The Journal of Zoology Studies
Vol. 3 No. 5 2016 Journalofzoology.com
Page 1
The Journal of Zoology Studies 2016; 3(5): 01-12
ISSN 2348-5914
JOZS 2016; 3(5): 01-12
JOZS © 2016
Received: 16-08-2016
Accepted: 29-09-2016
Getachew Mulualem
Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute,
Mekelle Center, Wildlife Studies,
P.O.Box, 30726, Tigray, Ethiopia.
Weldemariam Tesfahunegny
Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute,
Animal Biodiversity Directorate,
P.O. Box 30726, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia.
Corresponding Author:
Getachew Mulualem
Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute,
Mekelle Center, Wildlife Studies,
P.O.Box, 30726, Tigray, Ethiopia.
Review of Key Wildlife Threats Factors from Literature and
Observation Perspectives: A Way forward for Sustainable
Wildlife Genetic Resource Conservation Practices in Ethiopia
Authors: Getachew Mulualem, Weldemariam Tesfahunegny
Abstract
Wildlife threat is an issue with off-putting role in our effort to conserve and sustainably utilize
the biological capitals. However, the wildlife biodiversity and conservation practices are still at
low attention. Therefore, this review was aimed at identifying key wildlife threats factors
operating against our natural capital. Moreover, a way forward for sustainable conservation
practices of wildlife genetic resource was also drawn. The information presented in this review
was collected from previous studies of existing ecological literatures and personnel observation
of the authors in the issue being reviewed. As well, fact sheets, full length manuscripts, review
articles, country reports and various valuable WebPages were used. The review paper discusses
briefly internally consistent scenarios that explore aspects of key wildlife threats and their
conservation implications in the light of sustainable wildlife management programs. There are
encouraging efforts in Ethiopian protected areas system. However, there are also certain
national parks belonging as paper parks due to lack of the intended schemes of wildlife
conservation practices. Thus, sustainable wildlife conservation schemes can help to protect
genetic resources of the country. As well, sustainability can be secured through community
participation and supporting the economic wellbeing of the largest society. Therefore, enhancing
sustainability through participatory approaches and stake in various sectors should be a future
direction of conservation. In the presence of threats it is challenging to pledge sustainable
development agendas. Hence, mainstreaming wildlife conservation practices to school clubs, the
largest community and stake in to different sectors is vital tool of enhancing sustainable
conservation.
Keywords: Threat factors, Wildlife trafficking, Road kill, Sustainable Conservation
1. Introduction Biodiversity is the variety of life, in all of its many manifestations encompassing all forms,
(Plants, animals and microorganisms) and at all levels of biological organizations which
includes genetic diversity, species diversify and ecosystem diversity (CBD, 2012) [6]
.. The
earth’s biodiversity constitutes valuable natural resources in economic, aesthetic, scientific and
educational terms, providing enormous amount of both monetary and non-monetary benefits to
human kind (Kolahi et al., 2012) [21]
. Biodiversity is the wealth of life forms found on earth-
animals, plants, and microorganisms in their millions and their differences, the gene they
contain and the intricate systems they form. The interaction between human being and nature
was started before million years ago when human being was created. Their relationships have
been increased and more intense during the hunt and gathering. Currently, the term wildlife
includes all living organisms that are not domesticated and found in the wild, even those that are
not used for sport hunting (non-game species).
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Therefore, wildlife refers to the variety of all living
organisms inhabiting in the wild, at the genetic, species
and ecosystem levels on earth. There are fundamentally
two reasons for conserving wildlife biodiversity. The
first is the moral justification and the second is the
value to human existence. Moreover, biodiversity is
essential to human development because of the goods
and services it provides. An estimated 40 % of the
global economy is based on biological products and
processes (Christ et al., 2003) [8]
. However, on a global
scale, biodiversity is being lost at a rate many times
higher than that of natural extinction. This is caused by
a number of factors, including uncontrolled land
conversion, climate change, pollution, unsustainable
harvesting of natural resources and introduction of
invasive species (Christ et al., 2003) [8]
.
Little information is available on wildlife threats and
their relative severity in protected areas of Ethiopia.
The emphasis given to threats halting conservation is
not monitored along the existing human developmental
efforts. However, ecological monitoring of threats in a
manner that allow park mangers to respond effectively
is a central constituent of realistic conservation of
wildlife. Thus, there is a need to review key wildlife
threats factors from literature and observation
perspective: A way forward for sustainable wildlife
genetic resource conservation Practices in Ethiopia.
2. Status of Wildlife Biodiversity in Ethiopia
Ethiopia has great geographic diversity, and macro-
and micro-climatic variability. The country has ten
ecosystems, and 18 major and 49 minor agro-
ecological zones. As the result, the country is endowed
with great diversity of plant, animal and microbial
genetic resources. Ethiopia is one of biodiversity rich
countries in the world. It hosts two of the biodiversity
hotspots of the world, namely: the Eastern
Afromontane and the Horn of Africa hotspots (EBI,
2014) [12]
.
There are between 6500 and 7000 higher plant species
of which about 12 per cent are endemic. With regard to
animals, there are known to be 284 wild mammal, 861
bird, 201 reptile, 63 amphibian, 188 fish and 1225
arthropod species with about 10, 2, 5, 54, 0.6 and 21
per cent of endemism respectively (EBI, 2014) [12]
.
However, wildlife conservation and management have
been facing many social and ecological problems in
Ethiopia. Several authors have identified some of the
factors affecting biodiversity conservation in Ethiopia,
including land clearing for agriculture and uncontrolled
logging, gathering of firewood (EBI.2014) [12]
.
Ethiopia is known for faunal and floral diversity with
an estimated 6500-7000 species of plants of which
20% are considered endemic (Melaku Tefera, 2011)
[26].
3. Wildlife Conservation and Protected Area in
Ethiopia
Ethiopia is a signatory party of the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD) thereby, has been
undertaking efforts in biodiversity conservation (EBI,
20014) [12]
. Smilarly, Ethiopia has developed a national
biodiversity strategy and action plan with the
objectives of conserving representative examples of
remaining ecosystems through a network of effectively
managed protected areas under sustainable use and
management by 2020 (EBI, 2014) [12]
. However, a
significant biodiversity conservation challenge was
evident in several protected areas (Alemneh Amare,
2015) [1]
.
Protected area can play critical roles in safeguarding
biodiversity and maintaining a sustainable world
(Borrie et al., 1998) [4]
. Wildlife conservation is the
science of analysis and protecting the Earth’s
biological diversity, which is the variation of life form
within a given ecosystem, or for entire Earth. Wildlife
conservation is also defined as the process by which
individuals and organizations protect and preserve the
species through conservation policy, which entails
preservation of habitat and management of wildlife
species (Idowu et al., 2011) [19]
.
In Ethiopia, 40 protected areas cover roughly 16.4% of
the country’s land area (186,000 km2). These areas
face many challenges due to growing populations,
border conflicts, and recurring drought. A chronic and
growing issue for Ethiopia’s largely pastoral rural
people is local access to grazing lands (Ashenafi and
Leader-Williams, 2005) [2]
. As in other parts of the
developing world, increased concern over the burden
that conservation often places on local communities
has led to efforts to incorporate development goals into
conservation practices (Hulme and Murphree, 2001)
[17]. Residents living in the highlands in and around
Bale Mountains National Park raised horses, sheep,
donkeys, and cattle. In contrast, lowland residents in
and around Abijata-Shalla Lakes National Park, Awash
National Park, and Senkelle Swayne’s Hartebeest
Sanctuary raised goats, sheep, donkeys, camels, and
cattle (Mekbeb Tessema et al., 2007) [25]
.
4. Role of Protected Areas for Livelihoods
Improvement in Ethiopia
Protected areas safeguard biological and cultural
diversity, help to improve the livelihoods of local
communities, provide the homelands for many
indigenous peoples and bring countless benefits to
society in general (Sandwith, 2001). Biodiversity
underpins all ecosystem goods and services responsible
for providing food and water, buffering the impacts of
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climate change, controlling the outbreak of diseases
and supporting nutrient cycling. Biodiversity also
serves as the foundation of many spiritual, recreational
and cultural benefits (CBD, 2013) [7]
.
Ethiopia has so far established several protected areas
which include 21 national parks, 4 sanctuaries, 8
wildlife reserves, 20 controlled hunting areas, six open
hunting areas, six community conservation areas and
58 national forest priority areas (Young, 2012) [32]
. In
Ethiopia, protected areas cover 19% of the country.
They play key roles in economic, ecological and social
structure of the community. Similarly, they have
significant roles in conservation, recreation, eco-
tourism and employment. Direct and indirect annual
economic values of some protected areas are estimated
at 1.5 billion USD (EBI, 2014) [12]
.
Fig 1: Role of Protected areas for socio-economic improvement of adjacent community (Bale National Park)
5. Paper Parks in Protected Area Systems of
Ethiopia
Due to the less emphasis given to our protected areas
most of Ethiopian national parks are facing sever
threats. The protected areas are showing some sort of
conservation improvements. However, there are paper
parks devoid of the intended schemes of conservation
and management practices. Therefore, we need to scale
up the practical conservation than listing the areas in
paper. Thus, supporting sustainable development
through mainstreaming conservation approaches in
tourism and stake in to various sectors working in
similar endeavor.
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Fig 2: Typical example of paper parks in Ethiopian protected area system (Abijata Shalla lakes national park)
Severely threatened protected areas in Ethiopian
protected areas system (Abijata Shalla lakes national
park) shown in (figure 2) might possibly belongs to
paper park. This is in consideration of large scale
settlements, school and expansion of other
infrastructural services inside the park.
6. Overview of physically healthy protected parks in
Ethiopia
Ethiopian protected area system is much of less
protected due to limited resources, skilled manpower
and other infrastructural services in support of
sustainable conservation and management of biological
diversity. However, there are some typical
representations of physically healthy protected areas
with mega biological diversity. Thus sites are shown in
(figure 3). Currently, more than 161, 991 areas have
been reported as protected area in the world data base
of protected areas and the number continues to increase
(Kolahi et al., 2013) [22]
. PA has long been the only
way to conserve ecological regions from the other form
of land use (EEA, 2010) [14]
. Protected areas are
therefore the cornerstone of most national strategies to
protect biodiversity and national resources
(Laverington et al., 2010) [23]
.
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A : Bale Mountain National Park
B: Semen Mountain National Park
Fig 3: Overview of physically healthy protected parks in Ethiopia protected area system
7. General facets of Key wildlife Threat Factors
There is a growing evidence of critical biodiversity
breakdown both inside and outside of many Pas.
Accordingly many Pas are presently being degraded
and destroyed (Dudley et al., 2004) [10]
. In most
developing countries, Pas are under pressure from
anthropogenic activities and lack proper management
and maintenance (Kolahi et al., 2012) [21]
.
Overpopulation and overconsumption ( Kolahi et al.,
2012) [21]
, habitat loss, fragmentation, and invasive
species (Meduna et al., 2009) [24]
, associated with
socioeconomic problems and policy failures, week
government structure, policy, and legislation, low
morale, and inadequate funds are underlying causes of
biodiversity loss (Eldredge, 2010) [12]
.
7.1. Wildlife Conservation Threats operating in
Protected Area System of Ethiopia
Ethiopia biodiversity threats and analysis of their root
causes shown that, conservation gaps are associated
with lack of adequate capacity, commitment,
organizational set-up and lack of monitoring of the
implementation strategy on the status & trends of
threats (EBI, 2014) [12]
.
Invasive species, overgrazing and land degradation are
common problems in Babile Elephant Sanctuary,
Yangudi-rasa, Omo, Awash and Nechisar national
parks (Young, 2012) [32]
. Scattered bushland which is
the most important habitat for the wild animals of
Awash national park are declined drastically. In the
park a number of animal and plant species are reported
to be endangered or critically endangered. It has failed
to protect the continuous decline of both faunal and
floral communities (Young, 2012) [32]
.
Ethiopian wildlife biodiversity has shown dramatic
decline in type and size. This decline of nature value is
accelerated at a rate faster than what was then due to
the key threat factors operating against it. As well, the
rapidly growing infrastructural expansion like road,
trans boundary trade are done without staking
biological diversity present in public land of the
country. From the commonly observed problems road
spatial setting (figure 4), road kill (figure 6) (figure 7)
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wildlife trafficking along transit routes of the country
are the threats.
7.1.1. Spatial Ecology of Roads Passing Through
Protected Areas in Eastern Ethiopia
Highway extended from Awash to Galafi transit is the
biggest economic corridor with uppermost traffic flow
in the country. Further, with the recent economic
growth of the country, the traffic intensity may
possibly increases considerably. However, within the
highway there are three protected areas, namely Awash
National Park, Yangudi Rasa National Park and
Allideghi Wildlife Reserve set aside for wildlife
conservation (Figure 4).
Fig 4: Spatial ecology of Highway passing through protected areas in Ethiopia (Awash - Mile town, Ethiopia)
The road is passing in the fragmented landscape of the
projected areas exclusive of wildlife crossing
structures. Besides, ecological safety management of
wildlife vehicle collision is poorly designed so that, it
is causing mortality of wildlife of conservation interest.
During our incidental survey, we observed
considerable road kill of wild animals. As well, the
road is also too crowded with heavy vehicles in the 24
hours. The arid climatic condition of the highway
makes the drivers to frequently travel during active
hour of the wild animals. Such kind of traffic
concordance may aggravate the rate of wildlife road
kill in the selected sites. On the other hand,
conservation efforts on road ecology are not practically
feasible due to weak law enforcement and lack of multi
sector involvement before and after construction plan.
Thus, such threats are leading the conservation efforts
problematic.
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Fig 5: Spatial view of the Landscape of protected areas with Highway in Afar regional state (Awash park)
7.1.2. Road kills of Wildlife along Highways in
Protected Area System of Ethiopia
Road sector is an imperative tool for the developmental
endeavor of a given nation infrastructural extension.
However, biological resources found adjacent to
highway of economic corridor must be vigilantly
planned in both pre and post construction impact
assessment practices. If the developmental agendas are
not stake in road sector, it causes road kill of various
wildlife species. Some of the observed road kills
records in Eastern Ethiopia protected areas are shown
in (Figure 5).
Fig 6: Road kill of wild animals in various parts of Ethiopian protected areas (Awash National Park)
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7.1.3. Wildlife Trafficking As a Conservation
Threat in Protected Area System of Ethiopia
Nationally transboundary illicit trafficking of body
parts of wild animals is unnoticed concern. Based on
our preliminary survey the current pragmatic focus of
customs authority is on electronic devices and other
goods. But, such sites are also prone to trafficking of
trophy and skull of wild animals which have
commercial importance in the global illicit market. The
conservation crime monitoring system practiced by law
enforcement agents in the checkpoint of Awash transit
routes neglects checking local passengers passing
through the highway from Addis Abeba to Eastern
destinations. Poachers can take this opportunity to
traffic wildlife along the transnational transboundary
sites. Globally the fight against transboundary wildlife
crime received a boost at the G8 meeting held from 17
to 18 June 2013 at Lough Erne. G8 Leaders recognized
the need to tackle criminal trafficking and strengthen
border security, including in relation to illicit
trafficking of wildlife noting the links to governance
and the rule of law and sources of funding for terrorists
(EWCA, 2014) [13]
.
Fig 7: Problems associated with wildlife trafficking in various parts of Ethiopia
7.1.3. Protected areas land conversion
Land use conversion due to increasing human and
livestock population is a common experience in
protected areas of most Eastern African countries
(Pomeroy et al, 2003) [29]
. Such a conversion of natural
vegetation cover to other use types such as farmlands,
grazing lands, human settlements and urban center has
been shown to be a cause to loss of biodiversity,
deforestation and land degradation (Milner et al.,2006)
[12]. Moreover, such changes, from forest to various
land use types, in East Africa, including Ethiopia, were
ranked as the highest in Africa at a rate of 0.94%
(1990-2000) and 0.97% per year (2000-2005) (FAO,
2007) [15]
.
7.1.4. Border conflicts among local communities
Ethiopia protected areas may have many challenges
some of which are results of border conflicts among
local communities (Ashenafi and Leader, 2005) [2]
.
Such factors have threatened the existence of many
parks in the country (Belay et al., 2012) [3]
. The
increasing livestock population and illicit exploitation
of resources have impacted resources in Nechisar
National Park (Demeke Datiko, 2011) [9]
.
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Although Simen Mountain National Park was reported
to show some positive development, infrastructural
expansion in the surrounding area, deforestation,
agriculture, hunting, and livestock grazing contributed
to the deterioration of the park (Hurni et al., 2008) [18]
.
In Alatish National Park, habitat destruction to expand
grazing land, poaching and forest fire were marked as
primary contributing factors to the decline biological
diversity (Girma and Afework, 2008) [16]
.
7.1.5. Invasive species
Invasive species cause biodiversity loss by competing
native species for feed and habitat and altering the
physical environment in a way that excludes native
species. So far, close to 35 invasive weed species are
identified in Ethiopia, and they are posing negative
impacts on native. Biodiversity, agricultural and range
lands, national parks, water ways, lakes, rivers, power
dams, road sides and urban green spaces with huge
economical as well as social consequences. Some of
these species include: mesquites (Prosopis juliflora),
parthenium weed (Parthenium hysterophorus), water
hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), lantana weed
(Lantana camara), Acacia species, and other weeds
such as Orobanche and Cuscuta species that are
identified as major plant invaders. Recent surveys
found also emerging plant invaders such as
Cryptostegia grandiflora, Parkinsonia aculeata,
Mimosa diplorotricha and Nicotiana glauca (Rezene
(EBI, 2014) [12]
.
7.1.6. Unsustainable utilization
Unsustainable utilization (over grazing/browsing,
harvesting and hunting) of biological resources is one
of the major threats to biodiversity and ecosystems in
Ethiopia. Overgrazing/browsing by livestock in many
ecosystems has also contributed to the degradation of
rangelands and forest ecosystems. The consequences of
these impacts include ecological disturbance, loss of
species and ecosystem services thereby affecting
livelihoods of local communities. Farmers found
within the lake watershed were pumping water
unsustainably to irrigate chat (Catha edulis), the main
commercial crop in the area. This eventually resulted
in the disappearance of the lake affecting the livelihood
of the people that have been dependent on the lake
(Brook Lemma, 2011) [5]
.
8. Sustainable Conservation Practices of Wildlife
Genetic Resource
Sustainable conservation of wildlife resources has been
one of the core objectives of wildlife managers and
biologists in many countries in Africa. For centuries,
wildlife has been utilized not only for subsistence but
also for commercial purposes. However, as human
population expands, wildlife resources are increasingly
subjected to severe pressure, which threatens their
existence and sustainability (Milner et al., 2006) [27]
.
Apart from consumptive utilization, other
anthropogenic activities such as agriculture have
indirectly influenced the survival of wildlife species
through manipulation of their habitats (Kideghesho et
al., 2006) [20]
. Since most local communities have a
historical interaction with wildlife in rural areas, efforts
to ensure sustainability have been focusing on
involving local people in conservation. Many
governments have adopted a participatory approach to
conservation as a result of pervasive loss of wildlife
species and the challenges of a “fences and fines”
approach (Nishizaki, 2004) [28]
. Countries in the
southern part of Africa such as Namibia, Botswana,
Zambia, and South Africa have had a good experience
in community-based conservation (Tnfr, 2008) [31]
. In
the rest of Africa, for example in East Africa,
participatory conservation has been confronting some
challenges. This has led to a considerable concern over
community-based conservation initiatives in this
wildlife-rich part of Africa (Saito, 2007) [30]
.
Sustainable wildlife conservation practices are best
choice of the management strategies enabling national
development to be integrated with biodiversity
conservation efforts. Thus, we need to harmonize
conservation practices so as to make use it in the
developmental agenda of our Country.
9. Conservation Implications
The above listed key wildlife threat factors has a wider
conservation implication for reducing the operating
threats. In the presence of threats it is challenging to
assure sustainable development agendas. Moreover, the
above reviewed fundamental threats can decline the
wildlife biodiversity under protection. Hence,
mainstreaming wildlife conservation to school clubs,
the largest community and stake in to different sectors
is vital tool of sustainable development.
10. Conclusion
Wildlife threat is a factory with a negative role in our
effort to conserve and sustainably utilize the biological
capitals. Ethiopia has developed a national biodiversity
strategy and action plan with the objectives of
conserving representative examples of remaining
ecosystems through a network of effectively managed
protected areas under sustainable use and management
by 2020. However, a significant biodiversity
conservation challenge was evident in several protected
areas. As well, due to the less emphasis given to our
protected areas some of the national parks are paper
parks devoid of the intended schemes of conservation
and management practices. There is a growing
evidence of critical biodiversity breakdown both inside
and outside of many conservation areas. Accordingly
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many protected areas are presently being degraded and
destroyed. Highway passing through protected areas
set aside for wildlife conservation are key wildlife
threat factors operating in some of our conservation
sites. Moreover, transboundary illicit trafficking of
body parts of wild animals which have commercial
importance in the global illicit market is a serious
problem in some of custom border checkpoints. Land
use conversion due to increasing human and livestock
population is a common experience in our protected
areas. Moreover, boarder conflicts among local
communities such factors have threatened the existence
of many parks in the country. The increasing livestock
population and illegal exploitation of resources have
impacted resources in protected areas. So far, close to
35 invasive weed species are identified in Ethiopia, and
they are posing negative impacts on native
Biodiversity, agricultural and range lands, national
parks, water ways, lakes, rivers, power dams.
Sustainable wildlife conservation practices are best
choice of the management strategies enabling national
development to be integrated with biodiversity
conservation efforts. Thus, we need to harmonize
conservation practices so as to make use it in the
developmental agenda of our Country. In the presence
of threats it is challenging to assure sustainable
development agendas. Moreover, the above reviewed
fundamental threats can decline the wildlife
biodiversity under protection. Hence, mainstreaming
wildlife conservation to school clubs, the largest
community and stake in to different sectors is vital tool
of sustainable conservation.
11. Way forward
Ethiopia is one of the biodiversity rich countries but
utilization and conservation of the biota in a manner
that sustains livelihood is poorly considered. Most of
the wild biota belongs to Paper Park owing to the less
emphasis given to the phenomenon. Thus, due
consideration should be given to the natural facets of
wildlife diversity in the physical geography of the
states protected area system. Even though the
economic, social and ecological value of wildlife
biodiversity is known still conservation challenges are
there. Moreover, the threats are challenging
developmental efforts aligned with utilization of biota.
If the sever threats facing wildlife is not monitored in a
way of sustainability biodiversity will be a story to tell
for generation than handing the resources. Therefore,
there is a need to reduce the threats using timely
ecological monitoring approaches so as to rescue the
natural capital for our benefit and the future generation.
Thus, such efforts should be supported by capacitating
protected area personnel in ecological threat analysis
and community based conservation practices.
Road infrastructure plays key role in economic
development of a given nation. Hence, road
networking activities should be supported with post
and pre construction ecological impact assessments so
as to reduce its effect on wild animals. Even though
there are prominent efforts in road infrastructural
development of Ethiopia some of the highways are of
conservation challenge without staking biodiversity
components. Thus, intensive survey on road kill of
wildlife and identification of vulnerable sites should be
done. Moreover, appropriate mitigation measures using
digital sign post for both daytime and night time
derivers should be installed along identified routes of
conservation importance. Moreover, in view of the
upcoming road network improvement and expansion in
Ethiopia, specifically in Eastern Ethiopia, it is
necessary to undertake wildlife vehicle mortality
studies for developing wildlife safety management
measures within protected areas.
Illicit wildlife trafficking cause’s severe conservation
challenges on a state genetic biodiversity. This event
can stand against the fair and equitable access of our
genetic resources. However, the magnitude of the
problem is much more common along the border point
custom check point. Therefore, checkpoint located
along border point should be institutionally capacitated
of wildlife trafficking monitoring structures. As well,
the intended capacity building training should be given
of the dynamic conservation crime tactics. Moreover,
community development frameworks and alternative
livelihood approaches on the range states of trafficked
animals should be a concern of future governmental
directions.
Sustainable wildlife conservation can help to conserve,
sustainably use resource, and pledge fair and equitable
benefit from genetic components. Sustainability can be
assured through community participation and
supporting the economic wellbeing of the largest
community. Therefore, sustainability of biodiversity is
an issue of making use of participatory approaches and
stake in various sectors. Moreover, making use of eco-
technological solutions of developmental based threats
factors should be included in Sustainability affairs.
12. Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge Ethiopian
Biodiversity Institute, Mekelle Biodiversity Center for
providing encouragement to review pertinent key
wildlife threats articles which supports wildlife
conservation at the interest of the local development
needs. I am specifically thankful for the extensive and
useful comments of the anonymous reviewers.
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