Review ArticleA Review of Solar Photovoltaic Concentrators
Mehrdad Khamooshi1 Hana Salati1 Fuat Egelioglu1 Ali Hooshyar Faghiri1
Judy Tarabishi1 and Saeed Babadi2
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Engineering Eastern Mediterranean University FamagustaNorth Cyprus Via Mersin 10 Turkey
2Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering University of Concordia Montreal QC Canada H4B 1R6
Correspondence should be addressed to Mehrdad Khamooshi mehrdadkhamooshiyahoocom
Received 5 March 2014 Revised 12 April 2014 Accepted 26 April 2014 Published 19 June 2014
Academic Editor Dimitrios Karamanis
Copyright copy 2014 Mehrdad Khamooshi et al This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense which permits unrestricted use distribution and reproduction in any medium provided the original work is properlycited
Throughout the recent centuries the limits of using energy resources due to the cost and environmental issues became one of thescientistsrsquo concerns Because of the huge amount of energy received by the Earth from the sun the application of photovoltaicsolar cells has become popular in the world The photovoltaic (PV) efficiency can be increased by several factors concentratingphotovoltaic (CPV) system is one of the important tools for efficiency improvement and enables for a reduction in the cell arearequirement The limits of the PV area can reduce the amount of absorbing irradiation CPV systems can concentrate a largeamount of sunlight into a smaller one by applying lenses or curved and flat mirrors However the additional costs on concentratingoptics and cooling systems made CPV less common than nonconcentrated photovoltaic This paper reviews the different types ofPV concentrators their performance with advantages and disadvantages concentration ratio acceptance angle brief comparisonbetween their efficiencies and appropriate cooling system
1 Introduction
As the fossil fuels are reducing gradually in our planetsolar photovoltaic systems and technology are becoming apromising option for electricity generation The amount ofsolar power output is about 166 PW out of which 85 PWreaches the Earth This shows not only that solar poweris well over 500 times our current world 15 TW powerconsumption but also that all other sources are less than1 of solar power output [1ndash3] The radiation that is notreflected or scattered and reaches the surface directly iscalled direct or beam radiation and the scattered radiationreaching the ground is called diffuse radiation [4] Basicallythe role of concentration photovoltaic systems is to collectboth beam and scattered irradiation which do not reachthe photovoltaic cells Besides photovoltaic the concentratoralso has other applications such as thermal power applica-tions [5ndash7] lighting systems [8ndash10] pumping of solar lasers[11ndash15] hydrogen production [16ndash18] and other applicationsAlthough Parida et al [19] performed a fundamental reviewstudy on the solar photovoltaic technologies and McConnell
et al [20] reviewed market aspects of solar concentratorsthere is no complete review on concentrated photovoltaictechnologies The aim of this study is therefore to review dif-ferent CPV technologies and their other characteristics suchas performance advantages disadvantages and appropriatecooling system
2 Solar Concentrators
In a simple description the idea of CPV is using opticaldevices with cheap and suitable technology to concentratethe light on small and highly efficient photovoltaic solar cellsHence the cost will be reduced by means of replacing thecell surface with cheaper optical devices [21] There are someadvantages and disadvantages solar concentrator systemshave over flat plate systems for large installations Table 1obtained from the [22] shows some advantages of CPV
Solar concentrators are classified by their optical charac-teristics such as the concentration factor distribution of illu-mination focal shape and optical standard Concentration
Hindawi Publishing CorporationInternational Journal of PhotoenergyVolume 2014 Article ID 958521 17 pageshttpdxdoiorg1011552014958521
2 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 1 Advantages of concentrating over flat-plate systems for large PV installations [22]
Lower cost
GaAs dish concentrators are projected to produce electricity at 74 centskWh by2010 whereas thin-film modules are projected to be at 96 centskWh If thin-filmmodule prices come down from the assumed $75m2 to $35m2 at 12 efficiency(29 centsW) then thin-film electricity cost would equal GaAs dish cost
Superior efficiency Concentrators are the only option to have system efficiencies over 20 Thisreduces land utilization as well as area related costs
Higher annual capacity factor Tracking provides for improved energy output Once the expense of tracking isincurred with flat-plates the leap to installing concentrator modules is small
Less materials availability issuesConcentrators use standard construction materials for the bulk of theirrequirements Flat-plate systems have serious concerns over material availabilitysilicon feedstock or indium in the case of CuInSe2
Less toxic material use Many thin-film concepts use quite toxic materials such as cadmium and so forth
Ease of recycling
The trend in modern mass-product manufacturing is to make a product asrecyclable as possibleConcentrators are composed mainly of easily recyclable materials steel aluminumand plasticRecycling flat-plate modules will be much more difficult
Ease of rapid manufacturing capacity scale-up
Existing semiconductor manufacturing capacity is more than sufficient to supplyprojected cell requirements The remaining manufacturing is comprised of ratherstandard mechanical componentsThis greatly reduces capital requirements compared to flat-plate
High local manufacturing content Aside from the cells the remaining content of concentrator systems can bemanufactured worldwide and close to the final point-of-use
factor 119883 which is also known as the number of suns is theratio of the mean radiant flux density on a receiver area 119866
119909
compared to the average normal global irradiance 119866 [23]
119883 =119866119909
119866 (1)
The classification based on the concentration factor includesthe following conditions [24]
(i) low concentration (LCPV) (1ndash40119909)(ii) medium concentration (MCPV) (40ndash300119909)(iii) high concentration (HCPV) (300ndash2000119909)
Also the efficiencies of different PV cells can be obtained fromthe following [25]
120578 =119875maxAr Ee
(2)
where 120578 is efficiency 119875max is the ratio of the optimal electricpower delivered by the PV cell Ar is the area of the PV cellexposed to sunlight and solar irradiance received by the PVis Ee
Higher tracker tolerances passive heat sinks lower costoptics reducedmanufacturing costs and reduced installationprecision made LCPVmore simple compared to HCPV [26]The experimental findings by Butler et al [27] show thatLCPV has the potential to harvest more energy when usingstandard Si solar cells in a basic concentration configurationas used in this study However Perez-Higueras et al [24]stated that high concentrator photovoltaic technology is stillin a deployment stage but the cells and modules efficiencydata offered by their manufacturing companies as well as
the measuring experiments carried out by several researchcenters forecast an attractive short-term increment in theirefficiency whichmeans that these systems could be profitablein economical and energy terms in a short period of timeThis fact represents a potential alternative to flat modulephotovoltaic systems in the energy generation market
Based on the Perez-Higueras et al study [24] Table 2shows different HCPV efficiencies in the laboratories and incommercials
They are also classified in two other optical categories(1) imaging optical concentrators which means the imageformed on the receiver by the optical concentrators [28]and (2) nonimaging optical concentrators the receiver isnot concerned with forming an image on it by opticalconcentrators [29]
21 Overview on Different Models During past decades alot of developments have been made on designing differentmodels of solar concentrators Experts analyzed thesemodelsthrough these decades and there have been some changes intheir design This part presents different models of concen-trators
211 Fresnel Lenses Fresnel lenses recently have been oneof the best choices due to their noble properties such assmall volume light weight as well as mass production withlow cost [30] In early Fresnel lenses glass was replaced bypolymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) discovered by AugustinJean Fresnel with optical characteristics almost the same asglass including good transmissivity and resistance to sunlightit is the suitable material choice for the manufacturingof Fresnel lenses [31 32] A Fresnel lens is a flat optical
International Journal of Photoenergy 3
Table 2 Different HCPV efficiencies recorded in Laboratories and commercials [24]
Efficiency () Suns Type DescriptionLaboratories efficiencies
component where the bulk material is eliminated becausethe surface is made up of many small concentric groovesThese grooves individually act as prisms since each grooveis approximated by a flat surface that reflects the curvature atthat position of the conventional lens [33] Figure 1 shows theschematic view of conventional lens and Fresnel lens
The concentration of flux is represented as follows [34]
119862max =1198992
sin 120579 sin120595 (3)
where119862max represents themaximumconcentration of opticalflux (unitless) 119899 is the real component of the refractive index(unitless) and 120579 (acceptance angle along the plane of theazimuth) and 120595 (the acceptance angle of the altitude) are theacceptance angles
Briefly concentrated solar energy applications using Fres-nel lens systems are in following categories thermal applica-tion thermal heating solar cooking [5 35 36] photocatalytic[37] solar building [38] solar-pumped laser [39ndash41] lighting[42 43] and surface modification of metallic materials [3344ndash46]
There are two main types of Fresnel lenses which arecircular and linear For the circular category Nakata et al[47] described a 300W polar axis tracking concentratorwith 36 circular Fresnel lenses (40 times 40) and designed cellsto obtain the uniform distribution As a result the opticalefficiency of the lens is 83 and the output power becomesabout 50 greater than that of the commercial lens anexperimental and analytical method used by Harmon [48] to
determine the efficiency and intensity variations of a circularFresnel lens as a solar concentrator Using a photovoltaicscanning technique the experimental part and simulation areconstructed to model the behavior of the lens According tothe results the lens is an inefficient concentrator with lossesthat begin at 20 and rise to about 80 as the focal distancedecreases
A research done by Whitfield et al [49] compares Point-focus Fresnel lens two-axis tracking and the use of thehousing as heat Sink with other models which include linearFresnel lens solid CPC secondaryrsquos and two-axis trackingLinear Fresnel lens system has the advantage of being simpleand totally enclosed yet ismore costly than someof the othersThe point-focus Fresnel lens has the advantage of havingpotential for simple mass-produced optics but its seriousproblem is the loss of efficiency at higher concentrationOptical properties of flat linear Fresnel lenses manufacturedfrom glass are presented by Franc et al [50] and the behaviorof these lenses in perpendicular and inclined beams of rays isdiscussed
212 Quantum Dot Concentrator Quantum dot concentra-tor (QDC) is a nontracking concentrator that includes threemain parts transparent flat sheet of glass or plastic dopedwith quantum dots (QDs) reflective mirrors placed on threedifferent edges and the back surface and a PV cell whichis attached to the exit aperture As it is shown in Figure 2when the sun radiation hits the surface of concentratora part of the radiation will be refracted by a fluorescentmaterial and absorbed by quantum dots (QDs) photons arereemitted isotropically at a lower frequency and guided tothe PV cell [25] The size of quantum dots which are madeof nanostructures typically varies from tens to hundreds ofnanometers in size [51]
Research done by Micic et al [52] has shown that QDsare capable of absorbing light over an extremely broadwavelength range and the absorption spectra also depictsthe spectral shift to higher energy as QD size decreases Themain advantages of QDC are the following they are with-out any tracking system they can concentrate both diffuseand direct radiations [53] due to the geometries of these
4 International Journal of Photoenergy
Solar radiation
Quantum dot Mirrors
Photovoltaic cell
Total internal reflectionc
Figure 2 Principle of the QDC [25]
concentrators they have less problems of heat dissipation[25] and sheets are inexpensive and are suitable architecturalcomponents [54] Developing QDCs was restricted by thestringent requirements of the luminescent dyes such as highquantumefficiency suitable absorption spectra and red shiftsand illumination stability [55 56] The problems of organicdyes can settle by replacing them with QDs which have theadvantages of less degradation and high luminescence [57]Schuler et al [58] proposed that quantum dot containingnanocomposite coatings might be an alternative for theproduction of planar quantum dot solar concentrators Theconcentration ratios of QDCs are completely discussed byGallagher et al [25] who determined concentration ratiosof different types by comparative analysis A maximumcomparative concentrating factor (MCCF)was determined atspecific solar intensities using (4)
MCCF =119875dev-max119875max-ref
(4)
where 119875dev-max is the power maximum for the test device and119875ref-max is the power maximum for the reference devices
213 Parabolic Concentrator The solar parabolic troughcollector is the most recognized technology due to its highdispatchability and low unit cost In parabolic trough concen-trators the parabolic shaped mirror focuses sunlight on thereceiver tube which is placed at the focal point of parabola[59] Reflectivity of the mirror incident angle tracking errorintercept factor as well as absorptivity of the receiver arethe factors which can affect the performance of the parabolictrough concentrator [60] Additionally Riffelmann et al [61]mentioned the image quality of the mirror slope error andcollector assembly as the factors which the optical efficiencyof a parabolic trough collector depends on
In order to enhance the concentration efficiency of theparabolic trough Omer and Infield [62] discussed the two-stage concentration of the parabolic trough collector Thisdesign provides an efficient concentration of the incidentsolar radiation without any frequent tracking system Theperformance of the parabolic trough collector depends onreceiver design and heat loss from the receiver [60 63ndash68]The heat loss can increase by different tools one of them isinserting porous inserts in the inner surface of the receiver
The porous inserts increase the heat transfer rate by(1) increasing the effective fluid thermal conductivity (2)enhancingmixing between the fluid and receiver wall and (3)lowering thermal resistance by developing a thinner hydrody-namic boundary layer [59] Figure 3 shows a schematic viewof a parabola
The concentration ratio of the Parabolic concentrator canbe obtained from (5) [69 70]
C =sin120601119877
120587 sin 120579120572
tan(120601119877
2) =
2119910119904
4119891=
119910119904
2119891
(5)
where 120579120572is half the acceptance angle 120601
119877is the rim angle and
119891 is focus length
214 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) Compoundparabolic concentrators (CPCs) are designed to efficientlycollect and concentrate distant light sources with someacceptance angle Figure 4 illustrates the configuration ofCPC
The geometrical concentration ratio and theoretical max-imum possible concentration ratio of the CPC are obtainablefrom (6) [71 72]
CR =119860119886
119860119903
CRmax3D =1
sin2 (12) 120579max
(6)
where 119860119886 119860119903 and 120579max are the aperture area receiver area
and maximum acceptance angle respectivelyCPCs can be in both 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional
configuration Suzuki and Kobayashirsquos [73] study on 2-DCPC is about the optimum acceptance angle of the concen-trator with the declination angle of plusmn235 on the celestialhemisphere for direct radiation and uniform irradiance fordiffuse radiation The results indicate that the optimum half-acceptance angle is 26 degrees irrespective of the change inthe diffuse radiation fraction It was also found that almostall over the Earth a common CPC is an optimum applicationfor many solar collecting systems
Senthilkumar et al [74] performed substantial researchwork in order to improve the performance of the two-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator (2D CPC)They found out that the three-dimensional compoundparabolic concentrator (3D CPC) is more efficient than the2D CPC because of the higher concentration ratio Yehezkelet al [75] analyzed the losses due to reflection propertiesand calculated the effect of these losses on concentrationratio They estimated reflection losses using an empiricallinear model to facilitate design and system optimizationby analytical methods without resorting to a ray-tracingprocedure
Khalifa and Al-Mutawalli [76] did an experimental studyon effects of two-axis sun tracking on thermal performanceof CPC in two different modes in the first a batch feeding
International Journal of Photoenergy 5
d2
120579120572
120579120572
fA
O
Z
120593R
yA
h
A998400
y
Figure 3 Schematic view of the parabola
Axis of CPC
Apeiture
AcceptanceAngle 120579accept
Parabola BParabola A
Truncated portionof parabola A
Truncated portionof parabola B
Focus ofparabola A
Focus ofparabola B
Receiver
Height
Axis ofparabola A
Axis ofparabola B
Figure 4 Cross section of a nontruncated CPC [132]
was used where no flow through the collector was allowedwhereas in the second different steady water flow rates wereusedThe results led us to the conclusion that the energy gainof aCPCcollector can be increased by using two-axis trackingsystems The best improvement was achieved when the flowrate was in the range of 25 to 45 kghr
Mallick et al [77] designed a novel nonimaging asym-metric compoundparabolic photovoltaic concentrator (ACP-PVC) with different numbers of PV strings connected inseries experimentally characterized under outdoor condi-tions both with and without concentrators which indicatedthat the use of an ACPPVC increased the maximum power
point by 62 when compared to a similar nonconcentratingPV panel
215 Dielectric Totally Internally Reflecting Concentrator(DTIRC) Dielectric totally internally reflecting concentrator(DTIRC) which was suggested by Ning et al [78] is oneof the most important nonimaging optical concentrators Inaddition to the solar application these lenses were proposedfor IR detection [79] and optical wireless communicationsystems [80 81]
As shown in Figure 5DITRCs consist of threemain partsa curved front surface a totally internally reflecting profileand an exit aperture [81]
The important factor for rays to reach the exit apertureis to be within the designed acceptance angle of the concen-trator When a set of rays hits the front curved surface atthe acceptance angle it is refracted and directed to the exitaperture Ning et al [82] discussed two-stage photovoltaicconcentrators with Fresnel lenses as primaries and dielec-tric totally internally reflecting nonimaging concentratorsas secondaries The results indicated that two-stage con-centrator suggests higher concentration and more uniformflux distribution on the photovoltaic cell than the pointfocusing Fresnel lens alone Muhammad-Sukki et al [83]described designing a dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (DTIRC) They used maximum concentrationmethod (MCM) which was outlined with the simulation tooptimize the design of the concentrator The results fromMATLAB simulations indicate that MCM offers a highergeometrical concentration gain with a slight increase in theconcentrator size
The advantages of DTIRC over compound parabolicconcentrator are higher efficiency higher concentration ratioflux tailoring and work without any needs of cooling fea-tures However DTIRC itself cannot efficiently pass all of
6 International Journal of Photoenergy
Angular rays
Acceptanceangle
Direct rays
Index matching gel
Index matching gel
ArcAngle
Photodetector
Optical filter
P1
P2P3
P3998400
Figure 5 Side view of a DTIRC [81]
Hyperboloid
Aperture
Receiver
Absorber ray
Escape ray120579
H
Z1
A1
A2
SZ2
I
x1 x2f1 f2
r1r2
Figure 6 2-D Hyperboloid concentrator [86]
the solar energy that it accepts into a lower index media[84] Muhammad-Sukki et al [85] present a study abouta mirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (MSDTIRC) which is a new type of DTIRCThey presented a method for calculating concentration gainof the mentioned system
216 Hyperboloid Concentrator Figure 6 shows two dimen-sional hyperboloid concentrators Incident rays on the aper-ture enter the hyperboloid concentrator and either reach thereceiver or reflect back out of the concentrator [86] Thiskind of concentrator is also called the elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator A 3-D figure of an elliptical hyperboloid con-centrator is showed in Figure 7
The advantage of this concentrator is that it is verycompact since only a truncated version of the concentratorneeds to be used Because of this factor it is mainly used as asecondary concentrator [87] Garcia-Botella et al [29] foundout that the one-sheet hyperbolic concentrator is an ideal 3D
asymmetric concentrator as its shape does not disturb theflow lines of an elliptical disk It also does not need a trackingsystemwhere two different acceptance angles transversal andlongitudinal direction are needed
Sellami et al [88] designed a 3-D concentrator and coinedthe Square elliptical hyperboloid (SEH) to be integrated ineither glazing windows or facades for photovoltaic applica-tion This configuration can collect both diffuse and directbeam They also found that optical efficiency depends on thesize of the SHE
It has been shown that the 3-D solar concentratoracquired from the hyperboloid has the ability of concentrat-ing all the entering rays [89] such as the trumpet concentratorwhich is composed of a revolution of hyperbolic type andwasconsidered as an ideal concentrator [90]
Chen et al [91] investigated a solar concentrator con-taining primary paraboloidal and secondary hyperboloidalmirrors by using the ray tracing method to obtain higherconcentration ratio The results indicated that such a methodcan increase the concentration of solar flux twice whenconcentration tracking errors exist
Saleh Ali et al [92] presented a study about designing astatic 3-D solar elliptical hyperboloid concentrator (EHC)
International Journal of Photoenergy 7
H
B
b
A
a
y1 y2
Figure 8 Geometrical parameters of an elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator [92]
They proposed some equation for designing hyperboloidconcentrators [92] based on Figure 8
The design of hyperboloid concentrators is based on thefollowing equations
1199092
1198862+
1199102
1198872minus
1199112
1198882= 1
1199101= [(
1199092
1198862) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119860 = (CR times (119886)2
)05
1199102= [(
1199092
1198872) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119861 = (CR times (119887)2
)05
CR =
119860119901
119860119903
(7)
217 RR XX XR RX and RXI These configurations rep-resent the new concentrators which achieved the theoreticalmaximum acceptance angle concentration and it was con-cluded that they may be useful for high concentration cells[93]
In these designs ldquoRrdquo denotes refraction ldquoXrdquo denotesreflection and ldquoIrdquo denotes internal reflection [94]The designmethods of all these concentrators are basically similar toeach other RXI designs can almost describe other modelsas shown in Figure 9 rays that impinge on the concentratoraperture within the acceptance angle are directed to thereceiver by means of one refraction one reflection and onetotal internal reflection [95]
Minano et al [96] investigated the performance of RXand the results indicated that when the angular spread of theinput bundle is small the performance of the rotational RXis acceptable An analysis of the RX concentrator performedby Benitez and Minano [97] stated that when the fieldof view is small (less than 6 degrees full angle) even forconcentrations up to 95 of the theoretical maximum its
imaging performance is similar (in MTF terms) to that ofnormal incidence of an11989137planoconvex spherical lenswithoptimum defocusing This image capability is suitable forreceivers Minano et al [98] explored a research for RX andRXI concentrators Their results had shown that when theacceptance angle of the concentrator is less than 5 degrees (fora source at infinity) its performance in 3D is very good Alsothe RX shown in their analysis had been designed for a finitesource and the RXI for a source at infinity
3 Tables of Properties
Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the differ-ent types of solar concentrators
Based on Peterina et alrsquos [99] study Table 4 representsdifferent kinds of CPV modules and their typical size andpower
Swanson [22] performed a review study on the character-istics of concentrated photovoltaic systemswhich approachedthe economical aspects of the systems Table 5 summarizedSwansonrsquos study which represents different CPV with theircharacteristics
For the cost comparison of different CPV systems Table 6which is obtained from Whitfield et al [49] presents someCPV systems with their cost
4 Appropriate Cooling Systems
Cooling of photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumina-tion is one of the major problems during designing themThe photovoltaic cell efficiency decreases with increasingtemperature or due to nonuniform temperature [100ndash109]Also cell degradation will occur if the temperature exceedscertain limits [102]
The thermal properties of the coolant are another impor-tant factor for choosing the right cooling system Thermalproperties of air make it less efficient compared to waterwhich results in more parasitic power [110] Also the coolantor working fluid should be compatible which means that itshould not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and thereis no chemical reaction between the working fluid and theenvelope or wick structure that liberates noncondensable gas(NCG) [111]
Heat pipes are popular and interesting technology withthe aim of cooling the PV modules especially under concen-tration A heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of aworking fluid and a wick structure [111] The working fluidtransfers the additional and the rejected heat by condensationprocesses Heat pipes are usually made of aluminum orcopper Table 7 shows the compatible working fluid forcopper and aluminum based on refs [111ndash113]
Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [114] made reports on aparabola-trough that uses heat pipes for cooling Each cell ismounted vertically on the end of a thermosyphon which ismade of a flattened copper pipe with a finned condenser areaThe cell temperature does not go beyond 46∘C on sunny dayswith the concentration ratio of 20 suns the reports show that
8 International Journal of Photoenergy
Back mirror Heat sink
CellFront mirror
Concentrator
Figure 9 RXI concentrator cross-section [93]
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
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[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
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[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
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[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
Table 1 Advantages of concentrating over flat-plate systems for large PV installations [22]
Lower cost
GaAs dish concentrators are projected to produce electricity at 74 centskWh by2010 whereas thin-film modules are projected to be at 96 centskWh If thin-filmmodule prices come down from the assumed $75m2 to $35m2 at 12 efficiency(29 centsW) then thin-film electricity cost would equal GaAs dish cost
Superior efficiency Concentrators are the only option to have system efficiencies over 20 Thisreduces land utilization as well as area related costs
Higher annual capacity factor Tracking provides for improved energy output Once the expense of tracking isincurred with flat-plates the leap to installing concentrator modules is small
Less materials availability issuesConcentrators use standard construction materials for the bulk of theirrequirements Flat-plate systems have serious concerns over material availabilitysilicon feedstock or indium in the case of CuInSe2
Less toxic material use Many thin-film concepts use quite toxic materials such as cadmium and so forth
Ease of recycling
The trend in modern mass-product manufacturing is to make a product asrecyclable as possibleConcentrators are composed mainly of easily recyclable materials steel aluminumand plasticRecycling flat-plate modules will be much more difficult
Ease of rapid manufacturing capacity scale-up
Existing semiconductor manufacturing capacity is more than sufficient to supplyprojected cell requirements The remaining manufacturing is comprised of ratherstandard mechanical componentsThis greatly reduces capital requirements compared to flat-plate
High local manufacturing content Aside from the cells the remaining content of concentrator systems can bemanufactured worldwide and close to the final point-of-use
factor 119883 which is also known as the number of suns is theratio of the mean radiant flux density on a receiver area 119866
119909
compared to the average normal global irradiance 119866 [23]
119883 =119866119909
119866 (1)
The classification based on the concentration factor includesthe following conditions [24]
(i) low concentration (LCPV) (1ndash40119909)(ii) medium concentration (MCPV) (40ndash300119909)(iii) high concentration (HCPV) (300ndash2000119909)
Also the efficiencies of different PV cells can be obtained fromthe following [25]
120578 =119875maxAr Ee
(2)
where 120578 is efficiency 119875max is the ratio of the optimal electricpower delivered by the PV cell Ar is the area of the PV cellexposed to sunlight and solar irradiance received by the PVis Ee
Higher tracker tolerances passive heat sinks lower costoptics reducedmanufacturing costs and reduced installationprecision made LCPVmore simple compared to HCPV [26]The experimental findings by Butler et al [27] show thatLCPV has the potential to harvest more energy when usingstandard Si solar cells in a basic concentration configurationas used in this study However Perez-Higueras et al [24]stated that high concentrator photovoltaic technology is stillin a deployment stage but the cells and modules efficiencydata offered by their manufacturing companies as well as
the measuring experiments carried out by several researchcenters forecast an attractive short-term increment in theirefficiency whichmeans that these systems could be profitablein economical and energy terms in a short period of timeThis fact represents a potential alternative to flat modulephotovoltaic systems in the energy generation market
Based on the Perez-Higueras et al study [24] Table 2shows different HCPV efficiencies in the laboratories and incommercials
They are also classified in two other optical categories(1) imaging optical concentrators which means the imageformed on the receiver by the optical concentrators [28]and (2) nonimaging optical concentrators the receiver isnot concerned with forming an image on it by opticalconcentrators [29]
21 Overview on Different Models During past decades alot of developments have been made on designing differentmodels of solar concentrators Experts analyzed thesemodelsthrough these decades and there have been some changes intheir design This part presents different models of concen-trators
211 Fresnel Lenses Fresnel lenses recently have been oneof the best choices due to their noble properties such assmall volume light weight as well as mass production withlow cost [30] In early Fresnel lenses glass was replaced bypolymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) discovered by AugustinJean Fresnel with optical characteristics almost the same asglass including good transmissivity and resistance to sunlightit is the suitable material choice for the manufacturingof Fresnel lenses [31 32] A Fresnel lens is a flat optical
International Journal of Photoenergy 3
Table 2 Different HCPV efficiencies recorded in Laboratories and commercials [24]
Efficiency () Suns Type DescriptionLaboratories efficiencies
component where the bulk material is eliminated becausethe surface is made up of many small concentric groovesThese grooves individually act as prisms since each grooveis approximated by a flat surface that reflects the curvature atthat position of the conventional lens [33] Figure 1 shows theschematic view of conventional lens and Fresnel lens
The concentration of flux is represented as follows [34]
119862max =1198992
sin 120579 sin120595 (3)
where119862max represents themaximumconcentration of opticalflux (unitless) 119899 is the real component of the refractive index(unitless) and 120579 (acceptance angle along the plane of theazimuth) and 120595 (the acceptance angle of the altitude) are theacceptance angles
Briefly concentrated solar energy applications using Fres-nel lens systems are in following categories thermal applica-tion thermal heating solar cooking [5 35 36] photocatalytic[37] solar building [38] solar-pumped laser [39ndash41] lighting[42 43] and surface modification of metallic materials [3344ndash46]
There are two main types of Fresnel lenses which arecircular and linear For the circular category Nakata et al[47] described a 300W polar axis tracking concentratorwith 36 circular Fresnel lenses (40 times 40) and designed cellsto obtain the uniform distribution As a result the opticalefficiency of the lens is 83 and the output power becomesabout 50 greater than that of the commercial lens anexperimental and analytical method used by Harmon [48] to
determine the efficiency and intensity variations of a circularFresnel lens as a solar concentrator Using a photovoltaicscanning technique the experimental part and simulation areconstructed to model the behavior of the lens According tothe results the lens is an inefficient concentrator with lossesthat begin at 20 and rise to about 80 as the focal distancedecreases
A research done by Whitfield et al [49] compares Point-focus Fresnel lens two-axis tracking and the use of thehousing as heat Sink with other models which include linearFresnel lens solid CPC secondaryrsquos and two-axis trackingLinear Fresnel lens system has the advantage of being simpleand totally enclosed yet ismore costly than someof the othersThe point-focus Fresnel lens has the advantage of havingpotential for simple mass-produced optics but its seriousproblem is the loss of efficiency at higher concentrationOptical properties of flat linear Fresnel lenses manufacturedfrom glass are presented by Franc et al [50] and the behaviorof these lenses in perpendicular and inclined beams of rays isdiscussed
212 Quantum Dot Concentrator Quantum dot concentra-tor (QDC) is a nontracking concentrator that includes threemain parts transparent flat sheet of glass or plastic dopedwith quantum dots (QDs) reflective mirrors placed on threedifferent edges and the back surface and a PV cell whichis attached to the exit aperture As it is shown in Figure 2when the sun radiation hits the surface of concentratora part of the radiation will be refracted by a fluorescentmaterial and absorbed by quantum dots (QDs) photons arereemitted isotropically at a lower frequency and guided tothe PV cell [25] The size of quantum dots which are madeof nanostructures typically varies from tens to hundreds ofnanometers in size [51]
Research done by Micic et al [52] has shown that QDsare capable of absorbing light over an extremely broadwavelength range and the absorption spectra also depictsthe spectral shift to higher energy as QD size decreases Themain advantages of QDC are the following they are with-out any tracking system they can concentrate both diffuseand direct radiations [53] due to the geometries of these
4 International Journal of Photoenergy
Solar radiation
Quantum dot Mirrors
Photovoltaic cell
Total internal reflectionc
Figure 2 Principle of the QDC [25]
concentrators they have less problems of heat dissipation[25] and sheets are inexpensive and are suitable architecturalcomponents [54] Developing QDCs was restricted by thestringent requirements of the luminescent dyes such as highquantumefficiency suitable absorption spectra and red shiftsand illumination stability [55 56] The problems of organicdyes can settle by replacing them with QDs which have theadvantages of less degradation and high luminescence [57]Schuler et al [58] proposed that quantum dot containingnanocomposite coatings might be an alternative for theproduction of planar quantum dot solar concentrators Theconcentration ratios of QDCs are completely discussed byGallagher et al [25] who determined concentration ratiosof different types by comparative analysis A maximumcomparative concentrating factor (MCCF)was determined atspecific solar intensities using (4)
MCCF =119875dev-max119875max-ref
(4)
where 119875dev-max is the power maximum for the test device and119875ref-max is the power maximum for the reference devices
213 Parabolic Concentrator The solar parabolic troughcollector is the most recognized technology due to its highdispatchability and low unit cost In parabolic trough concen-trators the parabolic shaped mirror focuses sunlight on thereceiver tube which is placed at the focal point of parabola[59] Reflectivity of the mirror incident angle tracking errorintercept factor as well as absorptivity of the receiver arethe factors which can affect the performance of the parabolictrough concentrator [60] Additionally Riffelmann et al [61]mentioned the image quality of the mirror slope error andcollector assembly as the factors which the optical efficiencyof a parabolic trough collector depends on
In order to enhance the concentration efficiency of theparabolic trough Omer and Infield [62] discussed the two-stage concentration of the parabolic trough collector Thisdesign provides an efficient concentration of the incidentsolar radiation without any frequent tracking system Theperformance of the parabolic trough collector depends onreceiver design and heat loss from the receiver [60 63ndash68]The heat loss can increase by different tools one of them isinserting porous inserts in the inner surface of the receiver
The porous inserts increase the heat transfer rate by(1) increasing the effective fluid thermal conductivity (2)enhancingmixing between the fluid and receiver wall and (3)lowering thermal resistance by developing a thinner hydrody-namic boundary layer [59] Figure 3 shows a schematic viewof a parabola
The concentration ratio of the Parabolic concentrator canbe obtained from (5) [69 70]
C =sin120601119877
120587 sin 120579120572
tan(120601119877
2) =
2119910119904
4119891=
119910119904
2119891
(5)
where 120579120572is half the acceptance angle 120601
119877is the rim angle and
119891 is focus length
214 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) Compoundparabolic concentrators (CPCs) are designed to efficientlycollect and concentrate distant light sources with someacceptance angle Figure 4 illustrates the configuration ofCPC
The geometrical concentration ratio and theoretical max-imum possible concentration ratio of the CPC are obtainablefrom (6) [71 72]
CR =119860119886
119860119903
CRmax3D =1
sin2 (12) 120579max
(6)
where 119860119886 119860119903 and 120579max are the aperture area receiver area
and maximum acceptance angle respectivelyCPCs can be in both 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional
configuration Suzuki and Kobayashirsquos [73] study on 2-DCPC is about the optimum acceptance angle of the concen-trator with the declination angle of plusmn235 on the celestialhemisphere for direct radiation and uniform irradiance fordiffuse radiation The results indicate that the optimum half-acceptance angle is 26 degrees irrespective of the change inthe diffuse radiation fraction It was also found that almostall over the Earth a common CPC is an optimum applicationfor many solar collecting systems
Senthilkumar et al [74] performed substantial researchwork in order to improve the performance of the two-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator (2D CPC)They found out that the three-dimensional compoundparabolic concentrator (3D CPC) is more efficient than the2D CPC because of the higher concentration ratio Yehezkelet al [75] analyzed the losses due to reflection propertiesand calculated the effect of these losses on concentrationratio They estimated reflection losses using an empiricallinear model to facilitate design and system optimizationby analytical methods without resorting to a ray-tracingprocedure
Khalifa and Al-Mutawalli [76] did an experimental studyon effects of two-axis sun tracking on thermal performanceof CPC in two different modes in the first a batch feeding
International Journal of Photoenergy 5
d2
120579120572
120579120572
fA
O
Z
120593R
yA
h
A998400
y
Figure 3 Schematic view of the parabola
Axis of CPC
Apeiture
AcceptanceAngle 120579accept
Parabola BParabola A
Truncated portionof parabola A
Truncated portionof parabola B
Focus ofparabola A
Focus ofparabola B
Receiver
Height
Axis ofparabola A
Axis ofparabola B
Figure 4 Cross section of a nontruncated CPC [132]
was used where no flow through the collector was allowedwhereas in the second different steady water flow rates wereusedThe results led us to the conclusion that the energy gainof aCPCcollector can be increased by using two-axis trackingsystems The best improvement was achieved when the flowrate was in the range of 25 to 45 kghr
Mallick et al [77] designed a novel nonimaging asym-metric compoundparabolic photovoltaic concentrator (ACP-PVC) with different numbers of PV strings connected inseries experimentally characterized under outdoor condi-tions both with and without concentrators which indicatedthat the use of an ACPPVC increased the maximum power
point by 62 when compared to a similar nonconcentratingPV panel
215 Dielectric Totally Internally Reflecting Concentrator(DTIRC) Dielectric totally internally reflecting concentrator(DTIRC) which was suggested by Ning et al [78] is oneof the most important nonimaging optical concentrators Inaddition to the solar application these lenses were proposedfor IR detection [79] and optical wireless communicationsystems [80 81]
As shown in Figure 5DITRCs consist of threemain partsa curved front surface a totally internally reflecting profileand an exit aperture [81]
The important factor for rays to reach the exit apertureis to be within the designed acceptance angle of the concen-trator When a set of rays hits the front curved surface atthe acceptance angle it is refracted and directed to the exitaperture Ning et al [82] discussed two-stage photovoltaicconcentrators with Fresnel lenses as primaries and dielec-tric totally internally reflecting nonimaging concentratorsas secondaries The results indicated that two-stage con-centrator suggests higher concentration and more uniformflux distribution on the photovoltaic cell than the pointfocusing Fresnel lens alone Muhammad-Sukki et al [83]described designing a dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (DTIRC) They used maximum concentrationmethod (MCM) which was outlined with the simulation tooptimize the design of the concentrator The results fromMATLAB simulations indicate that MCM offers a highergeometrical concentration gain with a slight increase in theconcentrator size
The advantages of DTIRC over compound parabolicconcentrator are higher efficiency higher concentration ratioflux tailoring and work without any needs of cooling fea-tures However DTIRC itself cannot efficiently pass all of
6 International Journal of Photoenergy
Angular rays
Acceptanceangle
Direct rays
Index matching gel
Index matching gel
ArcAngle
Photodetector
Optical filter
P1
P2P3
P3998400
Figure 5 Side view of a DTIRC [81]
Hyperboloid
Aperture
Receiver
Absorber ray
Escape ray120579
H
Z1
A1
A2
SZ2
I
x1 x2f1 f2
r1r2
Figure 6 2-D Hyperboloid concentrator [86]
the solar energy that it accepts into a lower index media[84] Muhammad-Sukki et al [85] present a study abouta mirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (MSDTIRC) which is a new type of DTIRCThey presented a method for calculating concentration gainof the mentioned system
216 Hyperboloid Concentrator Figure 6 shows two dimen-sional hyperboloid concentrators Incident rays on the aper-ture enter the hyperboloid concentrator and either reach thereceiver or reflect back out of the concentrator [86] Thiskind of concentrator is also called the elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator A 3-D figure of an elliptical hyperboloid con-centrator is showed in Figure 7
The advantage of this concentrator is that it is verycompact since only a truncated version of the concentratorneeds to be used Because of this factor it is mainly used as asecondary concentrator [87] Garcia-Botella et al [29] foundout that the one-sheet hyperbolic concentrator is an ideal 3D
asymmetric concentrator as its shape does not disturb theflow lines of an elliptical disk It also does not need a trackingsystemwhere two different acceptance angles transversal andlongitudinal direction are needed
Sellami et al [88] designed a 3-D concentrator and coinedthe Square elliptical hyperboloid (SEH) to be integrated ineither glazing windows or facades for photovoltaic applica-tion This configuration can collect both diffuse and directbeam They also found that optical efficiency depends on thesize of the SHE
It has been shown that the 3-D solar concentratoracquired from the hyperboloid has the ability of concentrat-ing all the entering rays [89] such as the trumpet concentratorwhich is composed of a revolution of hyperbolic type andwasconsidered as an ideal concentrator [90]
Chen et al [91] investigated a solar concentrator con-taining primary paraboloidal and secondary hyperboloidalmirrors by using the ray tracing method to obtain higherconcentration ratio The results indicated that such a methodcan increase the concentration of solar flux twice whenconcentration tracking errors exist
Saleh Ali et al [92] presented a study about designing astatic 3-D solar elliptical hyperboloid concentrator (EHC)
International Journal of Photoenergy 7
H
B
b
A
a
y1 y2
Figure 8 Geometrical parameters of an elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator [92]
They proposed some equation for designing hyperboloidconcentrators [92] based on Figure 8
The design of hyperboloid concentrators is based on thefollowing equations
1199092
1198862+
1199102
1198872minus
1199112
1198882= 1
1199101= [(
1199092
1198862) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119860 = (CR times (119886)2
)05
1199102= [(
1199092
1198872) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119861 = (CR times (119887)2
)05
CR =
119860119901
119860119903
(7)
217 RR XX XR RX and RXI These configurations rep-resent the new concentrators which achieved the theoreticalmaximum acceptance angle concentration and it was con-cluded that they may be useful for high concentration cells[93]
In these designs ldquoRrdquo denotes refraction ldquoXrdquo denotesreflection and ldquoIrdquo denotes internal reflection [94]The designmethods of all these concentrators are basically similar toeach other RXI designs can almost describe other modelsas shown in Figure 9 rays that impinge on the concentratoraperture within the acceptance angle are directed to thereceiver by means of one refraction one reflection and onetotal internal reflection [95]
Minano et al [96] investigated the performance of RXand the results indicated that when the angular spread of theinput bundle is small the performance of the rotational RXis acceptable An analysis of the RX concentrator performedby Benitez and Minano [97] stated that when the fieldof view is small (less than 6 degrees full angle) even forconcentrations up to 95 of the theoretical maximum its
imaging performance is similar (in MTF terms) to that ofnormal incidence of an11989137planoconvex spherical lenswithoptimum defocusing This image capability is suitable forreceivers Minano et al [98] explored a research for RX andRXI concentrators Their results had shown that when theacceptance angle of the concentrator is less than 5 degrees (fora source at infinity) its performance in 3D is very good Alsothe RX shown in their analysis had been designed for a finitesource and the RXI for a source at infinity
3 Tables of Properties
Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the differ-ent types of solar concentrators
Based on Peterina et alrsquos [99] study Table 4 representsdifferent kinds of CPV modules and their typical size andpower
Swanson [22] performed a review study on the character-istics of concentrated photovoltaic systemswhich approachedthe economical aspects of the systems Table 5 summarizedSwansonrsquos study which represents different CPV with theircharacteristics
For the cost comparison of different CPV systems Table 6which is obtained from Whitfield et al [49] presents someCPV systems with their cost
4 Appropriate Cooling Systems
Cooling of photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumina-tion is one of the major problems during designing themThe photovoltaic cell efficiency decreases with increasingtemperature or due to nonuniform temperature [100ndash109]Also cell degradation will occur if the temperature exceedscertain limits [102]
The thermal properties of the coolant are another impor-tant factor for choosing the right cooling system Thermalproperties of air make it less efficient compared to waterwhich results in more parasitic power [110] Also the coolantor working fluid should be compatible which means that itshould not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and thereis no chemical reaction between the working fluid and theenvelope or wick structure that liberates noncondensable gas(NCG) [111]
Heat pipes are popular and interesting technology withthe aim of cooling the PV modules especially under concen-tration A heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of aworking fluid and a wick structure [111] The working fluidtransfers the additional and the rejected heat by condensationprocesses Heat pipes are usually made of aluminum orcopper Table 7 shows the compatible working fluid forcopper and aluminum based on refs [111ndash113]
Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [114] made reports on aparabola-trough that uses heat pipes for cooling Each cell ismounted vertically on the end of a thermosyphon which ismade of a flattened copper pipe with a finned condenser areaThe cell temperature does not go beyond 46∘C on sunny dayswith the concentration ratio of 20 suns the reports show that
8 International Journal of Photoenergy
Back mirror Heat sink
CellFront mirror
Concentrator
Figure 9 RXI concentrator cross-section [93]
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
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[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
component where the bulk material is eliminated becausethe surface is made up of many small concentric groovesThese grooves individually act as prisms since each grooveis approximated by a flat surface that reflects the curvature atthat position of the conventional lens [33] Figure 1 shows theschematic view of conventional lens and Fresnel lens
The concentration of flux is represented as follows [34]
119862max =1198992
sin 120579 sin120595 (3)
where119862max represents themaximumconcentration of opticalflux (unitless) 119899 is the real component of the refractive index(unitless) and 120579 (acceptance angle along the plane of theazimuth) and 120595 (the acceptance angle of the altitude) are theacceptance angles
Briefly concentrated solar energy applications using Fres-nel lens systems are in following categories thermal applica-tion thermal heating solar cooking [5 35 36] photocatalytic[37] solar building [38] solar-pumped laser [39ndash41] lighting[42 43] and surface modification of metallic materials [3344ndash46]
There are two main types of Fresnel lenses which arecircular and linear For the circular category Nakata et al[47] described a 300W polar axis tracking concentratorwith 36 circular Fresnel lenses (40 times 40) and designed cellsto obtain the uniform distribution As a result the opticalefficiency of the lens is 83 and the output power becomesabout 50 greater than that of the commercial lens anexperimental and analytical method used by Harmon [48] to
determine the efficiency and intensity variations of a circularFresnel lens as a solar concentrator Using a photovoltaicscanning technique the experimental part and simulation areconstructed to model the behavior of the lens According tothe results the lens is an inefficient concentrator with lossesthat begin at 20 and rise to about 80 as the focal distancedecreases
A research done by Whitfield et al [49] compares Point-focus Fresnel lens two-axis tracking and the use of thehousing as heat Sink with other models which include linearFresnel lens solid CPC secondaryrsquos and two-axis trackingLinear Fresnel lens system has the advantage of being simpleand totally enclosed yet ismore costly than someof the othersThe point-focus Fresnel lens has the advantage of havingpotential for simple mass-produced optics but its seriousproblem is the loss of efficiency at higher concentrationOptical properties of flat linear Fresnel lenses manufacturedfrom glass are presented by Franc et al [50] and the behaviorof these lenses in perpendicular and inclined beams of rays isdiscussed
212 Quantum Dot Concentrator Quantum dot concentra-tor (QDC) is a nontracking concentrator that includes threemain parts transparent flat sheet of glass or plastic dopedwith quantum dots (QDs) reflective mirrors placed on threedifferent edges and the back surface and a PV cell whichis attached to the exit aperture As it is shown in Figure 2when the sun radiation hits the surface of concentratora part of the radiation will be refracted by a fluorescentmaterial and absorbed by quantum dots (QDs) photons arereemitted isotropically at a lower frequency and guided tothe PV cell [25] The size of quantum dots which are madeof nanostructures typically varies from tens to hundreds ofnanometers in size [51]
Research done by Micic et al [52] has shown that QDsare capable of absorbing light over an extremely broadwavelength range and the absorption spectra also depictsthe spectral shift to higher energy as QD size decreases Themain advantages of QDC are the following they are with-out any tracking system they can concentrate both diffuseand direct radiations [53] due to the geometries of these
4 International Journal of Photoenergy
Solar radiation
Quantum dot Mirrors
Photovoltaic cell
Total internal reflectionc
Figure 2 Principle of the QDC [25]
concentrators they have less problems of heat dissipation[25] and sheets are inexpensive and are suitable architecturalcomponents [54] Developing QDCs was restricted by thestringent requirements of the luminescent dyes such as highquantumefficiency suitable absorption spectra and red shiftsand illumination stability [55 56] The problems of organicdyes can settle by replacing them with QDs which have theadvantages of less degradation and high luminescence [57]Schuler et al [58] proposed that quantum dot containingnanocomposite coatings might be an alternative for theproduction of planar quantum dot solar concentrators Theconcentration ratios of QDCs are completely discussed byGallagher et al [25] who determined concentration ratiosof different types by comparative analysis A maximumcomparative concentrating factor (MCCF)was determined atspecific solar intensities using (4)
MCCF =119875dev-max119875max-ref
(4)
where 119875dev-max is the power maximum for the test device and119875ref-max is the power maximum for the reference devices
213 Parabolic Concentrator The solar parabolic troughcollector is the most recognized technology due to its highdispatchability and low unit cost In parabolic trough concen-trators the parabolic shaped mirror focuses sunlight on thereceiver tube which is placed at the focal point of parabola[59] Reflectivity of the mirror incident angle tracking errorintercept factor as well as absorptivity of the receiver arethe factors which can affect the performance of the parabolictrough concentrator [60] Additionally Riffelmann et al [61]mentioned the image quality of the mirror slope error andcollector assembly as the factors which the optical efficiencyof a parabolic trough collector depends on
In order to enhance the concentration efficiency of theparabolic trough Omer and Infield [62] discussed the two-stage concentration of the parabolic trough collector Thisdesign provides an efficient concentration of the incidentsolar radiation without any frequent tracking system Theperformance of the parabolic trough collector depends onreceiver design and heat loss from the receiver [60 63ndash68]The heat loss can increase by different tools one of them isinserting porous inserts in the inner surface of the receiver
The porous inserts increase the heat transfer rate by(1) increasing the effective fluid thermal conductivity (2)enhancingmixing between the fluid and receiver wall and (3)lowering thermal resistance by developing a thinner hydrody-namic boundary layer [59] Figure 3 shows a schematic viewof a parabola
The concentration ratio of the Parabolic concentrator canbe obtained from (5) [69 70]
C =sin120601119877
120587 sin 120579120572
tan(120601119877
2) =
2119910119904
4119891=
119910119904
2119891
(5)
where 120579120572is half the acceptance angle 120601
119877is the rim angle and
119891 is focus length
214 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) Compoundparabolic concentrators (CPCs) are designed to efficientlycollect and concentrate distant light sources with someacceptance angle Figure 4 illustrates the configuration ofCPC
The geometrical concentration ratio and theoretical max-imum possible concentration ratio of the CPC are obtainablefrom (6) [71 72]
CR =119860119886
119860119903
CRmax3D =1
sin2 (12) 120579max
(6)
where 119860119886 119860119903 and 120579max are the aperture area receiver area
and maximum acceptance angle respectivelyCPCs can be in both 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional
configuration Suzuki and Kobayashirsquos [73] study on 2-DCPC is about the optimum acceptance angle of the concen-trator with the declination angle of plusmn235 on the celestialhemisphere for direct radiation and uniform irradiance fordiffuse radiation The results indicate that the optimum half-acceptance angle is 26 degrees irrespective of the change inthe diffuse radiation fraction It was also found that almostall over the Earth a common CPC is an optimum applicationfor many solar collecting systems
Senthilkumar et al [74] performed substantial researchwork in order to improve the performance of the two-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator (2D CPC)They found out that the three-dimensional compoundparabolic concentrator (3D CPC) is more efficient than the2D CPC because of the higher concentration ratio Yehezkelet al [75] analyzed the losses due to reflection propertiesand calculated the effect of these losses on concentrationratio They estimated reflection losses using an empiricallinear model to facilitate design and system optimizationby analytical methods without resorting to a ray-tracingprocedure
Khalifa and Al-Mutawalli [76] did an experimental studyon effects of two-axis sun tracking on thermal performanceof CPC in two different modes in the first a batch feeding
International Journal of Photoenergy 5
d2
120579120572
120579120572
fA
O
Z
120593R
yA
h
A998400
y
Figure 3 Schematic view of the parabola
Axis of CPC
Apeiture
AcceptanceAngle 120579accept
Parabola BParabola A
Truncated portionof parabola A
Truncated portionof parabola B
Focus ofparabola A
Focus ofparabola B
Receiver
Height
Axis ofparabola A
Axis ofparabola B
Figure 4 Cross section of a nontruncated CPC [132]
was used where no flow through the collector was allowedwhereas in the second different steady water flow rates wereusedThe results led us to the conclusion that the energy gainof aCPCcollector can be increased by using two-axis trackingsystems The best improvement was achieved when the flowrate was in the range of 25 to 45 kghr
Mallick et al [77] designed a novel nonimaging asym-metric compoundparabolic photovoltaic concentrator (ACP-PVC) with different numbers of PV strings connected inseries experimentally characterized under outdoor condi-tions both with and without concentrators which indicatedthat the use of an ACPPVC increased the maximum power
point by 62 when compared to a similar nonconcentratingPV panel
215 Dielectric Totally Internally Reflecting Concentrator(DTIRC) Dielectric totally internally reflecting concentrator(DTIRC) which was suggested by Ning et al [78] is oneof the most important nonimaging optical concentrators Inaddition to the solar application these lenses were proposedfor IR detection [79] and optical wireless communicationsystems [80 81]
As shown in Figure 5DITRCs consist of threemain partsa curved front surface a totally internally reflecting profileand an exit aperture [81]
The important factor for rays to reach the exit apertureis to be within the designed acceptance angle of the concen-trator When a set of rays hits the front curved surface atthe acceptance angle it is refracted and directed to the exitaperture Ning et al [82] discussed two-stage photovoltaicconcentrators with Fresnel lenses as primaries and dielec-tric totally internally reflecting nonimaging concentratorsas secondaries The results indicated that two-stage con-centrator suggests higher concentration and more uniformflux distribution on the photovoltaic cell than the pointfocusing Fresnel lens alone Muhammad-Sukki et al [83]described designing a dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (DTIRC) They used maximum concentrationmethod (MCM) which was outlined with the simulation tooptimize the design of the concentrator The results fromMATLAB simulations indicate that MCM offers a highergeometrical concentration gain with a slight increase in theconcentrator size
The advantages of DTIRC over compound parabolicconcentrator are higher efficiency higher concentration ratioflux tailoring and work without any needs of cooling fea-tures However DTIRC itself cannot efficiently pass all of
6 International Journal of Photoenergy
Angular rays
Acceptanceangle
Direct rays
Index matching gel
Index matching gel
ArcAngle
Photodetector
Optical filter
P1
P2P3
P3998400
Figure 5 Side view of a DTIRC [81]
Hyperboloid
Aperture
Receiver
Absorber ray
Escape ray120579
H
Z1
A1
A2
SZ2
I
x1 x2f1 f2
r1r2
Figure 6 2-D Hyperboloid concentrator [86]
the solar energy that it accepts into a lower index media[84] Muhammad-Sukki et al [85] present a study abouta mirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (MSDTIRC) which is a new type of DTIRCThey presented a method for calculating concentration gainof the mentioned system
216 Hyperboloid Concentrator Figure 6 shows two dimen-sional hyperboloid concentrators Incident rays on the aper-ture enter the hyperboloid concentrator and either reach thereceiver or reflect back out of the concentrator [86] Thiskind of concentrator is also called the elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator A 3-D figure of an elliptical hyperboloid con-centrator is showed in Figure 7
The advantage of this concentrator is that it is verycompact since only a truncated version of the concentratorneeds to be used Because of this factor it is mainly used as asecondary concentrator [87] Garcia-Botella et al [29] foundout that the one-sheet hyperbolic concentrator is an ideal 3D
asymmetric concentrator as its shape does not disturb theflow lines of an elliptical disk It also does not need a trackingsystemwhere two different acceptance angles transversal andlongitudinal direction are needed
Sellami et al [88] designed a 3-D concentrator and coinedthe Square elliptical hyperboloid (SEH) to be integrated ineither glazing windows or facades for photovoltaic applica-tion This configuration can collect both diffuse and directbeam They also found that optical efficiency depends on thesize of the SHE
It has been shown that the 3-D solar concentratoracquired from the hyperboloid has the ability of concentrat-ing all the entering rays [89] such as the trumpet concentratorwhich is composed of a revolution of hyperbolic type andwasconsidered as an ideal concentrator [90]
Chen et al [91] investigated a solar concentrator con-taining primary paraboloidal and secondary hyperboloidalmirrors by using the ray tracing method to obtain higherconcentration ratio The results indicated that such a methodcan increase the concentration of solar flux twice whenconcentration tracking errors exist
Saleh Ali et al [92] presented a study about designing astatic 3-D solar elliptical hyperboloid concentrator (EHC)
International Journal of Photoenergy 7
H
B
b
A
a
y1 y2
Figure 8 Geometrical parameters of an elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator [92]
They proposed some equation for designing hyperboloidconcentrators [92] based on Figure 8
The design of hyperboloid concentrators is based on thefollowing equations
1199092
1198862+
1199102
1198872minus
1199112
1198882= 1
1199101= [(
1199092
1198862) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119860 = (CR times (119886)2
)05
1199102= [(
1199092
1198872) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119861 = (CR times (119887)2
)05
CR =
119860119901
119860119903
(7)
217 RR XX XR RX and RXI These configurations rep-resent the new concentrators which achieved the theoreticalmaximum acceptance angle concentration and it was con-cluded that they may be useful for high concentration cells[93]
In these designs ldquoRrdquo denotes refraction ldquoXrdquo denotesreflection and ldquoIrdquo denotes internal reflection [94]The designmethods of all these concentrators are basically similar toeach other RXI designs can almost describe other modelsas shown in Figure 9 rays that impinge on the concentratoraperture within the acceptance angle are directed to thereceiver by means of one refraction one reflection and onetotal internal reflection [95]
Minano et al [96] investigated the performance of RXand the results indicated that when the angular spread of theinput bundle is small the performance of the rotational RXis acceptable An analysis of the RX concentrator performedby Benitez and Minano [97] stated that when the fieldof view is small (less than 6 degrees full angle) even forconcentrations up to 95 of the theoretical maximum its
imaging performance is similar (in MTF terms) to that ofnormal incidence of an11989137planoconvex spherical lenswithoptimum defocusing This image capability is suitable forreceivers Minano et al [98] explored a research for RX andRXI concentrators Their results had shown that when theacceptance angle of the concentrator is less than 5 degrees (fora source at infinity) its performance in 3D is very good Alsothe RX shown in their analysis had been designed for a finitesource and the RXI for a source at infinity
3 Tables of Properties
Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the differ-ent types of solar concentrators
Based on Peterina et alrsquos [99] study Table 4 representsdifferent kinds of CPV modules and their typical size andpower
Swanson [22] performed a review study on the character-istics of concentrated photovoltaic systemswhich approachedthe economical aspects of the systems Table 5 summarizedSwansonrsquos study which represents different CPV with theircharacteristics
For the cost comparison of different CPV systems Table 6which is obtained from Whitfield et al [49] presents someCPV systems with their cost
4 Appropriate Cooling Systems
Cooling of photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumina-tion is one of the major problems during designing themThe photovoltaic cell efficiency decreases with increasingtemperature or due to nonuniform temperature [100ndash109]Also cell degradation will occur if the temperature exceedscertain limits [102]
The thermal properties of the coolant are another impor-tant factor for choosing the right cooling system Thermalproperties of air make it less efficient compared to waterwhich results in more parasitic power [110] Also the coolantor working fluid should be compatible which means that itshould not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and thereis no chemical reaction between the working fluid and theenvelope or wick structure that liberates noncondensable gas(NCG) [111]
Heat pipes are popular and interesting technology withthe aim of cooling the PV modules especially under concen-tration A heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of aworking fluid and a wick structure [111] The working fluidtransfers the additional and the rejected heat by condensationprocesses Heat pipes are usually made of aluminum orcopper Table 7 shows the compatible working fluid forcopper and aluminum based on refs [111ndash113]
Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [114] made reports on aparabola-trough that uses heat pipes for cooling Each cell ismounted vertically on the end of a thermosyphon which ismade of a flattened copper pipe with a finned condenser areaThe cell temperature does not go beyond 46∘C on sunny dayswith the concentration ratio of 20 suns the reports show that
8 International Journal of Photoenergy
Back mirror Heat sink
CellFront mirror
Concentrator
Figure 9 RXI concentrator cross-section [93]
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
concentrators they have less problems of heat dissipation[25] and sheets are inexpensive and are suitable architecturalcomponents [54] Developing QDCs was restricted by thestringent requirements of the luminescent dyes such as highquantumefficiency suitable absorption spectra and red shiftsand illumination stability [55 56] The problems of organicdyes can settle by replacing them with QDs which have theadvantages of less degradation and high luminescence [57]Schuler et al [58] proposed that quantum dot containingnanocomposite coatings might be an alternative for theproduction of planar quantum dot solar concentrators Theconcentration ratios of QDCs are completely discussed byGallagher et al [25] who determined concentration ratiosof different types by comparative analysis A maximumcomparative concentrating factor (MCCF)was determined atspecific solar intensities using (4)
MCCF =119875dev-max119875max-ref
(4)
where 119875dev-max is the power maximum for the test device and119875ref-max is the power maximum for the reference devices
213 Parabolic Concentrator The solar parabolic troughcollector is the most recognized technology due to its highdispatchability and low unit cost In parabolic trough concen-trators the parabolic shaped mirror focuses sunlight on thereceiver tube which is placed at the focal point of parabola[59] Reflectivity of the mirror incident angle tracking errorintercept factor as well as absorptivity of the receiver arethe factors which can affect the performance of the parabolictrough concentrator [60] Additionally Riffelmann et al [61]mentioned the image quality of the mirror slope error andcollector assembly as the factors which the optical efficiencyof a parabolic trough collector depends on
In order to enhance the concentration efficiency of theparabolic trough Omer and Infield [62] discussed the two-stage concentration of the parabolic trough collector Thisdesign provides an efficient concentration of the incidentsolar radiation without any frequent tracking system Theperformance of the parabolic trough collector depends onreceiver design and heat loss from the receiver [60 63ndash68]The heat loss can increase by different tools one of them isinserting porous inserts in the inner surface of the receiver
The porous inserts increase the heat transfer rate by(1) increasing the effective fluid thermal conductivity (2)enhancingmixing between the fluid and receiver wall and (3)lowering thermal resistance by developing a thinner hydrody-namic boundary layer [59] Figure 3 shows a schematic viewof a parabola
The concentration ratio of the Parabolic concentrator canbe obtained from (5) [69 70]
C =sin120601119877
120587 sin 120579120572
tan(120601119877
2) =
2119910119904
4119891=
119910119904
2119891
(5)
where 120579120572is half the acceptance angle 120601
119877is the rim angle and
119891 is focus length
214 Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CPC) Compoundparabolic concentrators (CPCs) are designed to efficientlycollect and concentrate distant light sources with someacceptance angle Figure 4 illustrates the configuration ofCPC
The geometrical concentration ratio and theoretical max-imum possible concentration ratio of the CPC are obtainablefrom (6) [71 72]
CR =119860119886
119860119903
CRmax3D =1
sin2 (12) 120579max
(6)
where 119860119886 119860119903 and 120579max are the aperture area receiver area
and maximum acceptance angle respectivelyCPCs can be in both 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional
configuration Suzuki and Kobayashirsquos [73] study on 2-DCPC is about the optimum acceptance angle of the concen-trator with the declination angle of plusmn235 on the celestialhemisphere for direct radiation and uniform irradiance fordiffuse radiation The results indicate that the optimum half-acceptance angle is 26 degrees irrespective of the change inthe diffuse radiation fraction It was also found that almostall over the Earth a common CPC is an optimum applicationfor many solar collecting systems
Senthilkumar et al [74] performed substantial researchwork in order to improve the performance of the two-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator (2D CPC)They found out that the three-dimensional compoundparabolic concentrator (3D CPC) is more efficient than the2D CPC because of the higher concentration ratio Yehezkelet al [75] analyzed the losses due to reflection propertiesand calculated the effect of these losses on concentrationratio They estimated reflection losses using an empiricallinear model to facilitate design and system optimizationby analytical methods without resorting to a ray-tracingprocedure
Khalifa and Al-Mutawalli [76] did an experimental studyon effects of two-axis sun tracking on thermal performanceof CPC in two different modes in the first a batch feeding
International Journal of Photoenergy 5
d2
120579120572
120579120572
fA
O
Z
120593R
yA
h
A998400
y
Figure 3 Schematic view of the parabola
Axis of CPC
Apeiture
AcceptanceAngle 120579accept
Parabola BParabola A
Truncated portionof parabola A
Truncated portionof parabola B
Focus ofparabola A
Focus ofparabola B
Receiver
Height
Axis ofparabola A
Axis ofparabola B
Figure 4 Cross section of a nontruncated CPC [132]
was used where no flow through the collector was allowedwhereas in the second different steady water flow rates wereusedThe results led us to the conclusion that the energy gainof aCPCcollector can be increased by using two-axis trackingsystems The best improvement was achieved when the flowrate was in the range of 25 to 45 kghr
Mallick et al [77] designed a novel nonimaging asym-metric compoundparabolic photovoltaic concentrator (ACP-PVC) with different numbers of PV strings connected inseries experimentally characterized under outdoor condi-tions both with and without concentrators which indicatedthat the use of an ACPPVC increased the maximum power
point by 62 when compared to a similar nonconcentratingPV panel
215 Dielectric Totally Internally Reflecting Concentrator(DTIRC) Dielectric totally internally reflecting concentrator(DTIRC) which was suggested by Ning et al [78] is oneof the most important nonimaging optical concentrators Inaddition to the solar application these lenses were proposedfor IR detection [79] and optical wireless communicationsystems [80 81]
As shown in Figure 5DITRCs consist of threemain partsa curved front surface a totally internally reflecting profileand an exit aperture [81]
The important factor for rays to reach the exit apertureis to be within the designed acceptance angle of the concen-trator When a set of rays hits the front curved surface atthe acceptance angle it is refracted and directed to the exitaperture Ning et al [82] discussed two-stage photovoltaicconcentrators with Fresnel lenses as primaries and dielec-tric totally internally reflecting nonimaging concentratorsas secondaries The results indicated that two-stage con-centrator suggests higher concentration and more uniformflux distribution on the photovoltaic cell than the pointfocusing Fresnel lens alone Muhammad-Sukki et al [83]described designing a dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (DTIRC) They used maximum concentrationmethod (MCM) which was outlined with the simulation tooptimize the design of the concentrator The results fromMATLAB simulations indicate that MCM offers a highergeometrical concentration gain with a slight increase in theconcentrator size
The advantages of DTIRC over compound parabolicconcentrator are higher efficiency higher concentration ratioflux tailoring and work without any needs of cooling fea-tures However DTIRC itself cannot efficiently pass all of
6 International Journal of Photoenergy
Angular rays
Acceptanceangle
Direct rays
Index matching gel
Index matching gel
ArcAngle
Photodetector
Optical filter
P1
P2P3
P3998400
Figure 5 Side view of a DTIRC [81]
Hyperboloid
Aperture
Receiver
Absorber ray
Escape ray120579
H
Z1
A1
A2
SZ2
I
x1 x2f1 f2
r1r2
Figure 6 2-D Hyperboloid concentrator [86]
the solar energy that it accepts into a lower index media[84] Muhammad-Sukki et al [85] present a study abouta mirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (MSDTIRC) which is a new type of DTIRCThey presented a method for calculating concentration gainof the mentioned system
216 Hyperboloid Concentrator Figure 6 shows two dimen-sional hyperboloid concentrators Incident rays on the aper-ture enter the hyperboloid concentrator and either reach thereceiver or reflect back out of the concentrator [86] Thiskind of concentrator is also called the elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator A 3-D figure of an elliptical hyperboloid con-centrator is showed in Figure 7
The advantage of this concentrator is that it is verycompact since only a truncated version of the concentratorneeds to be used Because of this factor it is mainly used as asecondary concentrator [87] Garcia-Botella et al [29] foundout that the one-sheet hyperbolic concentrator is an ideal 3D
asymmetric concentrator as its shape does not disturb theflow lines of an elliptical disk It also does not need a trackingsystemwhere two different acceptance angles transversal andlongitudinal direction are needed
Sellami et al [88] designed a 3-D concentrator and coinedthe Square elliptical hyperboloid (SEH) to be integrated ineither glazing windows or facades for photovoltaic applica-tion This configuration can collect both diffuse and directbeam They also found that optical efficiency depends on thesize of the SHE
It has been shown that the 3-D solar concentratoracquired from the hyperboloid has the ability of concentrat-ing all the entering rays [89] such as the trumpet concentratorwhich is composed of a revolution of hyperbolic type andwasconsidered as an ideal concentrator [90]
Chen et al [91] investigated a solar concentrator con-taining primary paraboloidal and secondary hyperboloidalmirrors by using the ray tracing method to obtain higherconcentration ratio The results indicated that such a methodcan increase the concentration of solar flux twice whenconcentration tracking errors exist
Saleh Ali et al [92] presented a study about designing astatic 3-D solar elliptical hyperboloid concentrator (EHC)
International Journal of Photoenergy 7
H
B
b
A
a
y1 y2
Figure 8 Geometrical parameters of an elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator [92]
They proposed some equation for designing hyperboloidconcentrators [92] based on Figure 8
The design of hyperboloid concentrators is based on thefollowing equations
1199092
1198862+
1199102
1198872minus
1199112
1198882= 1
1199101= [(
1199092
1198862) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119860 = (CR times (119886)2
)05
1199102= [(
1199092
1198872) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119861 = (CR times (119887)2
)05
CR =
119860119901
119860119903
(7)
217 RR XX XR RX and RXI These configurations rep-resent the new concentrators which achieved the theoreticalmaximum acceptance angle concentration and it was con-cluded that they may be useful for high concentration cells[93]
In these designs ldquoRrdquo denotes refraction ldquoXrdquo denotesreflection and ldquoIrdquo denotes internal reflection [94]The designmethods of all these concentrators are basically similar toeach other RXI designs can almost describe other modelsas shown in Figure 9 rays that impinge on the concentratoraperture within the acceptance angle are directed to thereceiver by means of one refraction one reflection and onetotal internal reflection [95]
Minano et al [96] investigated the performance of RXand the results indicated that when the angular spread of theinput bundle is small the performance of the rotational RXis acceptable An analysis of the RX concentrator performedby Benitez and Minano [97] stated that when the fieldof view is small (less than 6 degrees full angle) even forconcentrations up to 95 of the theoretical maximum its
imaging performance is similar (in MTF terms) to that ofnormal incidence of an11989137planoconvex spherical lenswithoptimum defocusing This image capability is suitable forreceivers Minano et al [98] explored a research for RX andRXI concentrators Their results had shown that when theacceptance angle of the concentrator is less than 5 degrees (fora source at infinity) its performance in 3D is very good Alsothe RX shown in their analysis had been designed for a finitesource and the RXI for a source at infinity
3 Tables of Properties
Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the differ-ent types of solar concentrators
Based on Peterina et alrsquos [99] study Table 4 representsdifferent kinds of CPV modules and their typical size andpower
Swanson [22] performed a review study on the character-istics of concentrated photovoltaic systemswhich approachedthe economical aspects of the systems Table 5 summarizedSwansonrsquos study which represents different CPV with theircharacteristics
For the cost comparison of different CPV systems Table 6which is obtained from Whitfield et al [49] presents someCPV systems with their cost
4 Appropriate Cooling Systems
Cooling of photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumina-tion is one of the major problems during designing themThe photovoltaic cell efficiency decreases with increasingtemperature or due to nonuniform temperature [100ndash109]Also cell degradation will occur if the temperature exceedscertain limits [102]
The thermal properties of the coolant are another impor-tant factor for choosing the right cooling system Thermalproperties of air make it less efficient compared to waterwhich results in more parasitic power [110] Also the coolantor working fluid should be compatible which means that itshould not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and thereis no chemical reaction between the working fluid and theenvelope or wick structure that liberates noncondensable gas(NCG) [111]
Heat pipes are popular and interesting technology withthe aim of cooling the PV modules especially under concen-tration A heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of aworking fluid and a wick structure [111] The working fluidtransfers the additional and the rejected heat by condensationprocesses Heat pipes are usually made of aluminum orcopper Table 7 shows the compatible working fluid forcopper and aluminum based on refs [111ndash113]
Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [114] made reports on aparabola-trough that uses heat pipes for cooling Each cell ismounted vertically on the end of a thermosyphon which ismade of a flattened copper pipe with a finned condenser areaThe cell temperature does not go beyond 46∘C on sunny dayswith the concentration ratio of 20 suns the reports show that
8 International Journal of Photoenergy
Back mirror Heat sink
CellFront mirror
Concentrator
Figure 9 RXI concentrator cross-section [93]
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
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[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
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[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
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[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
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[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
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[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
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[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
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14 International Journal of Photoenergy
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[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
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[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
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[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
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[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
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[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
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[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
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[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
Figure 4 Cross section of a nontruncated CPC [132]
was used where no flow through the collector was allowedwhereas in the second different steady water flow rates wereusedThe results led us to the conclusion that the energy gainof aCPCcollector can be increased by using two-axis trackingsystems The best improvement was achieved when the flowrate was in the range of 25 to 45 kghr
Mallick et al [77] designed a novel nonimaging asym-metric compoundparabolic photovoltaic concentrator (ACP-PVC) with different numbers of PV strings connected inseries experimentally characterized under outdoor condi-tions both with and without concentrators which indicatedthat the use of an ACPPVC increased the maximum power
point by 62 when compared to a similar nonconcentratingPV panel
215 Dielectric Totally Internally Reflecting Concentrator(DTIRC) Dielectric totally internally reflecting concentrator(DTIRC) which was suggested by Ning et al [78] is oneof the most important nonimaging optical concentrators Inaddition to the solar application these lenses were proposedfor IR detection [79] and optical wireless communicationsystems [80 81]
As shown in Figure 5DITRCs consist of threemain partsa curved front surface a totally internally reflecting profileand an exit aperture [81]
The important factor for rays to reach the exit apertureis to be within the designed acceptance angle of the concen-trator When a set of rays hits the front curved surface atthe acceptance angle it is refracted and directed to the exitaperture Ning et al [82] discussed two-stage photovoltaicconcentrators with Fresnel lenses as primaries and dielec-tric totally internally reflecting nonimaging concentratorsas secondaries The results indicated that two-stage con-centrator suggests higher concentration and more uniformflux distribution on the photovoltaic cell than the pointfocusing Fresnel lens alone Muhammad-Sukki et al [83]described designing a dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (DTIRC) They used maximum concentrationmethod (MCM) which was outlined with the simulation tooptimize the design of the concentrator The results fromMATLAB simulations indicate that MCM offers a highergeometrical concentration gain with a slight increase in theconcentrator size
The advantages of DTIRC over compound parabolicconcentrator are higher efficiency higher concentration ratioflux tailoring and work without any needs of cooling fea-tures However DTIRC itself cannot efficiently pass all of
6 International Journal of Photoenergy
Angular rays
Acceptanceangle
Direct rays
Index matching gel
Index matching gel
ArcAngle
Photodetector
Optical filter
P1
P2P3
P3998400
Figure 5 Side view of a DTIRC [81]
Hyperboloid
Aperture
Receiver
Absorber ray
Escape ray120579
H
Z1
A1
A2
SZ2
I
x1 x2f1 f2
r1r2
Figure 6 2-D Hyperboloid concentrator [86]
the solar energy that it accepts into a lower index media[84] Muhammad-Sukki et al [85] present a study abouta mirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (MSDTIRC) which is a new type of DTIRCThey presented a method for calculating concentration gainof the mentioned system
216 Hyperboloid Concentrator Figure 6 shows two dimen-sional hyperboloid concentrators Incident rays on the aper-ture enter the hyperboloid concentrator and either reach thereceiver or reflect back out of the concentrator [86] Thiskind of concentrator is also called the elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator A 3-D figure of an elliptical hyperboloid con-centrator is showed in Figure 7
The advantage of this concentrator is that it is verycompact since only a truncated version of the concentratorneeds to be used Because of this factor it is mainly used as asecondary concentrator [87] Garcia-Botella et al [29] foundout that the one-sheet hyperbolic concentrator is an ideal 3D
asymmetric concentrator as its shape does not disturb theflow lines of an elliptical disk It also does not need a trackingsystemwhere two different acceptance angles transversal andlongitudinal direction are needed
Sellami et al [88] designed a 3-D concentrator and coinedthe Square elliptical hyperboloid (SEH) to be integrated ineither glazing windows or facades for photovoltaic applica-tion This configuration can collect both diffuse and directbeam They also found that optical efficiency depends on thesize of the SHE
It has been shown that the 3-D solar concentratoracquired from the hyperboloid has the ability of concentrat-ing all the entering rays [89] such as the trumpet concentratorwhich is composed of a revolution of hyperbolic type andwasconsidered as an ideal concentrator [90]
Chen et al [91] investigated a solar concentrator con-taining primary paraboloidal and secondary hyperboloidalmirrors by using the ray tracing method to obtain higherconcentration ratio The results indicated that such a methodcan increase the concentration of solar flux twice whenconcentration tracking errors exist
Saleh Ali et al [92] presented a study about designing astatic 3-D solar elliptical hyperboloid concentrator (EHC)
International Journal of Photoenergy 7
H
B
b
A
a
y1 y2
Figure 8 Geometrical parameters of an elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator [92]
They proposed some equation for designing hyperboloidconcentrators [92] based on Figure 8
The design of hyperboloid concentrators is based on thefollowing equations
1199092
1198862+
1199102
1198872minus
1199112
1198882= 1
1199101= [(
1199092
1198862) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119860 = (CR times (119886)2
)05
1199102= [(
1199092
1198872) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119861 = (CR times (119887)2
)05
CR =
119860119901
119860119903
(7)
217 RR XX XR RX and RXI These configurations rep-resent the new concentrators which achieved the theoreticalmaximum acceptance angle concentration and it was con-cluded that they may be useful for high concentration cells[93]
In these designs ldquoRrdquo denotes refraction ldquoXrdquo denotesreflection and ldquoIrdquo denotes internal reflection [94]The designmethods of all these concentrators are basically similar toeach other RXI designs can almost describe other modelsas shown in Figure 9 rays that impinge on the concentratoraperture within the acceptance angle are directed to thereceiver by means of one refraction one reflection and onetotal internal reflection [95]
Minano et al [96] investigated the performance of RXand the results indicated that when the angular spread of theinput bundle is small the performance of the rotational RXis acceptable An analysis of the RX concentrator performedby Benitez and Minano [97] stated that when the fieldof view is small (less than 6 degrees full angle) even forconcentrations up to 95 of the theoretical maximum its
imaging performance is similar (in MTF terms) to that ofnormal incidence of an11989137planoconvex spherical lenswithoptimum defocusing This image capability is suitable forreceivers Minano et al [98] explored a research for RX andRXI concentrators Their results had shown that when theacceptance angle of the concentrator is less than 5 degrees (fora source at infinity) its performance in 3D is very good Alsothe RX shown in their analysis had been designed for a finitesource and the RXI for a source at infinity
3 Tables of Properties
Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the differ-ent types of solar concentrators
Based on Peterina et alrsquos [99] study Table 4 representsdifferent kinds of CPV modules and their typical size andpower
Swanson [22] performed a review study on the character-istics of concentrated photovoltaic systemswhich approachedthe economical aspects of the systems Table 5 summarizedSwansonrsquos study which represents different CPV with theircharacteristics
For the cost comparison of different CPV systems Table 6which is obtained from Whitfield et al [49] presents someCPV systems with their cost
4 Appropriate Cooling Systems
Cooling of photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumina-tion is one of the major problems during designing themThe photovoltaic cell efficiency decreases with increasingtemperature or due to nonuniform temperature [100ndash109]Also cell degradation will occur if the temperature exceedscertain limits [102]
The thermal properties of the coolant are another impor-tant factor for choosing the right cooling system Thermalproperties of air make it less efficient compared to waterwhich results in more parasitic power [110] Also the coolantor working fluid should be compatible which means that itshould not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and thereis no chemical reaction between the working fluid and theenvelope or wick structure that liberates noncondensable gas(NCG) [111]
Heat pipes are popular and interesting technology withthe aim of cooling the PV modules especially under concen-tration A heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of aworking fluid and a wick structure [111] The working fluidtransfers the additional and the rejected heat by condensationprocesses Heat pipes are usually made of aluminum orcopper Table 7 shows the compatible working fluid forcopper and aluminum based on refs [111ndash113]
Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [114] made reports on aparabola-trough that uses heat pipes for cooling Each cell ismounted vertically on the end of a thermosyphon which ismade of a flattened copper pipe with a finned condenser areaThe cell temperature does not go beyond 46∘C on sunny dayswith the concentration ratio of 20 suns the reports show that
8 International Journal of Photoenergy
Back mirror Heat sink
CellFront mirror
Concentrator
Figure 9 RXI concentrator cross-section [93]
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
the solar energy that it accepts into a lower index media[84] Muhammad-Sukki et al [85] present a study abouta mirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator (MSDTIRC) which is a new type of DTIRCThey presented a method for calculating concentration gainof the mentioned system
216 Hyperboloid Concentrator Figure 6 shows two dimen-sional hyperboloid concentrators Incident rays on the aper-ture enter the hyperboloid concentrator and either reach thereceiver or reflect back out of the concentrator [86] Thiskind of concentrator is also called the elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator A 3-D figure of an elliptical hyperboloid con-centrator is showed in Figure 7
The advantage of this concentrator is that it is verycompact since only a truncated version of the concentratorneeds to be used Because of this factor it is mainly used as asecondary concentrator [87] Garcia-Botella et al [29] foundout that the one-sheet hyperbolic concentrator is an ideal 3D
asymmetric concentrator as its shape does not disturb theflow lines of an elliptical disk It also does not need a trackingsystemwhere two different acceptance angles transversal andlongitudinal direction are needed
Sellami et al [88] designed a 3-D concentrator and coinedthe Square elliptical hyperboloid (SEH) to be integrated ineither glazing windows or facades for photovoltaic applica-tion This configuration can collect both diffuse and directbeam They also found that optical efficiency depends on thesize of the SHE
It has been shown that the 3-D solar concentratoracquired from the hyperboloid has the ability of concentrat-ing all the entering rays [89] such as the trumpet concentratorwhich is composed of a revolution of hyperbolic type andwasconsidered as an ideal concentrator [90]
Chen et al [91] investigated a solar concentrator con-taining primary paraboloidal and secondary hyperboloidalmirrors by using the ray tracing method to obtain higherconcentration ratio The results indicated that such a methodcan increase the concentration of solar flux twice whenconcentration tracking errors exist
Saleh Ali et al [92] presented a study about designing astatic 3-D solar elliptical hyperboloid concentrator (EHC)
International Journal of Photoenergy 7
H
B
b
A
a
y1 y2
Figure 8 Geometrical parameters of an elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator [92]
They proposed some equation for designing hyperboloidconcentrators [92] based on Figure 8
The design of hyperboloid concentrators is based on thefollowing equations
1199092
1198862+
1199102
1198872minus
1199112
1198882= 1
1199101= [(
1199092
1198862) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119860 = (CR times (119886)2
)05
1199102= [(
1199092
1198872) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119861 = (CR times (119887)2
)05
CR =
119860119901
119860119903
(7)
217 RR XX XR RX and RXI These configurations rep-resent the new concentrators which achieved the theoreticalmaximum acceptance angle concentration and it was con-cluded that they may be useful for high concentration cells[93]
In these designs ldquoRrdquo denotes refraction ldquoXrdquo denotesreflection and ldquoIrdquo denotes internal reflection [94]The designmethods of all these concentrators are basically similar toeach other RXI designs can almost describe other modelsas shown in Figure 9 rays that impinge on the concentratoraperture within the acceptance angle are directed to thereceiver by means of one refraction one reflection and onetotal internal reflection [95]
Minano et al [96] investigated the performance of RXand the results indicated that when the angular spread of theinput bundle is small the performance of the rotational RXis acceptable An analysis of the RX concentrator performedby Benitez and Minano [97] stated that when the fieldof view is small (less than 6 degrees full angle) even forconcentrations up to 95 of the theoretical maximum its
imaging performance is similar (in MTF terms) to that ofnormal incidence of an11989137planoconvex spherical lenswithoptimum defocusing This image capability is suitable forreceivers Minano et al [98] explored a research for RX andRXI concentrators Their results had shown that when theacceptance angle of the concentrator is less than 5 degrees (fora source at infinity) its performance in 3D is very good Alsothe RX shown in their analysis had been designed for a finitesource and the RXI for a source at infinity
3 Tables of Properties
Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the differ-ent types of solar concentrators
Based on Peterina et alrsquos [99] study Table 4 representsdifferent kinds of CPV modules and their typical size andpower
Swanson [22] performed a review study on the character-istics of concentrated photovoltaic systemswhich approachedthe economical aspects of the systems Table 5 summarizedSwansonrsquos study which represents different CPV with theircharacteristics
For the cost comparison of different CPV systems Table 6which is obtained from Whitfield et al [49] presents someCPV systems with their cost
4 Appropriate Cooling Systems
Cooling of photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumina-tion is one of the major problems during designing themThe photovoltaic cell efficiency decreases with increasingtemperature or due to nonuniform temperature [100ndash109]Also cell degradation will occur if the temperature exceedscertain limits [102]
The thermal properties of the coolant are another impor-tant factor for choosing the right cooling system Thermalproperties of air make it less efficient compared to waterwhich results in more parasitic power [110] Also the coolantor working fluid should be compatible which means that itshould not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and thereis no chemical reaction between the working fluid and theenvelope or wick structure that liberates noncondensable gas(NCG) [111]
Heat pipes are popular and interesting technology withthe aim of cooling the PV modules especially under concen-tration A heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of aworking fluid and a wick structure [111] The working fluidtransfers the additional and the rejected heat by condensationprocesses Heat pipes are usually made of aluminum orcopper Table 7 shows the compatible working fluid forcopper and aluminum based on refs [111ndash113]
Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [114] made reports on aparabola-trough that uses heat pipes for cooling Each cell ismounted vertically on the end of a thermosyphon which ismade of a flattened copper pipe with a finned condenser areaThe cell temperature does not go beyond 46∘C on sunny dayswith the concentration ratio of 20 suns the reports show that
8 International Journal of Photoenergy
Back mirror Heat sink
CellFront mirror
Concentrator
Figure 9 RXI concentrator cross-section [93]
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
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[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
Figure 8 Geometrical parameters of an elliptical hyperboloidconcentrator [92]
They proposed some equation for designing hyperboloidconcentrators [92] based on Figure 8
The design of hyperboloid concentrators is based on thefollowing equations
1199092
1198862+
1199102
1198872minus
1199112
1198882= 1
1199101= [(
1199092
1198862) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119860 = (CR times (119886)2
)05
1199102= [(
1199092
1198872) minus 1 times 119867
2
times (CR minus 1)]
05
119861 = (CR times (119887)2
)05
CR =
119860119901
119860119903
(7)
217 RR XX XR RX and RXI These configurations rep-resent the new concentrators which achieved the theoreticalmaximum acceptance angle concentration and it was con-cluded that they may be useful for high concentration cells[93]
In these designs ldquoRrdquo denotes refraction ldquoXrdquo denotesreflection and ldquoIrdquo denotes internal reflection [94]The designmethods of all these concentrators are basically similar toeach other RXI designs can almost describe other modelsas shown in Figure 9 rays that impinge on the concentratoraperture within the acceptance angle are directed to thereceiver by means of one refraction one reflection and onetotal internal reflection [95]
Minano et al [96] investigated the performance of RXand the results indicated that when the angular spread of theinput bundle is small the performance of the rotational RXis acceptable An analysis of the RX concentrator performedby Benitez and Minano [97] stated that when the fieldof view is small (less than 6 degrees full angle) even forconcentrations up to 95 of the theoretical maximum its
imaging performance is similar (in MTF terms) to that ofnormal incidence of an11989137planoconvex spherical lenswithoptimum defocusing This image capability is suitable forreceivers Minano et al [98] explored a research for RX andRXI concentrators Their results had shown that when theacceptance angle of the concentrator is less than 5 degrees (fora source at infinity) its performance in 3D is very good Alsothe RX shown in their analysis had been designed for a finitesource and the RXI for a source at infinity
3 Tables of Properties
Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the differ-ent types of solar concentrators
Based on Peterina et alrsquos [99] study Table 4 representsdifferent kinds of CPV modules and their typical size andpower
Swanson [22] performed a review study on the character-istics of concentrated photovoltaic systemswhich approachedthe economical aspects of the systems Table 5 summarizedSwansonrsquos study which represents different CPV with theircharacteristics
For the cost comparison of different CPV systems Table 6which is obtained from Whitfield et al [49] presents someCPV systems with their cost
4 Appropriate Cooling Systems
Cooling of photovoltaic cells under concentrated illumina-tion is one of the major problems during designing themThe photovoltaic cell efficiency decreases with increasingtemperature or due to nonuniform temperature [100ndash109]Also cell degradation will occur if the temperature exceedscertain limits [102]
The thermal properties of the coolant are another impor-tant factor for choosing the right cooling system Thermalproperties of air make it less efficient compared to waterwhich results in more parasitic power [110] Also the coolantor working fluid should be compatible which means that itshould not attack or corrode the envelope or wick and thereis no chemical reaction between the working fluid and theenvelope or wick structure that liberates noncondensable gas(NCG) [111]
Heat pipes are popular and interesting technology withthe aim of cooling the PV modules especially under concen-tration A heat pipe is a vacuum tight device consisting of aworking fluid and a wick structure [111] The working fluidtransfers the additional and the rejected heat by condensationprocesses Heat pipes are usually made of aluminum orcopper Table 7 shows the compatible working fluid forcopper and aluminum based on refs [111ndash113]
Akbarzadeh and Wadowski [114] made reports on aparabola-trough that uses heat pipes for cooling Each cell ismounted vertically on the end of a thermosyphon which ismade of a flattened copper pipe with a finned condenser areaThe cell temperature does not go beyond 46∘C on sunny dayswith the concentration ratio of 20 suns the reports show that
8 International Journal of Photoenergy
Back mirror Heat sink
CellFront mirror
Concentrator
Figure 9 RXI concentrator cross-section [93]
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
Table 3 Advantages and disadvantages of solar concentrators
Type ofconcentrator Advantages Reference Disadvantages Reference
Fresnel lens(i) Small volume(ii) Light weight(iii) Mass production
[30]
(i) Imperfection on the edges of the facetscausing the rays to be improperly focused atthe receiver(ii) Possibility of lost light due to incidence onthe draft facet(iii) Luminance is necessarily reduced in orderto minimize the upper disadvantages
[133 134]
Quantum dotconcentrator
(i) Nontracking concentrator(ii) Have less problems of heat dissipation(iii) Sheets are inexpensive and are suitablearchitectural components
[25 54] Developing QDCs was restricted by stringentrequirements of the luminescent dyes [55 56]
Parabolic trough Make efficient use of direct solar radiation [135](i) Use only direct radiation(ii) high cost(iii) low optical and quantum efficiencies
[135]
Compoundparabolicconcentrator
Most of radiation within the acceptance anglecan transmit trough the output aperture intoreceivers
[136] Needs good tracking system in order to getmaximum efficiency [137]
(i) Higher efficiency and concentration ratiothan CPC(ii) Work without any needs of cooling features
[84] Cannot efficiently pass all of the solar energythat it accepts into a lower index media [84]
Hyperboloidconcentrator Very compact [87] Need to introduce lens at the entrance aperture
to work effectively [87]
RR XX XR RXand RXI
(i) Achieving the theoretical maximumacceptance angle concentration(ii) High concentration(iii) Lighter weight(iv) Less expensive tracking system
[93 138] The size of the cell must be kept to minimum toreduce shadowing effect [138]
the temperature will pass 84∘C without fluid in the coolingsystem
Horne presents a cooling system for a paraboloidal dishwhich focuses the light onto cells [115] Water is sent to thereceiver by a central pipe It then flows behind the cells Byapplying this method not only does the water cool the cellsbut it also acts as a filter by absorbing a significant amountof UV radiation that would otherwise reach the cells Russell
patented a heat pipe cooling system for linear Fresnel lensesin which each of them focuses the light onto a string of cellsplaced along the length of a heat pipe of circular cross-sectionthe panel is formed by several pipes mounted next to eachother [116] (Figure 10)
Thermal energy is extracted from the heat pipe by aninternal coolant circuit where inlet and outlet are on the samepipe end ensuring a uniform temperature along the pipe
International Journal of Photoenergy 9
Table 4 Description of CPV modules
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
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[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
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[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
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[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
CPV Type Optics Cell type C Ratio Cooling Tracking Size Power
Point focus Fresnel SiliconIII V 50 lt 119909 lt 500 Passive Two axis 215m2 25 kW
Large area pointfocus
Parabolic dish centraltower
SiliconIII V 150 lt 119909 lt 500 Active Two axis 14m diameter 135m2 24 kW
Linear system Linear lens parabolictrough
SiliconIII V
15 lt 119909 lt 60
60 lt 119909 lt 300Passive One axis on
parabolic84 meter long and250m2 aperture 34 kW
Static systems Non imaging device Silicon 15 lt 119909 lt 10 Passive No tracking mdash mdash
Mini point focus Small lens RXI devicesmall parabolic
SiliconIII V 300 lt 119909 lt 1000 Passive Two axis 2m2 200W
Solar cells
Heat pipe
Coolant in
Coolant out
Cross section Internal wick
Vapour
Liquid
Figure 10 Heat pipe based cooling system [116]
Chenlo and Cid [106] described a linear Fresnel lens cooledbywater flow through a galvanized steel pipeThe cells are softsoldered to a copper-aluminum-copper sandwich which isin turn soldered to the rectangular pipe which presents goodelectrical and thermal models for uniform and nonuniformcell illumination
Du et al [117] proposed an experimental analysis ofa water cooled concentrated photovoltaic system with theconcentration ratio of 85 The water cooler was composedof an aluminum plate with two pipes which were attached atthe back of the solar module They showed that increasingthe flow rate of water had a relation with increasing theefficiency of the module and CPV systems performed betterwith cooling systems
Two different cooling systems were compared by Farahat[118] for the aim of cooling high concentration photovoltaicsystemsWater cooling systems andheat pipe techniqueswerecompared and recommended the heat pipe coolingmethod asthe best method for HCPV
Geng et al [119] performed both numerical and exper-imental studies on cooling the high concentration photo-voltaic by applying oscillating heat pipes as the coolingsystem Their numerical study analyzed the temperature
distribution under different heat flux and some other outdoorconditions Their results demonstrated that using heat pipeswas a reliable simple uniform and costless cooling methodAlso oscillating heat pipes need no air fan or pump and haveno power consumptionwhichmakes them suitable forHCPVsystems
Chong and Tan [120] discussed a study on applying anautomotive radiator as the active cooling system of the dense-array concentrator photovoltaic system They employed acomputational fluid dynamic (CFD) to perform a flow andheat transfer analysis for the cooling system of thementionedCPV For evaluation and feasibility of the study they set up anexperimental procedure with the concentration ratio of 377sunsTheyobserved that by applying the cooling systemwhenthe temperature of the cell reduced from 594∘C to 371∘C theefficiency successfully improved from 2239 to 2686
During the past decades heat sinks became populardevices for cooling processes Many researchers conductedstudies about using heat sink for cooling CPV systems
Karathanassis et al [121] conducted a study about opti-mizing the microchannel plate-fin heat sink suitable for thecooling of a linear parabolic trough concentrating photo-voltaicthermal (CPVT) system Their results showed that
10 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table5DifferentC
PVprojectswith
specificatio
ns[2287]
Com
paniesin
stitutio
nsTy
peof
concentrator
Type
offocus
Con
centratio
nratio
Tracking
syste
mCoo
ling
syste
mEffi
ciency
Cost
Reference
Sunpo
wer
corporation
Fresnellens
Point
25ndash4
00mdash
mdash27
mdash[22]
Solarresearchcorporation
Parabo
licdish
Point
239
Yes
Yes
22
mdash[139]
PhotovoltaicsInternatio
nal
Fresnellens
Linear
10Yes
mdash127
4ndash6cent
kwh
(110MWyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[140]
PolytechnicalU
niversity
ofMadrid
Flatconcentrationdevices
(RXI)
point
1000
No
mdashmdash
Lowcost
(needno
tracking
syste
mdu
eto
high
acceptance
angle)
[141]
Fraunh
ofer-Institut
furS
olare
Energiesysteme
Parabo
licandtro
ugh
Linear
and
point
214
yes
yes
775
mdash[14
2]
Entech
Fresnellenses
Linear
20Yes
mdash15
7ndash15
cent
Kwh
(30M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[143]
BPSolara
ndtheP
olytechn
ical
University
ofMadrid
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
38Yes
Yes
13
13cent
kwh
(15M
Wyrp
rodu
ctionrate)
[144]
Austr
alianNationalU
niversity
Parabo
lictro
ugh
Linear
30Yes
mdash15
mdash[14
5]AMONIX
andAriz
onaP
ublic
Service
Fresnellens
Point
250
Yes
24
mdash[14
6]
International Journal of Photoenergy 11
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
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[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
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[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
Table 6 Comparative analysis of different CPV systems from economic aspects [49]
Primary concentrator Secondary concentrator Tracking system Concentration ratio Cost$Wp
Point focus Fresnel lens No Gimbals 36 148Cylindrical paraboloid Point-focus CPC Polar 65 178Linear Fresnel lens Solid CPC Gimbals 37 202Curved TIR lens No Polar 28 197Curved Fresnel lens No Polar 15 218V-trough screen printed No Polar 2 431The costs given in the table are for cells optical systems mountings and trackers only including construction costs balance of system costs are omitted asthey are similar for all types of collector The cost in $Wp is for collectors at operating temperature and for concentrators is based on direct beam irradianceof 850Wm2 the cost for the flat plate is based on a total irradiance of 1000Wm2 [49]
Table 7 Fluids compatible with copper and aluminum based onheat pipe life tests
(i) Water(ii) Methanol other alcohols(iii) Benzene (carcinogen)(iv) Naphthalene
microchannel heat sinks are ideal high heat flux dissipation asthey achieve thermal resistance values as low as 00082KWAlso their 1-D model could predict the flow and conjugateheat transfer inside a microchannel
Do et al [122] proposed a thermal resistance correlationas a design tool of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for concentrating photovoltaic (CPV) Differentexperimental investigations were also done for various heatsink geometries input powers and inclination angles Theircorrelation could predict the effect of inclination angles andfin spacing The optimized fin spacing was highly dependenton the inclination angle and temperature difference forspecific geometry
Edenburn did an analysis for a point focus Fresnel lensarray under passive cooling system [123] The cooling deviceismade up of linear fins on all available heat sink surfacesThepassive heat sink keeps the cell temperature below 150∘C evenon extreme days at a concentration level of about 90 suns
Natarajan et al [124] elaborated a numerical investigationof solar temperature of concentrated PV using Fresnel lenseswith a concentration ratio of 10x with and without a passivecooling systemThe simulation results showed that a numberof four fins of 1mm thickness and 5mmheight were favorablefor the mentioned CPV
By applying water as working fluid Kumar and Reddy[125] investigated properties of porous disc receivers bydifferent porosities Empirical correlations were developed
to determine the Nusselt number and friction factor for theporous disc receiver Satyanarayana et al [126] developeddifferent porous enhanced receiver configurations to increasethe heat transfer rate Drabiniok andNeyer [127] proposed anexperimental study about special cooling systems of PB cellson the basis of a bionic method using a porous compoundpolymer foil The foil was laminated directly on siliconsubstrates providing good thermal contact with the watercooled down by evaporation A temperature reduction of upto 117∘C was observed and the presented system was capableof self-regulating the water flow and the resulting cooling rateby its direct dependency on environmental conditions liketemperature and air velocity
Sun et al [128] performed an experimental study aboutheat dissipation of linear concentrating photovoltaic byapplying a direct liquid-immersion cooling method usingdimethyl silicon oil The results showed that the temperatureof the cell rose from 0 to 35 increasing linearly with oil tem-peratureThe cooling capacity of the direct liquid-immersioncooling made this method favorable and the average celltemperature and heat transfer temperature difference couldbe maintained in the range between 20ndash31∘C and 5ndash16∘Crespectively at a direct normal irradiance of about 910Wm215∘C silicon oil inlet temperature and Re numbers varyingfrom 13602 to 2720 Finally they reported no significantefficiency degradation and the electrical performance wasconsidered to be stable after 270 days of silicon oil immersion
Teo et al [129] did an experimental study on analyzingthe effect of active cooling systems on the efficiency ofthe PV modules They applied parallel arrays of ducts withinletoutletmodified designs for uniform airflow distributionwhich attached to the back of the module The efficiencyincreased from 8-9 to 12 and 14 by using the activecooling system
Ji et al [130] performed a numerical and experimen-tal study on using a jet impingementchannel receiver forcooling densely packed PV cells under a paraboloidal dishconcentrator They had shown that the proposed systemhas the desirable working performance and was of goodapplication potential for the cooling of PV cells exposed toa high heat flux
Brideau and Collins [131] could increase the heat transfercoefficient between the PV cells and air by using an impinging
12 International Journal of Photoenergy
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
Table 8 Main characteristics of different cooling system
Type Description Reference
Heat pipe
(i) Simple(ii) Reliable(iii) Uniform(iv) Costless(v) Needs no air fan pump or energy consumption(vi) Suitable for HCPV
[118 119]
Microchannels(i) Low thermal resistance(ii) Low power requirement(iii) Ability to remove a large amount of heat in a small area
[102 147]
Forced air (i) Less efficient than water(ii) More parasitic power [110]
Porous High temperature reduction with appropriate attachment [127]Impinging jet Applying the coolant for hybrid system [131]
jet with the aim of proposing a hybrid PVT system Table 8shows the main description of different cooling systems
5 Conclusion
Environmental issues and energy saving concerns havealways been a major global problem CPV systems arespecial technology due to their capability of producingelectricity with high efficiency A review of solar photovoltaicconcentratorsrsquo technologies and their characteristics andproperties such as their fundamental functions efficienciesconcentration ratio tracking systems cooling systems andbrief comparison in some parts is presented Choosingthe complete CPV containing the concentrator trackingsystem and cooling system is highly dependent on somelimitation factors such as the climate conditions geographicalconditions budget limits and space limits Consequentlyfor choosing an appropriate CPV system considerations canbe made by using the summarized information provided inTables 3ndash8 by assuming the limitation factors
Tables 3ndash6 present the main and specific characteristicsof different concentrated photovoltaic systems and Tables 7-8summarize some factors for choosing the appropriate coolingsystem
Through this review paper we introduced solar con-centrated photovoltaic systems in a detailed descriptionin order to provide some main information for scientistsand manufactures to improve the CPV technology and tooptimize the efficiencies Finally it will draw wider interestto the use of concentrated photovoltaic technology
Conflict of Interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interestsregarding the publication of this paper
Acknowledgment
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr Kiyan Parham thelecturer of Mechanical Engineering Department in Eastern
Mediterranean University for his valuable help for searchingthe literature
References
[1] D Abbott ldquoKeeping the energy debate clean how do we supplythe worlds energy needsrdquo Proceedings of the IEEE vol 98 no1 pp 42ndash66 2010
[2] P E Glaser ldquoPower from the sun its futurerdquo Science vol 162no 3856 pp 857ndash861 1968
[3] B Mendoza ldquoTotal solar irradiance and climaterdquo in Fundamen-tals of Space Environment Science V Jatenco-Pereira A C-LChian J F Valdes-Galicia and M A Shea Eds pp 882ndash8902005
[4] H Mousazadeh A Keyhani A Javadi H Mobli K Abriniaand A Sharifi ldquoA review of principle and sun-trackingmethodsfor maximizing solar systems outputrdquo Renewable and Sustain-able Energy Reviews vol 13 no 8 pp 1800ndash1818 2009
[5] A Lewandowski andD Simms ldquoAn assessment of linear Fresnellens concentrators for thermal applicationsrdquo Energy vol 12 no3-4 pp 333ndash338 1987
[6] J OGallagher and R Winston ldquoPerformance model for two-stage optical concentrators for solar thermal applicationsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 41 no 4 pp 319ndash325 1988
[7] J Xiao X Wei Z Lu W Yu and H Wu ldquoA review of availablemethods for surface shape measurement of solar concentratorin solar thermal power applicationsrdquoRenewable and SustainableEnergy Reviews vol 16 no 5 pp 2539ndash2544 2012
[8] D Feuermann J M Gordon and M Huleihil ldquoLight leakagein optical fibers experimental results modeling and the con-sequences for remote lighting and solar concentrator systemsrdquoinNonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer VI RWinston Ed pp 65ndash75 August 2001
[9] A Garcia-Botella D Vazquez and E Bcrnabeu ldquoA newconcentrator-collimator lighting system using LED technol-ogyrdquo Journal of the Illuminating Engineering Society vol 29 no2 pp 135ndash140 2000
[10] A Garcıa-Botella D Vazquez and E Bernabeu ldquoGeometricand thermal design for a new concentrator-collimator lightingsystem based on LED technologyrdquoMetrologia vol 37 no 5 pp607ndash610 2000
International Journal of Photoenergy 13
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
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[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
[11] H Arashi D Cooke and H Naito ldquoFivefold increase in solarlaser output with a nonimaging concentratorrdquo Japanese Journalof Applied Physics 1 Regular Papers amp Short Notes amp ReviewPapers vol 34 no 9A pp 4795ndash4798 1995
[12] H Arashi Y Kaneda and M Ishigame ldquoA solar-pumped laserusing a large solar concentratorrdquo in Clean and Safe EnergyForever T Horigome K Kimura T Takakura T Nishino andI Fujii Eds vol 1ndash3 pp 445ndash449 Pergamon Press 1990
[13] S A Bakhramov S D Payziyev S I Klychev A K Kasi-mov and A A Abdurakhmanov ldquoLaser on the big solarconcentratorrdquo inProceedings of the 2nd International Conferenceon Advanced Optoelectronics and Lasers (CAOL rsquo05) I ASukhoivanov Ed vol 1 pp 109ndash111 September 2005
[14] V Krupkin GThompson A Yogev andM Oron ldquoCompoundparabolical concentrator as pumping device for solid state solarlasersrdquo in 8th Meeting on Optical Engineering in Israel OpticalEngineering and Remote Sensing M Oron I Shladov and YWeissman Eds vol 1971 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 400ndash407December 1992
[15] M Lando J Kagan and B Linyekin ldquo38-watt NdYAG laserpumped by a 685m2 target-aligned solar concentratorrdquo inElectro-Optics and Microelectronics R Lavi and E AzoulayEds pp 33ndash36 2000
[16] W Villasmil and A Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production byhydrogen sulfide splitting using concentrated solar energymdashthermodynamics and economic evaluationrdquo Energy Conversionand Management vol 51 no 11 pp 2353ndash2361 2010
[17] A ZGraggen PHaueterGMaagMRomero andA SteinfeldldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification of carbonaceousmaterials using concentrated solar energymdashIV Reactor exper-imentation with vacuum residuerdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 33 no 2 pp 679ndash684 2008
[18] A ZGraggen P Haueter G Maag A Vidal M Romero andA Steinfeld ldquoHydrogen production by steam-gasification ofpetroleum coke using concentrated solar powermdashIII Reactorexperimentation with slurry feedingrdquo International Journal ofHydrogen Energy vol 32 no 8 pp 992ndash996 2007
[19] B Parida S Iniyan and R Goic ldquoA review of solar photovoltaictechnologiesrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 3 pp 1625ndash1636 2011
[20] R McConnell S Kurtz and M Symko-Davies ldquoConcentratorphotovoltaic technologiesrdquo Refocus vol 6 no 4 pp 35ndash392005
[21] A Luque and V Andreev Concentrator Photovoltaics SpringerHeidelberg Germany 2007
[22] R M Swanson ldquoThe promise of concentratorsrdquo Progress inPhotovoltaics Research and Applications vol 8 no 1 pp 93ndash1112000
[23] V Andreev V D Rumyantsev and V A Grilikhes PhotovoltaicConversion of Concentrated Sunlight JohnWileyamp Sons Chich-ester UK 1997
[24] P Perez-Higueras E Munoz G Almonacid and P G VidalldquoHigh Concentrator PhotoVoltaics efficiencies present statusand forecastrdquo Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol15 no 4 pp 1810ndash1815 2011
[25] S J Gallagher B Norton and P C Eames ldquoQuantum dot solarconcentrators electrical conversion efficiencies and compara-tive concentrating factors of fabricated devicesrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 6 pp 813ndash821 2007
[26] J Lushetsky Accelerating Innovation in Solar TechnologiesOverview of the DOE Solar Energy Technology Program US
Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Program2008
[27] B A Butler E E van Dyk F J Vorster W Okullo M KMunji and P Booysen ldquoCharacterization of a low concentratorphotovoltaics modulerdquo Physica B Condensed Matter vol 407no 10 pp 1501ndash1504 2012
[28] R Winston J J OGallagher and R Gee ldquoNonimaging solarconcentrator with uniform irradiancerdquo in Nonimaging Opticsand Efficient Illumination Systems R Winston and R J KoshelEds pp 237ndash239 August 2004
[29] A Garcia-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez andE Bernabeu ldquoIdeal 3D asymmetric concentratorrdquo Solar Energyvol 83 no 1 pp 113ndash117 2009
[30] W T Xie Y J Dai R Z Wang and K Sumathy ldquoConcentratedsolar energy applications using Fresnel lenses a reviewrdquo Renew-able and Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 15 no 6 pp 2588ndash2606 2011
[31] R Leutz and A Suzuki Nonimaging Fresnel Lenses Design andPerformance of Solar Concentrators Springer Berlin Germany2001
[32] R Leutz A Suzuki A Akisawa and T Kashiwagi ldquoDevel-opments and designs of solar engineering Fresnel lensesrdquo inProceedings of the Symposium on Energy Engineering HongKong 2000
[33] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoHigh solar energy concentrationwith a Fresnel lensrdquo Journal of Materials Science vol 40 no 6pp 1339ndash1343 2005
[34] D C Miller and S R Kurtz ldquoDurability of Fresnel lenses areview specific to the concentrating photovoltaic applicationrdquoSolar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 95 no 8 pp 2037ndash2068 2011
[35] E Lorenzo and A Luque ldquoFresnel lens analysis for solar energyapplicationsrdquoApplied Optics vol 20 no 17 pp 2941ndash2945 1981
[36] M M Valmiki P Li J Heyer et al ldquoA novel application ofa Fresnel lens for a solar stove and solar heatingrdquo RenewableEnergy vol 36 no 5 pp 1614ndash1620 2011
[37] J M Monteagudo and A Duran ldquoFresnel lens to concentratesolar energy for the photocatalytic decoloration and mineral-ization of orange II in aqueous solutionrdquo Chemosphere vol 65no 7 pp 1242ndash1248 2006
[38] Y Chen ldquoThe continuous production of fresnel lens and adiscussion on its application in solar building Chen Yikerdquo inProceedings of ISES World Congress 2007 D Y Goswami and YW Zhao Eds vol 1ndash5 pp 323ndash326 2007
[39] T Ohkubo T Yabe K Yoshida et al ldquoSolar-pumped 80W laserirradiated by a Fresnel lensrdquo Optics Letters vol 34 no 2 pp175ndash177 2009
[40] T Yabe B Bagheri T Ohkubo et al ldquo100 W-class solarpumped laser for sustainable magnesium-hydrogen energycyclerdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 104 no 8 Article ID083104 2008
[41] T Yabe T Ohkubo S Uchida et al ldquoHigh-efficiency andeconomical solar-energy-pumped laser with Fresnel lens andchromium codoped laser mediumrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol90 no 26 Article ID 261120 2007
[42] Y Tripanagnostopoulos C Siabekou and J K Tonui ldquoTheFresnel lens concept for solar control of buildingsrdquo Solar Energyvol 81 no 5 pp 661ndash675 2007
[43] A Tsangrassoulis L Doulos M Santamouris et al ldquoOn theenergy efficiency of a prototype hybrid daylighting systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 79 no 1 pp 56ndash64 2005
14 International Journal of Photoenergy
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
[44] C Sierra E Michie and A J Vazquez ldquoProduction improve-ment of NiAl coatings achieved by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis with concentrated solar energyrdquo Revistade Metalurgia pp 469ndash474 2005
[45] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coatings on carbon steelby self-propagating high-temperature synthesis assisted withconcentrated solar energy mass influence on adherence andporosityrdquo Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 1pp 33ndash42 2005
[46] C Sierra and A J Vazquez ldquoNiAl coating on carbon steelwith an intermediate Ni gradient layerrdquo Surface amp CoatingsTechnology vol 200 no 14-15 pp 4383ndash4388 2006
[47] Y Nakata N Shibuya T Kobe K Okamoto A Suzuki andT Tsuji ldquoPerformance of circular Fresnel lens photovoltaicconcentratorrdquo Japanese Journal of Applied Physics vol 19 pp75ndash78 1980
[48] S Harmon ldquoSolar-optical analyses of a mass-produced plasticcircular Fresnel lensrdquo Solar Energy vol 19 no 1 pp 105ndash1081977
[49] G R Whitfield R W Bentley C K Weatherby et al ldquoThedevelopment and testing of small concentrating PV systemsrdquoSolar Energy vol 67 no 1ndash3 pp 23ndash34 1999
[50] F Franc V Jirka M Maly and B Nabelek ldquoConcentratingcollectors with flat linear fresnel lensesrdquo Solar and WindTechnology vol 3 no 2 pp 77ndash84 1986
[51] D Gerion F Pinaud S C Williams et al ldquoSynthesis and prop-erties of biocompatible water-soluble silica-coated CdSeZnSsemiconductor quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 105 no 37 pp 8861ndash8871 2001
[52] O I Micic H M Cheong H Fu et al ldquoSize-dependent spec-troscopy of InP quantum dotsrdquo Journal of Physical Chemistry Bvol 101 no 25 pp 4904ndash4912 1997
[53] R Reisfeld and C K Jorgensen ldquoLuminescent solar concentra-tors for energy conversionrdquo Structure and Bonding vol 49 pp1ndash36 1982
[54] K Barnham J L Marques J Hassard and P OBrienldquoQuantum-dot concentrator and thermodynamicmodel for theglobal redshiftrdquo Applied Physics Letters vol 76 no 9 pp 1197ndash1199 2000
[55] VWittwer K Heidler A Zastrow andA Goetzberger ldquoTheoryof fluorescent planar concentrators and experimental resultsrdquoJournal of Luminescence vol 24-25 no 2 pp 873ndash876 1981
[56] A Goetzberger W Stahl and V Wittwer ldquoPhysical limitationsof the concentration of direct and diffuse radiationrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 6th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy ConferenceReidel Dordrecht The Netherlands 1985
[57] A P Alivisatos ldquoPerspectives on the physical chemistry ofsemiconductor nanocrystalsrdquoThe Journal of Physical Chemistryvol 100 no 31 pp 13226ndash13239 1996
[58] A Schuler M Python M V del Olmo and E de ChambrierldquoQuantum dot containing nanocomposite thin films for photo-luminescent solar concentratorsrdquo Solar Energy vol 81 no 9 pp1159ndash1165 2007
[59] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoEffect of porous disc receiverconfigurations on performance of solar parabolic trough con-centratorrdquo Heat and Mass Transfer vol 48 no 3 pp 555ndash5712012
[60] J A Clark ldquoAn analysis of the technical and economic perfor-mance of a parabolic trough concentrator for solar industrialprocess heat applicationrdquo International Journal ofHeat andMassTransfer vol 25 no 9 pp 1427ndash1438 1982
[61] K-J Riffelmann A Neumann and S Ulmer ldquoPerformanceenhancement of parabolic trough collectors by solar flux mea-surement in the focal regionrdquo Solar Energy vol 80 no 10 pp1303ndash1313 2006
[62] S A Omer and D G Infield ldquoDesign and thermal analysis of atwo stage solar concentrator for combined heat and thermoelec-tric power generationrdquo Energy Conversion and Managementvol 41 no 7 pp 737ndash756 2000
[63] M A Al-Nimr and M K Alkam ldquoA modified tubeless solarcollector partially filled with porous substraterdquo RenewableEnergy vol 13 no 2 pp 165ndash173 1998
[64] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoThermal analysis of solarparabolic trough with porous disc receiverrdquoApplied Energy vol86 no 9 pp 1804ndash1812 2009
[65] S D Odeh G L Morrison and M Behnia ldquoModelling ofparabolic trough direct steam generation solar collectorsrdquo SolarEnergy vol 62 no 6 pp 395ndash406 1998
[66] K S Reddy K R Kumar and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumericalinvestigation of energy-efficient receiver for solar parabolictrough concentratorrdquo Heat Transfer Engineering vol 29 no 11pp 961ndash972 2008
[67] K S Reddy and G V Satyanarayana ldquoNumerical study ofporous finned receiver for solar parabolic trough concentratorrdquoEngineering Applications of Computational FluidMechanics vol2 no 2 pp 172ndash184 2008
[68] Q-C Zhang K Zhao B-C Zhang et al ldquoNew cermet solarcoatings for solar thermal electricity applicationsrdquo Solar Energyvol 64 no 1ndash3 pp 109ndash114 1998
[69] A Rabl Active Solar Collectors and Their Applications OxfordUniversity Press New York NY USA 1985
[70] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringMcGraw-Hill New York NY USA 1978
[71] J A Duffie and W A Beckman Solar Engineering of ThermalProcesses John Wiley amp Sons Hoboken NJ USA 2006
[72] F Kreith and J E Kreider Principles of Solar EngineeringHemisphere Publishing Corporation Washington DC USA1978
[73] A Suzuki and S Kobayashi ldquoYearly distributed insolationmodel and optimum design of a two dimensional compoundparabolic concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 54 no 5 pp 327ndash3311995
[74] S Senthilkumar K Perumal and P S S Srinivasan ldquoCon-struction and performance analysis of a three dimensionalcompound parabolic concentrator for a spherical absorberrdquoJournal of Scientific and Industrial Research vol 66 no 7 pp558ndash564 2007
[75] N Yehezkel J Appelbaum A Yogev and M Oron ldquoLossesin a three-dimensional compound parabolic concentrator as asecond stage of a solar concentratorrdquo Solar Energy vol 51 no 1pp 45ndash51 1993
[76] A-J N Khalifa and S S Al-Mutawalli ldquoEffect of two-axissun tracking on the performance of compound parabolicconcentratorsrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 39 no10 pp 1073ndash1079 1998
[77] T K Mallick P C Eames T J Hyde and B Norton ldquoThedesign and experimental characterisation of an asymmetriccompound parabolic photovoltaic concentrator for buildingfacade integration in the UKrdquo Solar Energy vol 77 no 3 pp319ndash327 2004
[78] X Ning R Winston and J OGallagher ldquoDielectric totallyinternally reflecting concentratorsrdquo Applied Optics vol 26 no2 pp 300ndash305 1987
International Journal of Photoenergy 15
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
[79] X H Ning ldquoApplication of nonimaging optical concentratorsto infrared energy detectionrdquo in Nonimaging Optics MaximumEfficiency Light Transfer vol 1528 of Proceedings of SPIE p 881991
[80] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R Green ldquoElliptical and parabolictotally internally reflecting optical antennas for wirelessinfrared communicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the IrDAIEEIEEEConference on Optical Wireless Warwick University 2003
[81] R Ramirez-Iniguez and R J Green ldquoOptical antenna design forindoor optical wireless communication systemsrdquo InternationalJournal of Communication Systems vol 18 no 3 pp 229ndash2452005
[82] X H Ning J OrsquoGallagher and R Winston ldquoOptics of two-stage photovoltaic concentrators with dielectric second stagesrdquoApplied Optics vol 26 no 7 pp 1207ndash1212 1987
[83] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoOptimised dielectric totally internallyreflecting concentrator for the solar photonic optoelectronictransformer system maximum concentration methodrdquo inKnowledge-Based and Intelligent Information and EngineeringSystems R Setchi I Jordanov R J Howlett and L C JainEds vol 6279 of Lecture Notes in Computer Science pp 633ndash641 Springer Berlin Germany 2010
[84] M F Piszczor and R P Macosko ldquoA high-efficiency refractivesecondary solar concentrator for high temperature solar ther-mal applicationsrdquo Technical Memorandum NASA 2000
[85] F Muhammad-Sukki S H Abu-Bakar R Ramirez-Iniguez etal ldquoMirror symmetrical dielectric totally internally reflectingconcentrator for building integrated photovoltaic systemsrdquoApplied Energy vol 113 pp 32ndash40 2014
[86] I M S Ali T K Mallick P A Kew T S OrsquoDonovan and K SReddy ldquoOptical performance evaluation of a 2-D and 3-D novelhyperboloid solar concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 11thWorldRenewable Energy Congress Abu Dhabi UAE 2010
[87] F Muhammad-Sukki R Ramirez-Iniguez S G McMeekin BG Stewart and B Clive ldquoSolar concentratorsrdquo InternationalJournal of Applied Sciences vol 1 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2010
[88] N Sellami T K Mallick and D A McNeil ldquoOptical character-isation of 3-D static solar concentratorrdquo Energy Conversion andManagement vol 64 pp 579ndash586 2012
[89] A Garcıa-Botella A A Fernandez-Balbuena D Vazquez EBernabeu and A Gonzalez-Cano ldquoHyperparabolic concentra-torsrdquo Applied Optics vol 48 no 4 pp 712ndash715 2009
[90] J M Gordon ldquoComplementary construction of ideal nonimag-ing concentrators and its applicationsrdquo Applied Optics vol 35no 28 pp 5677ndash5682 1996
[91] C-F Chen C-H Lin H-T Jan and Y-L Yang ldquoDesign ofa solar concentrator combining paraboloidal and hyperbolicmirrors using ray tracingmethodrdquoOptics Communications vol282 no 3 pp 360ndash366 2009
[92] I M Saleh Ali T Srihari Vikram T S OrsquoDonovan K SReddy and T K Mallick ldquoDesign and experimental analysis ofa static 3-D elliptical hyperboloid concentrator for process heatapplicationsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 257ndash266 2014
[93] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and I Zanesco ldquoFlat high con-centration devicesrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEE PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference vol 1-2 pp 1123ndash1126 IEEE New YorkNY USA December 1994
[94] R Winston J C Minano and P Benitez Nonimaging OpticsElsevier Academic Press San Diego Calif USA 2005
[95] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoA high-gaincompact nonimaging concentrator RXIrdquo Applied Optics vol34 no 34 pp 7850ndash7856 1995
[96] J C Minano P Benitez and J C Gonzalez ldquoRX a nonimagingconcentratorrdquo Applied Optics vol 34 no 13 pp 2226ndash22351995
[97] P Benitez and J C Minano ldquoAnalysis of the image formationcapability of RX concentratorsrdquo in Nonimaging Optics Maxi-mum Efficiency Light Transfer III RWinston Ed vol 2538 pp73ndash84 1995
[98] J C Minano J C Gonzalez and P Benitez ldquoNew nonimagingdesigns the RX and the RXI concentratorsrdquo in NonimagingOptics Maximum-Efficiency Light Transfer II R Winston andR L Holman Eds vol 2016 of Proceedings of SPIE pp 120ndash127 1993
[99] I Peterina A B Cueli J Dıaz J Moracho and A R LagunasldquoCENER experience testing CPV modulesrdquo Energetica Interna-tional no 123 2012
[100] V L Dalal and A R Moore ldquoDesign considerations for high-intensity solar cellrdquo Journal of Applied Physics vol 48 no 3 p8 1977
[101] D J Mbewe H C Card and D C Card ldquoA model ofsilicon solar cells for concentrator photovoltaic and photo-voltaicthermal system designrdquo Solar Energy vol 35 no 3 pp247ndash258 1985
[102] A Royne C J Dey and D R Mills ldquoCooling of photovoltaiccells under concentrated illumination a critical reviewrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 86 no 4 pp 451ndash4832005
[103] G Sala ldquoCooling of solar cellsrdquo in Cells and Optics for Photo-voltaic Concentration A Hilger Ed pp 239ndash267 AdamHilgerBristol UK 1989
[104] I Anton G Sala and D Pachon ldquoCorrection of the Vocvs temperature dependence under non-uniform concentratedilluminationrdquo in Proceedings of the 17th European PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conference pp 156ndash159 Munich Germany 2001
[105] A Cheknane B Benyoucef and A Chaker ldquoPerformance ofconcentrator solar cells with passive coolingrdquo SemiconductorScience and Technology vol 21 no 2 pp 144ndash147 2006
[106] F Chenlo and M Cid ldquoA linear concentrator photovoltaicmodule analysis of non-uniform illumination and temperatureeffects on efficiencyrdquo Solar Cells vol 20 no 1 pp 27ndash39 1987
[107] A Luque G Sala and J C Arboiro ldquoElectric and thermalmodel for non-uniformly illuminated concentration cellsrdquo SolarEnergy Materials and Solar Cells vol 51 no 3-4 pp 269ndash2901998
[108] R K Mathur D R Mehrotra S Mittal and S R DhariwalldquoThermal non-uniformities in concentrator solar cellsrdquo SolarCells vol 11 no 2 pp 175ndash188 1984
[109] RW Sanderson D T ODonnell and C E Backus ldquoThe effectsof nonuniform illumination and temperature profiles on siliconsolar cells under concentrated sunlightrdquo in Proceedings of the14th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC rsquo80) pp431ndash436 January 1980
[110] A D Kraus and A Bar-Cohen Design and Analysis of HeatSinks JohnWiley amp Sons New York NY USA 1st edition 1995
[111] W G Anderson P M Dussinger D B Sarraf and S TamannaldquoHeat pipe cooling of concentrating photovoltaic cellsrdquo inProceedings of the 33rd IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference(PVSC rsquo08) May 2008
16 International Journal of Photoenergy
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
[112] P D Dunn and D A Reay Heat Pipes Elsevier ScienceTarrytown NY USA 4th edition 1994
[113] W G Anderson ldquoIntermediate temperature fluids for heatpipes and LHPsrdquo in Proceedings of the 5th International EnergyConversion Engineering Conference (IECEC rsquo07) AIAA StLouis Mo USA 2007
[114] A Akbarzadeh and TWadowski ldquoHeat pipe-based cooling sys-tems for photovoltaic cells under concentrated solar radiationrdquoApplied Thermal Engineering vol 16 no 1 pp 81ndash87 1996
[115] W EHorne ldquoSolar energy systemrdquoUS patent no 5269851 1993[116] R F Russell ldquoUniform temperature heat pipe and method of
using the samerdquo US patent no 4320246 1982[117] B Du E Hu and M Kolhe ldquoPerformance analysis of water
cooled concentrated photovoltaic (CPV) systemrdquo Renewableand Sustainable Energy Reviews vol 16 no 9 pp 6732ndash67362012
[118] M A Farahat ldquoImprovement the thermal electric performanceof a photovoltaic cells by cooling and concentration techniquesrdquoin Proceedings of the 39th International Universities PowerEngineering Conference (UPEC rsquo04) pp 623ndash628 September2004
[119] W-G Geng L Gao M Shao and X-Y Li ldquoNumerical andexperimental study on cooling high-concentration photovoltaiccells with oscillating heat piperdquo International Journal of Low-Carbon Technologies vol 7 no 3 pp 168ndash173 2012
[120] K-K Chong andW-C Tan ldquoStudy of automotive radiator cool-ing system for dense-array concentration photovoltaic systemrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2632ndash2643 2012
[121] I K Karathanassis E Papanicolaou V Belessiotis and G CBergeles ldquoMulti-objective design optimization of a micro heatsink for Concentrating PhotovoltaicThermal (CPVT) systemsusing a genetic algorithmrdquoAppliedThermal Engineering vol 59no 1-2 pp 733ndash744 2013
[122] K H Do T H Kim Y-S Han B-I Choi and M-B KimldquoGeneral correlation of a natural convective heat sink withplate-fins for high concentrating photovoltaic module coolingrdquoSolar Energy vol 86 no 9 pp 2725ndash2734 2012
[123] M W Edenburn ldquoActive and passive cooling for concentratingphotovoltaic arraysrdquo in Proceedings of the 14th PhotovoltaicSpecialists Conference pp 771ndash776 San Diego Calif USAJanuary 1980
[124] S K Natarajan T K Mallick M Katz and S WeingaertnerldquoNumerical investigations of solar cell temperature for photo-voltaic concentrator system with and without passive coolingarrangementsrdquo International Journal of Thermal Sciences vol50 no 12 pp 2514ndash2521 2011
[125] K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoInvestigation of heat transfercharacteristics of line focus receiver with porous disc inserts forsolar parabolic trough concentratorrdquo in Proceedings of the 20thNational and 9th International ISHMT-ASME Heat and MassTransfer Conference Mumbai India 2010
[126] G V Satyanarayana K R Kumar and K S Reddy ldquoNumericalstudy of porous enhanced receiver for solar parabolic troughcollectorrdquo in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference onSolar Radiation and Day Lighting New Delhi India 2007
[127] E Drabiniok and A Neyer ldquoBionic micro porous evaporationfoil for photovoltaic cell coolingrdquo Microelectronic Engineeringvol 119 pp 65ndash69 2014
[128] Y Sun YWang L Zhu B YinH Xiang andQHuang ldquoDirectliquid-immersion cooling of concentrator silicon solar cells in alinear concentrating photovoltaic receiverrdquo Energy vol 65 pp264ndash271 2014
[129] H G Teo P S Lee and M N A Hawlader ldquoAn active coolingsystem for photovoltaic modulesrdquo Applied Energy vol 90 no 1pp 309ndash315 2012
[130] J Ji Y Wang T-T Chow H Chen and G Pei ldquoA jetimpingementchannel receiver for cooling densely packed pho-tovoltaic cells under a paraboloidal dish solar concentratorrdquoHeat Transfer Research vol 43 no 8 pp 767ndash778 2012
[131] S A Brideau andMR Collins ldquoDevelopment and validation ofa hybrid PVThermal air based collector model with impingingjetsrdquo Solar Energy vol 102 pp 234ndash246 2014
[132] C A Mgbemene J Duffy H Sun and S O Onyegegbu ldquoElec-tricity generation from a compound parabolic concentratorcoupled to a thermoelectric modulerdquo Journal of Solar EnergyEngineering vol 132 no 3 2010
[133] P D Menghani R R Udawant A M Funde and S V DingareldquoLow pressure steam generation by solar energy withfresnellens a reviewrdquo IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineer-ing vol 5 pp 60ndash63 2013
[134] O E Miller J H Mcleod and W T Sherwood ldquoThin sheetplastic Fresnel lenses of high aperturerdquo Journal of the OpticalSociety of America vol 41 no 11 p 8 1951
[135] S Malato J Blanco A Vidal and C Richter ldquoPhotocatalysiswith solar energy at a pilot-plant scale an overviewrdquo AppliedCatalysis B Environmental vol 37 no 1 pp 1ndash15 2002
[136] G-L Dai X-L Xia C Sun and H-C Zhang ldquoNumericalinvestigation of the solar concentrating characteristics of 3DCPC and CPC-DCrdquo Solar Energy vol 85 no 11 pp 2833ndash28422011
[137] E Hossain R Muhida A F Dzulkipli and K A A RahmanldquoSolar cell efficiency improvement using compound parabolicconcentrator and an implementation of sun tracking systemrdquoin Proceedings of the 11th International Conference on Computerand Information Technology (ICCIT rsquo08) vol 1-2 pp 723ndash728December 2008
[138] A Terao W P Mulligan S G Daroczi et al ldquoA mirror-lessdesign for micro-concentrator modulesrdquo in Proceedings of the28th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1416ndash14192000
[139] J B Lasich A Cleeve N Kaila et al ldquoClose-packed cellarrays for dish concentratorsrdquo in Proceedings of the 24th IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 1938ndash1941 December1994
[140] N Kaminar J McEntree P Stark and D Curchod ldquoSEA 10Xconcentrator development progressrdquo in Proceedings of the 22ndIEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 529ndash532 October1991
[141] J L Alvarez M Hernandez P Benitez and J C MinanoldquoExperimental measurements of RXI concentrators for photo-voltaic applicationsrdquo in Proceedings of the 2ndWorld Conferenceand Exhibition on Photovoltaic Solar EnergyConversion ViennaAustria 1998
[142] M Brunotte A Goetzberger and U Blieske ldquoTwo-stage con-centrator permitting concentration factors up to 300Xwith one-axis trackingrdquo Solar Energy vol 56 no 3 pp 285ndash300 1996
[143] M J ONeill and A J McDanal ldquoFourth-generation concentra-tor system from the lab to the factory to the fieldrdquo inProceedingsof the 24th IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference pp 816ndash819December 1994
[144] G Sala J C Arboiro A Luque et al ldquo480 kW peak EUCLIDESconcentrator power plant using parabolic troughsrdquo in Proceed-ings of the 2ndWorld Conference and Exhibition on PhotovoltaicSolar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
International Journal of Photoenergy 17
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
[145] A W Blakers and J Smeltink ldquoThe ANU PVtrough concen-trator systemrdquo in Proceedings of the 2nd World Conference onPhotovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion Vienna Austria 1998
[146] V Garboushian S Yoon G Turner A Gunn and D Fair ldquoAnovel high-concentration PV technology for cost competitiveutility bulk power generationrdquo in Proceedings of the 1st WorldConference on Photovoltaic Energy Conversion pp 1060ndash1063Waikoloa Hawaii USA December 1994
[147] D B Tuckerman and R F W Pease ldquoHigh-performance heatsinking for VLSIrdquo Electron Device Letters vol 2 no 5 pp 126ndash129 1981
