (Vroom,
1964). For example, the importance of an expected outcome, such as graduating from
high school, is directly affected by how important obtaining this outcome is to the
individual (Vroom, 1964). An individual that cares about an outcome is more likely to be
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highly motivated and confident that he or she can exert the required effort and will be
more likely to believe that the outcome is attainable (Vroom, 1964). Thus, self-efficacy
and expectancy are interconnected; the more confident an individual feels about the
importance of a task, the more likely he or she will exert effort to obtain a positive
outcome (Vroom 1964).
Student motivation is a necessary component for student success within an
online learning environment; when students believe content is relevant, motivation to
learn independently increases (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). All study participants were goal
oriented and recognized that a high school diploma was required to attain life goals.
They understood the importance of education on their success. These drivers influenced
student IBLSE and course persistence. For participants, a diploma was either necessary
for admission into a college or medical program, or in the pursuit of a career goal.
Study participants recognized the increased opportunities affiliated with having a
high school diploma, such as the improved ability to support family through new job
opportunities and the ability to earn a living wage. For participants that were parents,
there was an additional emphasis on education as a critical factor for success. For
example, one participant wanted her children to view her as a role model while another
needed her high school diploma in order to homeschool her children.
Findings aligned with adult learning theory core principles, including the learner's
need to know, self-concept of the learner, prior experience of the learner, readiness to
learn, orientation to learning and motivation to learn (Knowles et al., 2014). All
participants were mature adults who were motivated to graduate based on their desire to
improve their lives. They connected with the “why” of learning and clearly understood,
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“what’s in it for me.” Findings aligned with research on the topic of online learning and
students with disabilities as motivation increases and learning occurs when students make
real connections with learning content and understand why they are learning it
(Cavanaugh et al., 2013). When students believe that content is relevant, student
motivation to learn independently increases (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). Study participants
demonstrated self-concept as they completed work online in an autonomous and self-
directing fashion. They were able to use their prior experiences in school and in
overcoming challenges to help them persist. Participant motivation to learn had intrinsic
and extrinsic value.
Study findings aligned with research on student IBLSE and the achievement of
student goals, course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online
learning environment, as well as findings on student motivation to enroll into and
complete an online course and exert effort in an online learning activity (Artino &
Stephens, 2009; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda, 2011; Tsai et
al., 2011). All study participants expressed having a high IBLSE level due to prior
experience with high school coursework and based on commitments made to family,
friends and tutors. IBLSE was also influenced by effective participant use of support,
self-motivation and self-regulated learning techniques.
Study data aligned with findings on CSE, which indicates an individual’s general
beliefs about his or her computer skills (Tsai et al., 2011). Research showed that
individuals are more likely to adopt new computer technologies if they perceive that the
technologies will be beneficial, if the technologies are easy to use, and if individuals
believe they will be successful in their use (Cheng et al., 2012). Ease of technology use
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aligned with self-efficacy, outcome expectancy, improved student confidence and
intention to use technology, and positive user attitudes (Cheng et al., 2012).
All study participants expressed satisfaction with the COHS online learning
experience and appreciated the self-paced, independent nature of the program.
Participants found value in the support provided by COHS academic coaches. These
findings aligned with research on online high school components and best practices such
as student-paced programming, flexible schedules, and individualized curricula
(Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2010).
Another benefit of the online model, as mentioned by a study participant, was
elimination of student bullying and stigma, and an opportunity for a fresh start (Collins &
Halverson, 2009). Online high schools are advantageous for individuals who are
significantly over-age and far from meeting high school completion requirements as
stigmas are lessened (Balfanz et al., 2009). For these individuals, reentry options like
COHS that incorporate career training are more feasible, as students can earn their
diplomas while gaining important career and workplace skills (Balfanz et al., 2013;
Wilkins, 2011). The COHS model includes partnerships with corporations, libraries and
career colleges. Partnerships are a best practice as they improve student enrollment and
graduation rates (Wilkins, 2011).
Study participants discussed challenges encountered online and findings aligned
with research on student attrition from online learning programs. Student perception of
course difficulty may result in decreased student motivation and increased student
anxiety (Kim & Frick, 2011). Participants discussed addressing and overcoming known
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issues such as time constraints, course difficulties, and competing priorities, like family
and career demands (Kim & Frick, 2011).
Study findings aligned with research on the importance of stakeholder support of
student self-efficacy as this can influence student academic achievement, improve student
performance, and facilitate student goal attainment (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et
al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The COHS model utilizes academic
coaches who provide individualized and timely support for all COHS students. Based on
positive study participant reaction and academic results, the utilization of academic
coaches is clearly a best practice. It is important that stakeholders continue to understand
student self-efficacy in online environments as this construct influences the choices
students make, the amount of effort and persistence they exhibit on tasks, and the level of
anxiety or comfort they feel when approaching learning tasks (Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Summary
This chapter included results and evaluation of findings of a qualitative
phenomenological study examining the student experiences of online high school
persistence and IBLSE. Meticulous phenomenological analysis of interview data,
following a modified van Kaam methodology, generated common participant themes. In-
depth analysis of themes revealed individual thoughts and perspectives of the
phenomenon. This chapter also included an analysis of study findings and comparison of
results based on other studies in the field.
An overview of the study’s research design was presented, including study
demographics and research questions. Use of a modified van Kaam methodology
generated individual textural, structural and textural-structural descriptions (Moustakas,
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1994). The researcher created descriptions by analyzing each transcript and listing and
grouping all expressions related to IBLSE and persistence in an online high school. The
researcher used imaginative variation to identify underlying themes within study data
(Moustakas, 1994).
The individual structural and textural-structural descriptions provided a synopsis
of the underlying themes that described the individual student experience of IBLSE and
online high school persistence. Integration of individual textural and structural
descriptions led to the creation of composite textural and composite structural
descriptions. The final composite textural-structural description for the entire study
involved the integration of these descriptions. This synthesis was presented within this
chapter and included a summary of common and unique themes that described the essence
of the phenomenon.
Eleven major composite themes were identified from the interview data and were
presented with significant study participant quotes aligned to each of the themes. Major
themes included: perseverance and resilience, diploma required for future
goals/understand the importance of education on success, high level of IBLSE, self-
regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others, support, self-advocacy, belief in a
higher power, and the following participant-identified self-efficacy sources: performance
accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious experience. Several minor composite
themes were noted as relevant to understanding the phenomenon: positive outlook,
wanting to support other online high school students and/or potential students,
satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship opportunities,
pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased self-confidence.
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Tables and figures within this chapter provided detailed information on participant
demographics, composite textural themes, and consistent and unique composite themes
among participants.
Evaluation of findings demonstrated alignment with the use of a qualitative
phenomenology methodology to explore the experiences of non-graduate populations in
online learning environments. Alignment to the study’s problem, a lack of information
on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools and the inability
for educational stakeholders to leverage this data to reduce student attrition and inform
programming decisions, was presented. Data indicated the researcher’s interpretation and
alignment of study themes within the knowledge base. Data reflecting Research
Question 2 addressing the study’s purpose: How can educational stakeholders leverage
student experiences of IBLSE and persistence to reduce student attrition and inform
online high school programming decisions?, is located in Chapter 5.
Evaluation of findings demonstrated alignment with the four hypothesized
sources of self-efficacy as defined within Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy model.
Findings aligned with research on SRL, expectancy theory and adult learning theory.
Study findings aligned with research on student IBLSE and the achievement of student
goals, course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online learning
environment, as well as findings on student motivation to enroll into and complete an
online course and exert effort in an online learning activity, as well as research on CSE.
Findings aligned with research on online high school best practices such as
student-paced programming, flexible schedules, individualized curricula, and career-
focused coursework. Findings aligned with research on typical student challenges with
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online learning environments including issues around student motivation such as
competing priorities, course difficulties and family and career demands. The importance
of stakeholder support of student self-efficacy was highlighted in the study and aligned
with similar research findings in this topic area. The study demonstrated the importance
of stakeholder understanding of how student self-efficacy in the online environment.
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Chapter 5: Implications, Recommendations, and Conclusions
This chapter begins with a review of the study’s problem statement, purpose,
method, limitations and ethical dimensions. A discussion of study implications based on
the lived student experiences of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy (IBLSE) and
persistence in an online high school, follows. Recommendations for practical study
application and for future research are included, along with concluding researcher
thoughts.
Student enrollment into online high schools has increased exponentially (Queen &
Lewis, 2011), yet student dropout from these programs remains a known problem with
dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Students with
previous negative school experiences often struggle in these programs and fear of failure
can cause students to drop out once again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson,
2010; Hammond et al., 2007). This study addressed the problem of a lack of information
on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in online high schools and the resulting
inability of educational stakeholders to leverage this data to inform programming
decisions and reduce student attrition.
The purpose of the qualitative phenomenological study was to examine student
experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high school in order to provide
stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition and inform programming decisions.
Research on this phenomenon is beneficial as support of student self-efficacy can
influence student academic achievement, improve student performance, and facilitate
student goal attainment (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011;
Usher & Pajares, 2008).
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This study utilized a phenomenological research method and analysis of interview
data followed a modified van Kaam methodology to generate common participant themes
(Moustakas, 1994). This method involved the processes of phenomenological reduction,
imaginative variation, and synthesis (Moustakas, 1994). Central limitations of the study
include the qualitative approach, the use of a single study site, the limited number of
participants involved, and the limited participant demographic. The study demographics
represented multiple forms of reentry pathways, (i.e., students self-enrolled or enrolled
through library/corporate/career college partnerships), which was an unintended
demographic division identified in the data.
To meet study criteria, all participants were required to complete at least three
online courses or be recent Career Online High School (COHS) graduates. This
delimitation ensured that all participants experienced success in achieving an online
learning goal or completing an online learning task. These criteria were also a limitation
as participants were primarily program advocates and this did not provide a balanced
student-experience perspective. As the study sample was purposive and only involved
students that attended COHS, findings are not generalizable to other populations,
programs or school districts.
A qualitative phenomenological approach was identified as the best method to
explore the phenomenon of IBLSE and student persistence in an online high school
environment. One methodological assumption was that qualitative interviews, with
limited numbers of participants, could generate meaningful, rich data (Maxwell, 2013).
Although the researcher’s use of bracketing supported study result credibility,
transferability and dependability, the researcher’s biases, beliefs, and personal
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experiences were potential limitations to interview and data analysis processes
(Moustakas, 1994). As differing researcher ideas and beliefs emerged, they were
documented in journal format and reflected upon. Study literature served as a critical
guide to analyzing and interpreting the study data. Other limitations included the
newness of the interview protocol, the phone-based nature of the interview, the inability
to read participant body language, and lack of opportunity to build a trust-based
relationship with participants. Without this established relationship, participants may
have held back in revealing personal life experiences.
The study aligned with the Belmont Report and basic ethical principles for
behavioral research with human subjects including: (a) respect for persons (acknowledge
autonomy, protect those with diminished autonomy, ensure subjects participate willingly
and with adequate information); (b) beneficence (maximize benefits, minimize possible
harm); and (c) justice (ensure for equal distribution of study burdens and benefits on
study subjects) (National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of
Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). The researcher established trust with
participants by being clear about the researcher role, the study processes, and study
objectives. Signed informed consent was received from all study participants prior to
interviews and verbal permission was received to audio record the interview sessions. In
the data and the findings, participant names were replaced with pseudonyms to ensure for
anonymity.
As high school non-graduates are considered a vulnerable population, care was
taken not to place undue burden on these individuals (National Commission for the
Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). Study
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participants have previously experienced school failure and care was taken to ensure that
sensitive topics that arose during the interview, such as such as teen pregnancy,
homelessness and family concerns, were handled with dignity. During the data collection
process, the researcher worked to ensure all participants had a positive reaction to the
study’s purpose and felt empowered as a result of study participation. The researcher
reassured study participants that all data was private and confidential. Two rounds of
member checking, first with transcripts, and again with individual-textural descriptions,
ensured participants were in agreement and comfortable with the presentation and
publication of their information.
This chapter includes study implications aligned to the research questions.
Discussion includes logical conclusions and information on the potential impact of
limitations on the interpretation of results. The results are placed into context to describe
how they aligned to the study problem, fit with the study purpose, demonstrate
significance, and contribute to the existing literature. Recommendations for practical
applications of the study are presented, to include recommendations for future research,
followed by researcher conclusions.
Implications
This study provided a glimpse into the personal, lived experiences of former non-
graduate students, in an online high school environment. The resulting data aligned to
the study’s problem, a lack of information on student experiences of IBLSE and
persistence in online high schools, and the consequent inability of educational
stakeholders to leverage this data to inform programming decisions and reduce student
attrition. Study findings aligned to the study significance and have implications for
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invested stakeholders, self-efficacy and online education researchers, and online students
themselves. As the student dropout rate from online high school programs is high,
especially in non-graduate populations (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006), and the
impact of high school dropout is significant (Amos, 2008; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins
2011), the study data provided valuable insight into understanding student motivation and
persistence within these programs. This understanding can lead to the development of
impactful strategies, practical applications, and future research.
The central, guiding research question in this study was: What are the student
experiences of IBLSE and persistence within online high schools? The second research
question: How can educational stakeholders leverage student experiences of IBLSE to
reduce student attrition and inform online high school reentry programming decisions?
is addressed and discussed within the Recommendations section that follows.
Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory served as the study’s framework and lens to
evaluate findings on student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high
school. The researcher looked for data patterns that supported other theoretical
perspectives (e.g., Self-Regulated Learning, expectancy, adult learning), and that
offered additional insights into relationships between the non-graduate experience,
IBLSE and persistence in online high school environments. Participant data analyzed
through Moustakas’ (1994) modified van Kaam method resulted in the identification of
eleven major composite themes and seven minor composite themes that described the
shared essences of the phenomenon under review.
Six major composite themes were consistent across all participants: perseverance
and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education
191
on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others
and support. The remaining five major composite themes were unique, but significant
enough to warrant their own distinction: self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the
following self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and
vicarious experience. Minor composite themes noted as relevant to understanding this
phenomenon included: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school
students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude
for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope
and increased self-confidence.
Individuals that leave high school are known to demonstrate resilience (Hynes,
2014). All study participants experienced overcoming major life challenges such as
natural disasters, homelessness, high family mobility, teen pregnancy, and single
parenthood. Reflection on challenges spurred student motivation to persist, and
resilience helped individuals overcome challenges within the online high school
environment. All participants were goal-oriented and recognized that a high school
diploma was required for education and career advancement and was critical to
improving family support. Participants expressed the desire to obtain their high school
diploma out of a sense of responsibility to others, either to improve their ability to
provide for family, not let someone down, or make someone proud. These findings have
implications as stakeholders can leverage student characteristics and goals to help
students persist.
A high level of IBLSE was a consistent theme across all participants. This data
has implications for stakeholders as high levels of student self-efficacy correlate with
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student persistence in learning environments (Artino & Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al.,
2008; Tsai et al., 2011). All participants understood how to use a variety of Self-
Regulated Learning (SRL) techniques to overcome challenges including visualization,
time management, and study techniques. They also demonstrated self-advocacy
behaviors.
The theme of support was consistent across all study participants. Students asked
for and received support from academic coaches, family, and friends. The theme, belief
in a higher power, may also be categorized as a form of support as individuals felt
supported and strengthened by their beliefs. There are implications for this data as
stakeholders can remind students of their academic accomplishments, promote the use of
SRL strategies and encourage students to seek out support.
When asked to identify which of the four self-efficacy sources had the strongest
impact on their belief in their ability to succeed in an online course or online learning
activity, participants identified performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion, and
vicarious experience. This information has implications for stakeholders, as each student
is unique and requires differentiated motivation and self-efficacy support. Minor study
theme data, (positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school students and/or
potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude for scholarship
opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope and increased
self-confidence), also has implications for stakeholders as student attitude and
satisfaction with the online environment can impact student success.
Contribution to existing literature. The findings of this study contributed to
existing literature by addressing the need to understand student experiences of online
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high school environments (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al.,
2014; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). The problem of high school dropout has
significant repercussions for individuals, communities and the U.S. economy as
approximately 3.1 million students leave school each year (Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman
et al., 2010). Although study findings are limited and not generalizable, data provided
insight into the experiences of high school non-graduates who returned to school online
and the utilization of this modality for high school reentry purposes. As such,
educational stakeholders may use data to mitigate the problem of high school dropout.
Despite stakeholder investment into online high schools and ever-increasing
student enrollment, there is little high-quality research on learning effectiveness in this
environment (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014; Queen
& Lewis, 2011). Researchers also do not fully understand how high school students
acquire the necessary skills, attitudes and habits to learn online (Barbour & Reeves, 2009;
Molnar et al., 2014). Research on the use of these programs by non-graduates is even
more limited as university-level students have typically been the subject of student
attrition from online education programs (Tsai et al., 2011). To address these gaps, study
data provided information on the overarching themes and characteristics of successful
former non-graduates within an online high school environment.
Student dropout from online high school programs is a known problem with
student dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). For
former non-graduates, the risk of dropping out is even greater, as students with previous
negative school experiences often struggle in online education programs and fear of
failure can cause students to leave school again (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins &
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Halverson, 2010; Hammond et al., 2007). The study’s non-graduate perspective provided
information on typical challenges this population may expect to encounter, along with
information on how students remain motivated and navigate challenges. This data is
necessary for the development of instructional and motivational strategies to improve
student persistence and enhance student academic performance in online learning
environments (Hawkins et al., 2012; Molnar et al., 2014).
This study demonstrated support for Bandura’s (1977a) self-efficacy theory and
data aligned with the hypothesized four sources of self-efficacy. This study extended the
literature on student IBLSE in online high school environments. Study participants self-
identified different self-efficacy sources that had the strongest impact on their IBLSE.
This information demonstrated that non-graduate students have unique learning and
motivational needs and supported recommendations to provide students with
personalized support to foster a self-efficacy mindset (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Wilkins,
2011).
In both traditional and online learning environments, student self-efficacy is
known to influence the choices students make, the amount of effort exhibited on tasks,
and the level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching tasks (Artino &
Stephens, 2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty &
Loboda, 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Students with self-professed high self-efficacy
levels may be at an advantage as overestimation can result in higher student motivation,
higher achievement levels and improved student self-confidence, in comparison to
students with a more realistic sense of their capabilities (Gonida & Leondari, 2011;
Schunk & Meece, 2006). Study data provided new information on student self-efficacy
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in online high school environments. Educational stakeholders can use findings to
develop and improve student self-efficacy support and to mitigate the problem of student
attrition from these environments.
Findings demonstrated support for SRL theory as study participants used a variety
of SRL strategies to obtain academic skills and self-monitor learning effectiveness
(Schunk, 2008; Zimmerman, 1986). Findings aligned with expectancy theory as study
participants were motivated to behave in certain ways, based on perceived results of
behavior (Vroom, 1964). For example, participants put effort into coursework, as they
were motivated to earn a high school diploma and enroll in college. Findings also
supported adult learning theory principles, as participants were motivated to graduate
based on their real-world desire to improve their lives (Knowles et al., 2014). They
connected with the “why” of learning and clearly understood, “what’s in it for me.”
Study participants also completed online assignments in an autonomous and self-
directing fashion and used their prior schooling and life experiences to help them
overcome challenges.
Phenomenological research is an important methodology as it allows the voices of
marginalized groups, like high school non-graduates, to be heard (Hynes, 2014;
Moustakas, 1994). There is a need to incorporate student ideas into the development of
high school reentry strategies (Hynes, 2014). This phenomenological study provided a
venue for students to express themselves and to share their experiences of learning
online. Stakeholders can use this data to develop researched-based strategies and inform
programming decisions. As a result, more students can receive the support they need to
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earn high school diplomas, improve earning power, and obtain an overall higher quality
of life.
Recommendations
According to data from the U.S. Census Bureau (2012), approximately 3.1 million
students drop out of school each year, reflecting a serious national concern (Amos, 2008;
Balfanz et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Wilkins, 2011). Online high schools provide
an alternative means to re-engage non-graduates, yet student dropout from these
programs is a known problem, with dropout rates in excess of 60% (Barbour & Reeves,
2009; Roblyer, 2006). The proposed benefit of this research on student experiences of
IBLSE and persistence within online high schools was to provide educational
stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition from online high schools and inform
programming decisions.
This study includes recommendations for those invested, or looking to invest, in
online high schools and in the use of these schools by non-graduates. Interested
stakeholders may include online high school superintendents and principals, K-12 and
adult educational stakeholders, online high school program managers and investors, and
online high school partners such as public libraries, career colleges, correctional centers,
corporations and workforce boards. These recommendations are also relevant for
mentors and volunteers who work directly with non-graduates and other stakeholders
invested in impacting the problem of high school dropout.
Scholars within the fields of education technology, online learning, adult
education, and self-efficacy in the online environment, may be interested in this research.
Potential and current students may also have a personal interest as application
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recommendations can improve self-efficacy and foster program success. Private-pay
students have an additional financial interest as leaving school may cost them tuition.
Practical applications. Several practical applications are suggested for
improving student persistence in online high schools. In applying recommendations,
stakeholders are advised to use professional judgment as the targeted non-graduate
population is considered vulnerable and includes a disproportionate number of minorities
and the economically disadvantaged (Hynes, 2014). Practical application
recommendations include information on the following: development of student self-
efficacy assessment and support instruments, recommendations for academic coaches and
student support staff, and recommendations on program management, student
communications, online platform features and content development.
For non-graduates with busy lives, the thought of completing high school online
can feel like an unattainable goal. Independent coursework can seem overwhelming, the
journey to obtain a diploma can appear tedious and challenging, and non-graduates may
also be dealing with educational trauma. Individuals with family commitments, those
with English as a second language, or those who have been out of high school for a
significant length of time, may feel reluctant to return to school due to these added
challenges.
Helping potential students understand their personal self-efficacy drivers can
influence student beliefs on returning to school and can help students prepare to manage
course and school challenges. To achieve this goal, the development of a student self-
efficacy instrument, to include self-efficacy preferences, readiness factors, and
motivational drivers, is necessary. The development of a personal student self-efficacy
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support plan, or graduation contract, is also necessary. This plan would guide students to
reflect on the complexities of going back to school online (e.g., independent and
challenging coursework, assignment pacing, time commitments, childcare concerns), and
help them proactively identify and document the people and support they will need to
stay on track. Ensuring students fully understand program expectations can ease the
transition into a formal, structured education program. The aforementioned instruments
would help lay the foundation for a student self-efficacy mindset and empower students
to use self-efficacy and self-motivation techniques when confronted with challenging
tasks or goals.
For programs that utilize a scholarship and/or partnership program process, the
student application is ideal for screening student candidates for program readiness and
academic self-efficacy. Study results showed that students who underwent an application
and/or pre-requisite process felt invested in their success as they devoted significant
personal time and energy to the application process. Once students are enrolled,
academic coaches, tutors, and mentors can support student self-efficacy through targeted
student conversations and communications. Self-efficacy assessment data and follow-up
conversations can help stakeholders understand student motivation to graduate. This
information can be used to provide students with individualized support, especially when
students are faced with personal or academic challenges. Stakeholders are encouraged to
use good judgment when seeking information on motivational drivers as students may not
want to share confidential information. Stakeholders are also advised to use good
judgment in using these drivers, as students should not be made to feel guilty if they are
struggling with coursework.
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Even highly motivated students will need encouragement and support. During
study data collection, all participants emphasized the value of support in helping them to
be successful. Educational stakeholders should help students foster and nurture
relationships with adults that care about them and in whom they can trust (Cavanaugh et
al., 2013; Drysdale et al., 2014; Hynes, 2014). These individuals can be family members,
friends, program staff, tutors, mentors, clergy members, or other online high school
students. Within the COHS model, academic coaches provide a single point of contact
for students to receive one-on-one, personalized support. The continued use of academic
coaches or the development and adoption of an academic coach model is strongly
recommended.
Academic coaches play a critical role in establishing a trust-based relationship
with students, in tracking student progress, in communicating with students on a regular
basis and in maintaining student motivation. COHS academic coaches spend the
majority of their time engaged in student follow-up as their primary responsibility is
student motivation and ensuring students are on-pace to graduate within 18 months of
program commencement. When identifying academic coaching staff, program managers
can look to employ individuals with a passion for adult education and in assisting others
to graduate. Often these individuals will be mission-driven, with personal experience in
overcoming challenging circumstances and who can relate to the life experiences of
potential and current students. In these cases, the academic coach can influence students
through both vicarious experience (e.g., “I’ve accomplished this goal, you can do it too”)
and verbal persuasion (e.g., “You are almost there, you can do this”).
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Individuals in an academic coach or student support role should receive proper
training in understanding the non-graduate perspective, in using active listening to help
students open up, in building trusting relationships and the effective use of empathy.
Training should include information on motivating students and overcoming barriers to
student motivation. These individuals should have experience and/or training in
counseling students who may have experienced educational trauma and working
knowledge on rebuilding student academic self-confidence and self-efficacy. Staff
members should be proficient in conveying enthusiasm and support in both verbal and
email communications.
As the online high school population may include students with learning
disabilities or with English as a Second Language (ESL), certified instructors should be
prepared to assist students with special needs. Academic coaches should have a working
knowledge of ESL best practices and information on common learning disabilities and
disorders such as dyslexia, Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Relevant training should include understanding the
nature of disabilities and impacts on individual learning needs, as well as the use of
strategies to support student-learning processes (Cavanaugh et al., 2013). In the research
study, two out of five participants self-identified as having special needs, thus this type of
staff training may be necessary to personalize student support. Although not always
feasible, when possible online high schools should have mechanisms in place to connect
students to wrap-around support services, such as local social service agencies.
There is little data on the dropout rate from online high schools and there is no
established forum or requirement for providers to share data and best practices. For-
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profit online schools can be competitive, yet it is recommended that schools establish
transparency with dropout rates, share retention strategies and hold partners accountable
for retention. Especially in cases where public taxpayer money is funding scholarships,
for example in partnerships with libraries and correctional facilities, it is important to take
a critical look at the success rate of students and ensure for a return on investment.
Program managers may consider incentivizing academic coaches that have high
student retention and graduation rates. As part of effective program management,
retention should be a visible metric, with reduction as the target. Schools that can cite
low dropout rates and high graduation rates may be able to leverage this data as a selling
point for students and investors. It is recommended that stakeholders conduct exit
interviews with students that drop out of online high schools. This data could reveal gaps
in program management. Knowing the tremendous impact that not graduating has on
individuals and on our society as a whole, it is worth the added investment to be
proactive, to understand what the online student data is telling us, and to have meaningful
conversations with students to truly understand why they might be at-risk of dropping
out.
Program stakeholders can develop and leverage peer support networks to promote
student persistence. Programs with synchronous student-learning opportunities, such as
on-site computer labs and tutoring facilities, can pair students as learning partners.
Ideally, learning partners would be at similar locations in the high school program
curriculum, with in-person opportunities for partners to share program challenges and
provide each other with encouragement and support. Online high schools with cohort-
paced courses can provide opportunities for students to connect and receive peer support.
202
For one study participant, her best friend served as her learning partner and this vicarious
experience promoted her self-efficacy. Learning partnerships can be fostered online in a
formal fashion, where stakeholders can pair online students together, or students can be
encouraged to connect with peers in a more organic nature, such as through school
websites and student portals, or social media platforms such as Facebook.
Participants in this study were eager to share their stories of success and recent
graduates expressed wanting to help other students become enrolled and persist as they
personally experienced life-changing program impacts. Educational stakeholders should
consider harnessing this enthusiasm by creating student advocate groups to connect
advocates with individuals that are considering going back to school, that are new to
online learning, or that might be struggling. Ideally, advocates would share similar
demographics as the students they partner with, such as gender, age, geographic location
and parental status. Peer support groups can be developed around student demographics
and interests such as gender, parental status, stay-at-home parenting/homeschooling,
parents of children with special needs, or religious affiliations. Messaging around
membership in student support groups should be inclusive rather than exclusive.
Academic coaches and student support staff may consider a faith-based approach
to personalize student support if this is something the student initiates or requests and/or
if there is a willing academic coach. For example, a staff member may offer to pray with
a student or may send the student motivational scriptures or words of wisdom. In the
research study, three out of the five participants expressed that their belief in a higher
power and use of prayer strengthened their self-efficacy. Thus, this recommendation may
be deemed relevant.
203
Students should find the school technology platform, enrollment, and onboarding
processes to be intuitive and easy to follow. As these students have previously
experienced high school failure, they may be dealing with educational trauma and the
fewer barriers there are to enrollment, on-boarding and course completion, the better.
Three out of the five study participants interviewed experienced enrollment challenges
that could have negatively influenced their self-efficacy to succeed online. In one
instance, a student was not provided the opportunity to select a career certificate focus
(the partner program manager selected it) and the student was automatically registered for
courses she was not interested in. By the time the error was realized, it was too late to
change the career track. In two other cases, duplication of coursework due to student
transcripts issues resulted in student program frustrations.
The fact that these students persevered despite these challenges is a testimony to
their resilience. To this end, it is recommended that online high school providers ensure
that partner program managers clearly understand all aspects of the online program and
enrollment process. Partners should be required to participate in partner program training
and to demonstrate competence in program management in order to avoid errors that
could negatively impact student persistence and student self-esteem.
Online high school partner programs that require students to attend on-site
sessions should ensure the on-site location is welcoming and resourced with appropriate
technology, support staff, and tutors. One study participant had a negative experience
with the on-site requirement as she found little support from the on-site program manager
and she was not provided with on-site tutoring or peer mentoring opportunities. Partner
programs may want to rethink program policies that are detrimental to student
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persistence, as motivated adult students can be trusted to complete independent
coursework online. Requiring significant time on-site can negate the benefits that a
student-paced online learning environment has to offer and this seems counterintuitive to
busy adult learners’ needs for program flexibility. Instead, stakeholders may consider
monitoring student progress and requiring only off-pace students to attend on-site. In this
example, attendance on-site would not be considered a punishment, but a safety net that
exemplifies a supportive program model.
It is recommended that partner programs assist students to obtain transcripts and
have these documents in hand before allowing students to formally enroll and begin
online classes. The time involved in obtaining transcripts can be significantly longer for
older students or those from foreign countries. Waiting for transcripts is preferable to
having students enroll and potentially complete unnecessary and duplicative coursework,
which can decrease student self-efficacy and generate student frustration and
dissatisfaction with the online program.
Corporate partners should be commended for their support in educating
employees through online high school opportunities. Forward-thinking companies
realize that an educated workforce is critical to their on-going success. Scholarship
matching programs, such as the Clinton Global Initiative, are also commended as
corporate partners can support education through philanthropic contributions.
Stakeholders should continually assess their learning environments to ensure for
effective and innovative learning experiences. New student onboarding should include a
tour of the online classroom and safe opportunities to practice with new software and
course tools. Stakeholders should ensure that students understand all of the learning
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resources that are available for them including information on contacting their academic
coach, certified content-area teachers, or specialized tutors. Students should be able to
easily view and track curriculum progress as seeing courses completed can enhance an
individual’s sense of personal mastery. The aforementioned strategies can help increase
student self-efficacy to persist and succeed within an online learning environment.
Students should be provided with supplemental course resources that address all
learning styles, such as printable exam study guides, downloadable podcasts, and online
skill practice opportunities. Many of the participants in this study self-identified as visual
learners. Course developers can review course materials to ensure content is accessible
for learners with a visual preference and ensure for compliance with the Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA). For example, if there are audio content components, there
should be an accompanying transcript and when possible, well-designed graphics should
illustrate important learning concepts.
During the study, participants shared examples of difficulties encountered during
end-of-course testing, as they were unable to go back into learning modules to refresh
their understanding of course concepts. While this form of testing may indicate that
students have internalized material, ideally all course tests should be developed with an
“open book” approach. Students should be expected to use all course resources, notes,
and materials to complete course exams. To this end, course exams should not be a
regurgitation of rote facts, but a synthesis of content, allowing students to draw upon
prior knowledge to create new understanding. It is recommended that course developers
use Bloom’s (1984) seminal work on educational objective taxonomy to generate a
higher level of student thinking which can improve retention of course information.
206
Higher-level student thinking goes beyond basic student knowledge and comprehension
and involves student application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation of learning content
(Bloom, 1984).
Students can be provided with tip sheets and supplemental learning opportunities
on topics that may improve student self-efficacy and foster self-regulated learning skills
such as motivation and time management techniques, study skills, stress and anxiety
reduction techniques, strategies for parenting while enrolled in school, dealing with
procrastination, reducing distractions and overcoming challenges.
School-wide student communications should be relevant, timely and inspiring.
The COHS model uses a student-alumni newsletter to share motivational messages from
the principal, inspirational student-graduate stories and photos, and educational tips on
topics such as staying motivated, setting goals and charting goal progress. A monthly
contest motivates students to stay on-pace to graduate. The aforementioned strategies
may positively impact a student’s self-efficacy by influencing his or her physiological
and emotional states.
Recommendations for future research. This qualitative phenomenological
study explored the lived experiences of five online high school students and included rich
data on student IBLSE and persistence within this environment. During the course of the
study, opportunities for future research were identified. The following information
includes research recommendations as they relate to study site and demographics, study
method and design, and the field of IBLSE research. These recommendations are
relevant for interested scholars, stakeholders, and practitioners.
207
The study’s limited demographic provided impetus for the first set of
recommendations. As the study only included one site and had a limited number of
participants, the recommendation is to expand the study to include additional online high
schools and to ensure for a diverse participant demographic. The study’s methodology
also was a limitation. Future quantitative research and other qualitative and quantitative
methodologies may reveal new information on student IBLSE and persistence within
online high schools. Study replication and refinement of the interview protocol may help
confirm and build upon study results. A random sampling approach would improve
study transferability and dependability.
This study included students that enrolled through corporate, library and career
college partnerships, as well as students that self-enrolled. Future research may opt to
focus on a single enrollment pathway or a specific, geographic location. The school site
studied has a strong focus on career education. Future research may hone in on this
aspect of the learning environment and study the impact of career-based learning on
student motivation, self-efficacy and persistence.
The COHS population is 71% female and four out of the five study participants
interviewed were stay-at-home moms. Additional research from a feminist perspective
may shed light on the lived experience on topics such as online learning and teen
pregnancy, parenting, single parenting, and managing school and family. Additional
research is also needed on the male perspective of the phenomenon under review.
Gender-focused research may reveal themes and data on promoting student enrollment
and persistence within these populations.
208
This study focused on students that had a successful online high school
experience and expressed a high self-efficacy. Data gathered from students who left the
online program and/or did not have a positive experience would provide a balanced
perspective. This type of research data could reveal gaps in program management and
provide additional information on the relationship between self-efficacy and student
persistence. Future research on the student experience of self-efficacy within a specific
course module (a more granular approach) is also recommended as the study was
expansive and included the student experience of the online program as a whole.
Research on the use of online high schools for non-graduates in correctional
facilities and as an alternative high school program for at-risk students is recommended.
Research that explores the experiences of adult learners with special needs may provide
insight on program modifications. Research that compares the online student experience
within the partnership model versus the self-enroll model may also yield relevant
findings. In particular, research on the role of financial investment as a student motivator
is of interest.
Research that focuses on the role of the academic coach and impacts on student
self-efficacy is also recommended. Academic coaches and support staff have firsthand
experience in helping students through challenging online and personal experiences and
their experiences may reveal student support best practices. Research exploring the
impact of social media on supporting student self-efficacy in online environments is also
warranted.
Research is recommended on student readiness factors to go back to school
online. This type of research can generate practical information to help potential students
209
self-assess self-efficacy, consider potential challenges and formulate support plans.
Research on student-use of self-efficacy strategies, fostering a self-efficacy mindset and
the resulting effects on student persistence, is of interest. Exploration of student self-
efficacy to graduate from an online high school program is warranted, along with
research exploring the relationship between IBLSE and success in online high school
environments. Further research on alignment to Bandura’s (1977a) hypothesized sources
of self-efficacy is warranted. Research that identifies the characteristics of successful
online high school students and identifies strategies to heal educational trauma, may also
prove beneficial.
Conclusions
This chapter contained a brief review of the research study problem, purpose,
method, limitations, and ethical dimensions. A discussion of study implications and
recommendations, aligned to the research questions, was also presented. Implications
included a discussion of study themes and potential impacts on educational stakeholders.
Results were placed into context to describe how they aligned to the study problem, fit
with the study purpose, demonstrated significance, and contributed to the existing
literature. Recommendations included practical applications and recommendations for
future research. The results of this study fulfilled the purpose of the research, which was
to examine the lived student experiences of IBLSE and persistence in an online high
school in order to provide stakeholders with data to reduce student attrition and inform
programming decisions. Study results contributed to understanding the factors that
promote student IBLSE and persistence in an online high school environment.
210
Although online high school programs provide viable alternatives for non-
graduate populations, student attrition from these programs remains a constant and
known problem (Barbour & Reeves, 2009; Roblyer, 2006). Without a high school
diploma, individuals are sorely limited in their ability to continue their education or find
employment that adequately provides for themselves and their family members (Balfanz
et al., 2013; Chapman et al., 2010; Hynes, 2014; Wilkins 2011). Knowing the tremendous
impact that not graduating has on individuals, and on society at large, it is worth
educational stakeholder investment to proactively address research suggestions and
engage in meaningful conversations with students to truly understand what motivates
them.
While other strategies may be effective, supporting student’s self-efficacy is a
known strategy to promote student persistence in online learning environments. Research
on self-efficacy is important as student self-beliefs can influence academic achievement,
student performance, goal attainment and academic persistence (Artino & Stephens,
2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Tsai et al., 2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Self-efficacy
influences the choices students make, the amount of effort exhibited on tasks, and the
level of anxiety or comfort experienced when approaching tasks (Artino & Stephens,
2009; Caprara et al., 2008; Kim & Frick, 2011; Oliver et al., 2009; Petty & Loboda,
2011; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Students with self-professed high self-efficacy levels may
be at an advantage as self-efficacy over-estimation can result in higher student
motivation, achievement and improved student self-confidence, in comparison to those
with a more realistic sense of their capabilities (Gonida & Leondari, 2011; Schunk &
Meece, 2006).
211
Study findings included eleven major composite themes, identified from interview
data, that described the shared essences of the phenomenon under review: perseverance
and resilience, diploma required for future goals/understand the importance of education
on success, high level of IBLSE, self-regulated learner, sense of responsibility to others,
support, self-advocacy, belief in a higher power, and the following participant-identified
self-efficacy sources: performance accomplishment, verbal persuasion and vicarious
experience. Several minor composite themes were noted as relevant to understanding
this phenomenon including: positive outlook, wanting to support other online high school
students and/or potential students, satisfaction with independent online learning, gratitude
for scholarship opportunities, pride in COHS accomplishments, renewed sense of hope
and increased self-confidence.
Findings demonstrated alignment with the hypothesized sources of self-efficacy
and to concepts of self-regulated learning, expectancy, and adult learning theories.
Findings also aligned with research on IBLSE and the achievement of student goals,
course performance, course satisfaction and persistence in the online learning
environment. Study findings aligned with research on online high school best practices,
as well as research on common student challenges in online learning environments. As
the study sample was not random and only involved students that attended online courses
at COHS, findings are not generalizable to other populations, programs or school
districts.
Despite experiencing significant life trauma and challenges, all study participants
were personally motivated to earn their high school diplomas. Study participants
expressed unique self-efficacy and motivational drivers and they utilized different
212
strategies to help them overcome obstacles in the online environment. Continued
educational stakeholder efforts towards assessing student readiness and personalizing
student motivation is recommended as a student’s personal beliefs, perceptions, and
commitment level can influence outcomes experienced (Lefcourt, 2014). Stakeholders
can help students “connect to the why” of learning and in turn inspire excitement and
hope for the future. Students should be empowered to understand their own self-efficacy
drivers and to adopt self-regulated learning behaviors to help them attain success.
Another significant study finding was the role of supportive, caring adults on
student self-efficacy. It is recommended that educational stakeholders continue to take a
compassionate approach to helping non-graduates heal educational trauma and to return
and remain in school. The online high school model is advantageous for non-graduates
as it provides a confidential learning environment where stigmas around grade level, age,
and academic ability are lessened (Balfanz et al., 2013). These schools also provide a
convenient way for students to re-engage in a supportive environment that meets busy
lifestyle needs (Cavanaugh et al., 2013; Collins & Halverson, 2009; Oliver et al., 2009).
It is important to see beyond high school dropout statistics and realize that the
data consists of unique individuals with hopes, dreams and stories that deserve to be
honored (Hynes, 2014). This phenomenological study provided a venue for students to
express themselves and share their experiences of learning online. This study allowed the
voices of students to be heard and to have their ideas incorporated into student support
strategies. Study findings allowed educational stakeholders to gain a deeper
understanding of student IBLSE and persistence in the online high school environment
and to obtain information on application recommendations.
213
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Appendixes
Appendix A: Permission to Conduct Study and Publish Program Names
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Appendix B: Participant Recruitment Email/Script
Dear (email),_______________, or Hello (telephone) _________________, (Current student) You have made great progress at Career Online High School (COHS). (Graduate) Congratulations on your recent graduation from COHS. COHS is participating in a research study, which is Suzanne Darrow-Magras’ dissertation for her Ph.D. studies at Northcentral University. Suzanne is interviewing students to find out what it’s like to be an online learner and how self-beliefs influence online success. Are you interested in being interviewed for this study? If so, please let me know! Your feedback is important and will help improve our program and help us support struggling COHS students. The study has no bearing on your course grades, course scheduling or relationships with academic coaches or staff at COHS. If you are interested, I will share your email address with Suzanne. She will contact you with more information and schedule a telephone interview. The interview is confidential and will take about an hour. Suzanne may need to schedule a second interview if she has more questions, but that interview would take less time. Please let me know! Thank you.
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Appendix C: Participant Introductory Email
Dear _______________, My name is Suzanne Darrow-Magras. I’m a graduate student at Northcentral University. Your COHS academic coach let me know I could interview you for a research study. Thank you for volunteering! I will be asking about your experiences as an online learner and about your beliefs in succeeding in an online course. Your feedback will help improve the COHS program and will be used to support struggling COHS students. I will need your signed permission in order to interview you. I’ve attached an Informed Consent Form. Can you please sign and return this form? This document includes study information, and confidentiality and anonymity procedures. Can you please suggest a date and time for our interview? Our interview will take about an hour. I’m available most days, as well as evenings and weekends. If you have questions, please contact me at 340-690-8741 or by email at [email protected] . I’m looking forward to speaking with you! Sincerely, Suzanne Darrow-Magras
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Appendix D: Participant Informed Consent Form
Returning to High School Online; a Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence
What is the study about? You are invited to participate in a research study as part of a dissertation at Northcentral University in Prescott, Arizona. The study is interested in your experiences as a student at Career Online High School (COHS) and your belief in your ability to succeed in an online course. You were chosen because you are either a current COHS student and you have completed at least three classes, or you graduated from COHS within the past year. There is no deception in this study. This means that you will not be tricked or misled in this study. What will be asked of me? You will be asked to volunteer and participate in an interview with the researcher. You will be asked about what it’s like to learn online, your belief in your ability to achieve your online learning goals, the people that support your academic goals and overcoming online challenges. The interview will take place over the telephone and will be recorded. The first interview will take about one hour. A second interview may be needed if the researcher has more questions. The second interview will take no more than 30 minutes. You will decide on the date and time of the interviews. The interviews will be transcribed. You will have a chance to review all transcripts and make sure that they are a true account of what you said and that they are your point of view. You may ask the researcher to make any changes to your transcript, or to remove information that you feel could identify you. Who is involved? The following people are involved in this research project and can be contacted at any time: Suzanne Darrow-Magras, Researcher, 340-690-8741, [email protected]; Dr. Gregory Hickman, Dissertation Chair, 480-513-2917, [email protected] Are there any risks? There are no known risks in this study, but the interview questions are personal and ask about your educational successes and challenges. These topics may be sensitive for some people. You may choose not to answer any questions that you feel uncomfortable answering and you may stop the study at any time. What are some benefits? There are no direct benefits to you for participating in this research. No payments are offered. The results will have scientific interest for those wanting to improve support for students that have left traditional high school and have decided to go back to school online. Is the study anonymous and confidential? All study information is confidential. Your signed informed consent form will not be attached to your interview transcript. All names or personal information that could identify you will be removed. Only the researchers named in this study will see the source information. A pseudonym will be used to hide your identity in the written dissertation. All electronic research data will be
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stored on a computer that is password and security protected. Electronic data will be backed up to an external storage drive each night. Hard copy files will be stored in a locked filing cabinet in a locked room. Data and research materials will only be accessible to the researcher and the dissertation chair. All research materials will be destroyed after five years. All hard copies will be shredded and all electronic files will be permanently deleted. Can I stop participating in the study? You have the right to stop participating in the study at any time. You can also skip any questions during the interview if you do not want to answer them. Please contact the Researcher to withdraw: Suzanne Darrow-Magras, 340-690-8741, [email protected] What if I have questions about my rights as a research participant or if I have complaints? If you have questions about your rights as a research participant, any complaints about your participation in the research study, or any problems that occurred in the study, please contact the researchers identified in this consent form. If you prefer to talk to someone outside the study team, you can contact Northcentral University’s Institutional Review Board at [email protected] or 1-888-327-2877 ex. 8014. We would be happy to answer any questions you have about the study. Please contact Suzanne Darrow-Magras, Researcher, 340-690-8741, [email protected]; Dr. Gregory Hickman, Dissertation Chair, 480-513-2917, [email protected] Signatures I have read the above description for the study: Returning to High School Online; a Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence. I understand what the study is about and what is being asked of me. My signature indicates that I agree to participate in the study. Participant's Name: ________________________________ Participant's Signature: _____________________________ Date: ___________________________________________ Researcher's Name: __Suzanne Darrow-Magras_________ Researcher's Signature: ____________________________ Date: __________________________________________
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Appendix E: Interview Scheduling Email Self-efficacy content based on the handout: National Association of School Psychologists. November 2010. Self-Efficacy: Helping
children believe they can succeed. Communiqué Handout. Bethesda, MD. Retrieved from http://www.nasponline.org/publications/cq/pdf/V39N3_FT_Self-Efficacy.pdf
Dear ______________, Thank you for sending me your informed consent documentation. I’m looking forward to speaking with you on (date) . Before we talk, I wanted to give you more information about the study so that the interview questions make sense. As you know, the purpose of the study is to understand what it’s like to be an online learner and the role of self-beliefs in a student’s ability to succeed online. Have you ever heard someone say that if you set your mind on achieving a goal, then you are more likely to achieve it? This self-belief in the ability to achieve a goal is called self-efficacy. According to the research, your self-efficacy is influenced by several things:
1) Mastery experiences: This is when you have already experienced accomplishing a goal. “I’ve done it before, I can do it again.”
2) Observing others: Seeing someone else achieve a goal helps you believe that you can achieve it too. “If he or she can do it, I can do it too.”
3) Verbal persuasion by others: This is when others try to influence you by telling you that you have the skills and capabilities to achieve a goal. “You are good at solving problems. You will find a creative solution like you always do.”
4) Your mood: Your emotions and expectations help you feel like you can cope with challenges. “I feel really good about this test, I know I can pass this.”
I’m looking forward to speaking with you and learning more about your self-efficacy! Again, please let me know a good date and time for our interview. Kind regards, Suzanne Darrow-Magras
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Appendix F: Interview Guide
The following semi-structured Interview Guide is based upon the four sources of self-efficacy developed by Bandura (1977a): (a) performance accomplishment, which refers to an individual’s personal accomplishment of a task or goal; (b) vicarious experience, which refers to personal witness of task attainment by others; (c) verbal persuasion, which refers to attempts by others to influence an individual’s behavior through suggestion; and (d) physiological and emotional states, which refers to the physiological arousal an individual exhibits in consideration of a particular task or goal.
Within the guide, the applicable self-efficacy sources are next to the respective questions and serve as a guide for the researcher. Self-efficacy terminology is modified to improve participant understanding. Performance accomplishment has been replaced with ‘mastery experiences,’ vicarious experience has been replaced with ‘observing others’, verbal persuasion has been replaced with ‘verbal persuasion by others’ and physiological and emotional states has been replaced with ‘mood’ (National Association of School Psychologists, 2010). Additional follow-up questions may be utilized to solicit detailed responses, e.g., “Tell me more,” “What made you feel that way?” or, “What was that like for you?” Other follow-up questions may be worded more specifically, depending upon participant responses. Script: Before we begin today, I would like to review the purpose of the study and your rights as a participant. Once I have received your consent, I will turn on the digital recorder and we can get started. Is that all right with you? [Recap the Informed Consent Form, which includes the purpose of the study.] Do you consent to participate in the study and to have this interview audio recorded? [If yes, proceed with the interview. If no, thank the person for his or her time and end the conversation.] You don’t have to respond to a question if you don’t want to and you can choose to stop the interview at any time. Let’s get started. Interview questions Self-efficacy source 1) Tell me about yourself. N/A, Background information 2) How did you learn about Career Online High School (COHS)?
N/A, Background information
3) Tell me about your experiences learning online, what has that been like for you? How are you doing in the program, academically?
Performance accomplishment
Script: I sent you some information about self-efficacy in my email. [Recap the following points: self-efficacy is one’s belief in one’s ability to achieve a goal, self-efficacy is influenced by four sources: (a) mastery experiences, “I’ve done it before, I can do it again,”; (b) observing others, “If he or she can do it, I can do it too”; (c) verbal persuasion by others, “You are good at solving problems, you will find a creative solution like you always do”; and (d) your mood, “I feel great, I know I can do this!”] [Clarify understanding] Do you have any questions about self-efficacy or the self-efficacy sources? 4) Which of these four sources has the Performance accomplishment, vicarious
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strongest impact on your belief in your ability to succeed in an online course? Why do you feel this way?
experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states
5) Would you say that you have a high, medium, or low belief in your ability to succeed within an online course? Why do you feel this way?
Performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states
6) Tell me about the people in your life who support you and your academic goals. What do they do or say to support you? How does this make you feel?
Verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states
7) Do you know anyone else that is going to high school online or taking online classes? What do they tell you about their experiences? How does that make you feel?
Vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states
8) Self-efficacy is one theory on how people’s beliefs help them to achieve their goals. Is there anything else that positively influences your belief in your ability to succeed online? What else makes you successful? (e.g., personality traits, outside circumstances, a higher power)?
Performance accomplishment, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, physiological and emotional states
9) Tell me about a time you accomplished a goal in the online program. How did you feel about that experience?
Performance accomplishment, physiological and emotional states
10) Have you encountered any challenges in the online program? How did you handle those challenges? How did you feel about those challenging experiences?
Performance accomplishment, physiological and emotional states
11) Tell me about your past schooling experiences, what were you like as a learner?
Background information
12) Tell me about your future career, school, and life goals.
N/A, Aspirations
13) What advice do you have for students that might be struggling at COHS?
N/A, Advice for struggling students
14) What advice or suggestions would you give to others that want to enroll into COHS?
N/A, Advice for potential students
Script: Thank you for participating in the interview. I will let you know if I have any additional questions and if we need to schedule another interview. Is that ok with you? I am going to type up the transcript from our conversation and send it to you. You will be able to review the transcript and ask me to make any changes before I include it in the study. Do you have any questions for me? Thank you again!
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Appendix G: Follow-Up Interview Email and Guide
Email: Dear ___________, It was great speaking to you on (date). I really enjoyed hearing about your experiences and I’d like to learn more. Can you please let me know when you might have 30 minutes to talk and I will give you a call? Thank you! Suzanne Darrow-Magras Interview Guide: [Thank the participant for the follow-up interview. Recap informed consent documentation, study purpose and recording procedures, obtain verbal permission to record before proceeding.] Follow-up questions will be added here: Script: Thank you again for your time!
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Appendix H: Member Check Email, Transcript Dear ________________, I hope you are well. Thank you again for taking the time to speak with me about your experiences as an online student. Please find the transcript of the interview attached. Please read the transcript and let me know if you would like me to make any changes or edits, or if I should remove anything that you believe might identify you. If I don’t hear back from you by the end of the week, (by date), I will assume you are in agreement with the transcript content. Thank you again for sharing your experiences! Kind regards, Suzanne Darrow-Magras
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Appendix I: Member Check Email, Individual Textural Description Dear ________________, I hope you are well. I’ve attached a draft of your individual description based on our interview. Can you please read the document attached and let me know if this accurately reflects your experiences? I changed your name to ‘________’, for confidentiality reasons. Again, please let me know if there is anything that you would like for me to change, remove or add. If I don’t hear back from you by the end of the week (by date), then I will assume that you are in agreement with the description. I look forward to your feedback. Thank you again! Kind regards, Suzanne Darrow-Magras
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Appendix J: Copyright Information © Suzanne Darrow-Magras, 2015
Returning to High School Online: A Phenomenological Study Exploring the Student Experience of Internet-Based Learning Self-Efficacy and Persistence by Suzanne Darrow-Magras is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
