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Review of Literature
2.1.1. Learned Helplessness:
Klein, Fencil-Morse & Seligman (1976), claimed if people are subject to adverse
conditions for a long time and cannot change these situations with their actions, they
perceive behaviour-outcome independency and feel lack of control. This lack of
control creates helplessness, which manifests itself passivity, lowered performance
and motivation.
According to Costello (1978), behaviour-outcome independency does not always
cause helplessness; sometimes having limited resources and opportunities cause
passive behaviours, which is mistakenly interpreted as the sign of helplessness. In line
with the arguments of Costello (1978), other studies (Roth & Bootzin 1974) could not
replicate the findings of Hiroto (1974), Gatchel, and Proctor (1976). In some studies,
lack of control did not create helplessness, thus passive behaviours as expected; on
the contrary, people who could not control outcomes with their behaviours showed
greater effort and increased their performance. These conflicting results led
researchers to develop models explaining the development of learned helplessness.
2.1.1.1. Learned Helplessness and Work Context:
Martinko and Gardner (1982) claimed that work conditions made people alienated
from their job and led them exhibit passive behaviours, which were later regarded as
manifestation of helplessness by some researchers. The researchers who applied
learned helplessness concept, which had already been one of the widely researched
topics in psychology. According to these researchers, many problems in organisations
especially the ones related to performance result from employees‘ beliefs that they
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cannot change outcomes with their efforts.
Abramson, Seligman and Teasdale (1978) proposed an integrated model, which
included both antecedents and consequences of helplessness in work life. The model
has four dimensions, two of which compose of factors triggering helplessness
(antecedents); others compose of consequences. In the first dimension, the researchers
mentioned about stimulators, which could act as distal predictor of helplessness.
Organisation structure, performance appraisal system, reward system, the
characteristics of leaders or managers and work-related factors such as task difficulty
and structure were listed as ―internal environment‖ simulators, whereas technology,
social values, economic and political-legal conditions were listed as ―external
environment‖ simulators. These internal and external simulators determine whether
employees succeed or fail, thus create success and failure experiences in people‘s
mind. However, simulators and previous experiences are not enough for the
development of helplessness.
Carlson and Kacmar (1994) proposed a model explaining the development of
helplessness in organisations. The researchers combined attribution theory with self-
esteem construct and claimed whether individual and environmental factors create,
helplessness depends on people‘s self-esteem. As in other models, researchers assert
that people‘s attributions regarding success and failure play a key role on the
development of helplessness.
Tubre & Collins, (2000), claims that people having high self-esteem are less
vulnerable to helplessness because of their tendency to explain success with internal
and stable; failure with external and unstable factors. Although aforementioned
models explain the development of helplessness with perceived lack of control and
attribution style, they acknowledge the fact that some individual and work-related
factors could affect attributions and control-related judgments of people, thus trigger
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the development of learned helplessness. These models provide integrated and
comprehensive explanations regarding the development of employee helplessness, yet
they have not been tested empirically so far. Though limited in number, there are
studies investigating the effect of individual and organisational factors on
helplessness in work-context.
Maier and Seligman (1976), claims that helplessness results in motivational,
emotional and cognitive deficits, which manifest themselves depression, anxiety,
unwillingness and inability to learn. Unlike earlier learned helplessness models,
however, this model distinguishes universal helplessness from personal helplessness.
According to Abramson et al. (1978), when people believe that their responses as
well as the responses of other people are unrelated to outcomes, they are prone to feel
―universal helplessness‖. However, researchers claimed universal helplessness
accounts for only a portion of helplessness construct; therefore, one needs to consider
―personal helplessness‖ as well. Personal helplessness is argued to be observed when
person know that there are responses, which would contingently produce desired
outcomes, yet they are unable to show these responses even though they desired. In
universal helplessness, persons make external attribution for outcomes meaning that
they believe same outcomes are as likely to happen to themselves as to relevant others
2.1.1.2.Learned Helplessness and Individual Factors:
Tayfur & Arslan, (2012) suggested that helplessness depends on the perceptions of
people, meaning that sometimes work stressors manifest itself as helplessness yet
sometimes the same work stressors do not affect people at all. Personality style,
needs, priorities, gender, and age could affect the way people explain favorable and
unfavorable outcomes, thus determine whether they would fall into helplessness,
depression and stress. Despite the apparent role of individual factors on perception of
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stress and stress-related syndromes, limited number of studies investigated the role of
individual difference variables on helplessness, especially in individual factors.
Learned Helplessness and Gender
Kiefer (1990), investigated the differences between males and females regarding the
attribution style and tried to uncover whether males or females are more likely to
make pessimistic attributions leading to helplessness. In one study the women being
subject to uncontrollable adverse conditions were found to make more pessimistic
attributions (i.e., internal, universal and stable attributions for failure) and show
symptoms of helplessness more compared to men.
LeUnes, Nation & Turley (1980), in another research found that women dealing with
unsolvable anagrams in the first phase of experiment were found to be less successful
and motivated in the second phase compared to women dealing with solvable
anagrams and not dealing with anagrams at all. Lack of motivation and performance
decrement was not observed among male participants, which suggests that males are
less vulnerable to helpless, when faced with uncontrollable adverse situations. The
researchers explained male‘s resistance to helplessness with socialisation process and
claimed that males were more equipped to cope with frustrating situations because of
the training they got their parents. Unlike many researchers claiming that women are
more prone to feel themselves helpless,
Baucom and Danker-Brown (1979) stated that the roles attributed to males and
females by the society, not the mere sex made people feel helpless. According to
researchers, people scoring on high on either masculinity or femininity are more
likely to become helpless compared to people having both masculine and feminine
tendencies.
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Overton & Meehan, (1982) claimed that women show helplessness because they are
more exposed to situations, which involve failure, lack of control and punishment.
According to Seligman (1990a), women are more prone to feel themselves helpless
because of their tendency to dwell on their thoughts and explain unfavorable events
and situations with pessimistic attribution style. It is noteworthy to mention that some
studies (Dweck & Llicht, 1980;) reported conflicting results concerning the effect of
gender on helplessness. For example, in one study, female students were found to
exhibit less helplessness symptoms compared to male students.
Rozell, Gundersen and Tersptra (1998) found no difference between male and female
university students with respect to helplessness they felt. Like Baucom and Danker-
Brown (1979), researchers claimed that people having only feminine or masculine
tendencies were more likely feel helplessness compared to people having androgen
tendencies or gender neutral identity. Considering the conflicting results, it is hard to
conclude that particular type of sex induces learned helplessness. Getting lower
wages and salaries and having to deal with prejudgments, gender discrimination, and
role conflicts could make women employees more vulnerable to helplessness.
However, support given by coworkers, managers and family could alleviate the
effects of adverse work conditions and lack of controllability, hence increase
resilience of women employees.
Cemalcılar, Canbeyli & Sunar, (2003) argued that in neuroticism scale under
helplessness symptoms, women having high scores exhibited helplessness symptoms
(i.e., took longer to solve anagrams) more than women with lower scores. However,
the same result was not replicated for male participants, who seemed to be more
affected by agreeableness. In that study, men scored higher on the agreeableness
subscale solved anagrams faster than others; which indicates that agreeableness
alleviates helplessness a certain extent.
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Learned Helplessness and Personality
Schaufeli & Buunk, (2003) revealed the effect of neuroticism and native affectivity
on burnout, depression and stress, which had been shown to be associated with
helplessness. In the literature, people scoring high on native affectivity are argued to
feel more stress, focus more on their failures and evaluate themselves more natively,
which could create helplessness.
Armon, Shirom & Melamed, (2012) argue that perfectionism, especially maladaptive
one, could increase stress, hopelessness, and anxiety, which were found to be closely
associated with helplessness in previous studies (Peterson, Maier, & Seligman, 1993).
In line with this argument, some of the sub dimensions of perfectionism such as
concern for making mistake and getting approval of others were found to increase
depression & hopelessness (Enns et al., 2001), anxiety (Hill et al., 2004) and self-
blame (Dunkley et al., 2003).
Frost, Benton & Dowrick, (1990) perfectionism was shown to increase depression,
which is known to be one of the most prominent consequences of helplessness in
considerable number of studies. In an exploratory study investigating the relationship
between maladaptive perfectionism and helplessness, perfectionism was found to
increase learned helplessness felt by physicians (Tayfur, 2011). As indicated before,
individual attributions for the cause of unfavorable events could affect people‘s sense
of controllability. Some individuals are more prone to explain their failures with
stable, global and internal factors, which make them vulnerable to helplessness. Apart
from personal attribution style, cognitive style could influence helplessness.
Brunstein & Olbrich, (1985), action-oriented individuals unlike state-dependent ones
increased their effort to control outcomes after being exposed to uncontrollable events
and seemed to be more resistant to apathy, thereby helplessness. Moreover, people
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with an internal locus of control and low achievement motivation (Martinko &
Gardner, 1982) were found to be more vulnerable to helplessness in previous studies.
Based on the review of literature, it can be concluded that individual characteristics
like neuroticism, Type A personality make some people more prone to feel
helplessness, yet these characteristics cannot serve as sole determinants of
helplessness.
Wortman and Brehm (1975) argued that the initial response to uncontrollable
outcome is an increase in motivation and performance in order to attempt to rain
control. Thus, the child that experiences the death of a loves one may be motivated to
become doctor so that he or she can treat patients with similar problem and prevent
the same thing from happening to others loved ones. The effects of reactance are
limited though the effect of learned helplessness is many. Studies have further
established that people with more experience and with insoluble problems has greater
feelings of helplessness and lower performance (Roth and Kubal, 1975). Reactance
logically preceded helplessness (Greenberger and Stasser ,1991). When perceived
uncontrollable experience continues to arise, the state of helplessness is likely to
emerge (Wise, 1999).
Individual may respond to initial perception of uncontrollability by attempting to rain
control i.e. reactance, and only abandon such attempts if they proves futile i.e.
helplessness (Khandelwal,2003). Regarding partial reinforcement versus continuous
reinforcement , considering Nepoloen and Stalin as example , both were supreme
dictators in their countries , both possessed unprecedented control in their leadership,
both were reported to have suffered extreme depressions as they lost power ,
especially napoleon`s declining political power and stalin`s failing health might have
contributed to greater perceived loss of control. Also considering the blues reported
by presidents after they had completed their term in the office, perhaps a president
who had experienced periods of power loss would be better buffered against
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depressions than would a president who had greater and more consistent power over
the country for a longer period of time. Thus, partial reinforcement of a particular
behaviour strengthens the behaviour to a greater degree than does continuous
reinforcement.
A logical progression would be that partial and sporadic, yet frequent, experiences
with environmental control would protect an individual against learned helplessness
to a greater degree than would continuous experience with control (Johnson,1983).
Regarding orientation, Leonard and Straus (1997) contended that people tend to
choose profession that rewards their own combination of preferences. Their work
experience in turn reinforces the original preferences and deepens the associated
skills. Therefore, one sees very different problem solving approaches among
accountants, entrepreneurs, social workers and artist. According to Dhar et. Al
(2000b), individuals vary in orientation and approach towards learned helplessness
and subsequent problem solving. Every organisation functions with certain set of
policies and procedures and is run by well defined organisation structure.
Reagan (1990) claimed that executives and doctors may differ significantly in terms
of environment, nature of job and functioning. Work environment and profession
along with individual orientation have an impact on learned helplessness. They found
that executives with right brain thinking have emerged to have high level of learned
helplessness in comparison to executives with left brain thinking and doctors with
both right brain as well as left brain thinking orientation. It may be due to the ability
of left brain thinkers, irrespective of profession, to solve problem logically.
According to De Bono (1973), the left brain or the vertical thinking process depends
on sequential decisions, all of which must be correct for a useful result. An individual
with vertical thinking does not experiment with his thought processes, whereas an
individual with right brain or lateral thinking abandons the unsuccessful cognitive
path.
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The repeated encounter of failure is likely to be due to their intuitive approach.
People develop a sense of learned helplessness- the belief that they will fail regardless
of effort after experiencing repeated failure (Seligmen, 1975). Executives with whole
brain thinking have shown high level of learned helplessness in comparison to
executives with left brain thinking and doctors with both right as well as left brain
thinking orientation. It reaffirms the fact that logical and analytical approach suits
more to the executives. Whole brain thinking does not really help them in feeling
helplessness. They also found that the whole brain doctors had shown significantly
higher learned helplessness in comparison to executive with left brain thinking and
doctors with both right and left brain thinking. The result are indicative of different
professional demand amongst executives and doctors as learned helplessness has
emerged to be function of right brain thinking in the case of doctors (Dhar et
al,2000b).
Though executives with left brain and doctors with right brain significantly different
from each other in term of learned helplessness in comparison to their peers on other
thinking orientations. The result of the study have revealed that profession or nature
of job is an important variable that intervenes to alter the impact of thinking
orientation on learned helplessness. Vicarious and verbal symbolic processes also
appears to play an important role here , for example ,watching someone else
experience non-contingency ,particularly someone we think has the same ability level
as ours , can produce behavioural impairments in us (Brown and Inouye ,1978:
Devellis et al,1978). These effects appear to indicate that the cognition of
uncontrollability is critical to helplessness, rather than actual uncontrollability.
Another approach adds yet another layer of thought process. This approach holds that
people do poorly after prolonged failure threatens self-esteem (Snyder et al,1978)
Rather than looking foolish on a later task, they stop trying. This withdrawal of
efforts creates a face saving attribution while at the same time i.e. ironically causing
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the poor outcome they had been afraid of in the first place (Frankle and Snyder,1978).
Thus a phenomenon identified in the animal conditioning lab was extended to human
behaviour. In doing this, theorists who pursued the phenomenon have increasingly
invoked cognitive processes as a way of accounting for it. Learned helplessness is an
outcome of observation, Seligman and Maier (1967) predicted that a person suffering
from learned helplessness will lose interest in his usual activities, shows psychomotor
retardation and lost energy, not think well, have difficulties remaining attentive, and
blames his failure to solve problems on his own lack of ability and worthlessness.
Studies have demonstrated that learned helplessness can be developed by observing
helpless model (Browm and Inoyve,1978 : devellis et al,1978).Individuals give up
more easily if they see themselves similar to a helpless model than if they observe a
successful model or perceive themselves as more competent then the observed model.
(Feldman,1996) states that after exposure to uncontrollable conditions, individual
learns that nothing he/she does, matter much; as a result, native feelings are
generated. A king of helplessness comes with time. Individual starts believing that
outcome is out of his control and stops reacting to the situations. He learns to feel
helpless even when outcome are within his control. Victims of learns helplessness
believes that there is no link between the response that makes and the outcomes that
occurred. Therefore in an adverse and unpleasant condition, they do not try to change
the adverse circumstances, even when they can exert some influence (Seligman,
1975). Individuals give up more easily if they see themselves similar to a helpless
model then if they observe successful model or perceive themselves as more
competent than the observed model. The conviction they will not succeed many a
times may reflect skill deficit (Dhar et al. 2000a). The behavioural effects can include
passivity, giving up, procrastination (McKean, 1991).
Rangnekar, (1999) suggested helplessness as a feeling of doom, and a blow to the
person`s self esteem Depression may be result of hopelessness, a combination of
learned helplessness and expectation that native out comes in one‘s life are
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inequitable. He emphasized similar factors in his clinical analysis of patients‘ reports
of depression. He describes a patient who become depressed whenever his fear of
remaining weal was aroused, another patient who become depressed confronted with
a power beyond her reach and people who become psychologically depressed during
the economic depression of the 1930s and the political crises prior to World War II.
The common themes throughout trivial and complicated cases of depression.
Learned Helplessness and Managerial Styles
Arnold (1998) discussed factors contributing to learned helplessness grouping
students with a variety of disabilities under the tutelage of one teacher with generic
training, excessive use of external reinforcement, lack or early identification of
learning disabilities, a belief in a fixed static intelligence and lack of reward for
individual effort versus achievement are all important issues to consider. The study of
Tushman & Nadler (1986) can lead to the understanding of impact of the challenges
related to a manager‘s job and the constraints the organisation may put on the
managerial creativity. The need to meet the challenges puts pressure on the managers
and if the manager comes across frequent failures then he may develop learned
helplessness and he may not be able to look for more alternatives and solutions even
if he is capable to do so as reported by Arnold. Concerning managerial styles, Pethe
et al (2000) found that there is a positive relationship between bohemian styles, task
obsessive style with learned helplessness.
Stipek (1988) feel a sense of uncontrollability of environment, they feel that they are
not able to obtain adequate resources, support and focus on task goals rather than
developmental goals. Individuals suffering from learned helplessness believe that
they are incapable of doing anything in order to improve their performance in the
task. People may overemphasize only task related performance, As the individual
with task obsessive style think only of task and detach emotions and personal
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problems, they may do so because they feel that their emotional and personal
problems are due to learned helplessness. This may presumably be the reason that
they think only of the task and leave feelings behind. The result indicates a
significantly native relationship between learned helplessness and flexible style.
Individuals with learned helplessness defer from practicing flexible managerial style.
The resilient managerial style is characterized by respect for organisational practices
and finding out a smart way to fulfill individual as well as organisational goals within
the organisational framework.
Roth and Kubal, (1975) have further established that more experience subjects have
with insolvable problems; the greater are their feeling of helplessness and lower their
performance. This helplessness leads people to be dependent on ideas and thus they
tend to learn from others, accept their ideas blindly, and may not change their
approach as required and may not practice resilient style (Pethe et al,2000). In a study
by Rangnekar (1999), it was found that executives with high and low learned
helplessness were different in terms of managerial effectiveness. Learned
helplessness demotes managerial effectiveness and its dimension of flexibility
amongst executives with internal locus of control, whereas it demotes adaptability in
the case of individuals with external locus of control.
The experience of role innovation – of actually enacting changes in one‘s job- should
help immunize participants against the perception that work related matters are
uncontrollable (Ashforth, 2000). The properties of formal organisations tend to
condition employee failure and this behaviour often continues even after
environmental changes make success possible. The cues from the environment are
combined with a person‘s past outcome history in order to make causal attributions
for performance. Environmental variables may include organisational structure and
policies, evaluation systems, reward system, organisational goals, leadership and
nature of work. It has been argued that in organisations helplessness is likely to be
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associated with various job-related problems suggestive of poor work adjustment,
such as work alienation and job dissatisfaction (Martinko and Gardner,1982); Carlson
and Kacmar,1994). Given the importance of control motivation to people in general,
research indicates that a sense of helplessness may be associated with a variety of
affective, cognitive and behavioural problems, including apathy, withdrawal and
depression (Peterson et al,1993; Weary et al,1993).
There exists significantly high native relationship between organisational based self
esteem and learned helplessness. The external as well as internal environment affects
the individual and his behaviour. The organisational structure, policies, practices and
job design can affects an individual‘s self esteem. If anyone perceives these factors
such as uncontrollable, then he can develop learned helplessness resulting in poor
performance. The result of the study indicated that when an individual perceives the
environment to be conductive, his organisation based self esteem can increase and he
may not develop learned helplessness (Pethe and Chaudhari,2001). Individuals
exhibiting learned helplessness within organisational engage in specific behaviours
that contribute to the organisation‘s helplessness. Generally employees have a set of
behaviour peculiar to themselves. Some individuals stop striving for high levels of
achievement or fail to work to their previous capacity. They think that what they do
will not make a difference and other are more passive. They stop being proactive in
their work; they no longer seek new and innovative ways for achieving good results.
Some individuals exhibit passive aggressive behaviour even when they know this will
result in failure of the task or project. Other employees refuse to make decisions,
because they think the superior will not support them if they fail and if they succeed
then the superior will take credit of it. Some employees are unwilling to make
decisions because they do not know how to make decision. They never had the
opportunity to take the decision and are uncomfortable with the responsibility. Other
employees withdraw into themselves at work and produce minimally but the same
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individuals seen to come alive the moment they leave work for the day (Martinko and
Gardner, 1982). Employees who exhibits learned helplessness are courting disaster in
the organisation, because the employees are not producing anywhere near their
capacity and capability. Their learned helplessness adversely affects problem solving
capacity of the organisation. In short run this can result in facing difficulty in meeting
customer requirements, making deliveries on time and being competitive. In the long
run the business may fail, putting all employees out of work and job.
Organisationally induced learned helplessness could be a serious problem in current
global market place. Fortunately some workable solutions are available. It is possible
to overcome the state of from learned helplessness. It is said that basic drive of human
being is to control their environment in turn if a parson lacks control over an aspect of
his environment in one situation; this will impair learning in a similar situation. If a
person is put in a situation where his behaviour is unaffected, he becomes passive and
his desire to act or try harder dissolves. Thus change in the environment is necessary
to bring about any change in the learned helplessness. Organisational changes have
been described a transition state, which is critical because it greatly determines the
quality and future state. Change means the organisational members have to find new
ways of managing their own environment. This suggests that creativity is needed to
lessen learned helplessness. There is a native correlation between learned
helplessness and managerial creativity i.e. with an increase in learned helplessness;
the managers tend to be less creative.
The finding further indicated that learned helplessness predicts the state of managerial
creativity. Managerial creativity being creative inclination of managers, if the learned
helplessness is high in a manager then he may perceive the organisational factors
beyond his control and he will not try to look for more alternatives, hence he will not
be creatively inclined (Pethe and Chaudhari,1998). Managerial creativity calls for
patience and continuous effort but in case of high learned helplessness, the manager
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may lack persistence or put little effort if he feels that he is not capable of performing
a particular task. He may easily give up or avoid involvement. Moreover the feeling
of failures further makes a manager feel that he in incapable of performing a
particular task or tasks resulting in learned helplessness which natively affects his
creative inclination. The managerial creativity can be nurtured in an open and
independent atmosphere (Pethe and Gupta,1997). Some studies of the
institutionalized aged further suggest that helplessness may be reduced and possibly
reserved by providing persons with greater control over various aspects of their
environment (Langer and Redin,1976 ; Schultz,1976).
Learned helplessness may be factor in resistance to change therefore, the impact of
past uncontrollable environmental must be understood to create interventions for
handling resistance to change. Strategies to develop managerial creativity should
include strategies to reduce learned helplessness. It seems that there may be other
personal or organisational factor which affects managerial creativity. It remains to be
seen that what are those factors and how they affect managerial creativity. It also
remains to be seen that what all are the organisational factors, which leads to learned
helplessness. Factors of learned helplessness namely lack of confidence, inhibition,
lack of initiative, lack of adaptability and appreciation dependence were identified.
These factors indicate the magnitude of learned helplessness in an individual and
knowledge of these factors help in designing appropriate interventions to overcome
learned helplessness (Pethe et al 2000a). Miller and Seligmen (1980) revised the
learned helplessness theory that included explanatory attributional style of the
individual. A native or pessimistic style may suggest higher susceptibility to learned
helplessness or, ultimately depression.
A positive or optimistic attributional style may demonstrate greater immunity to
helplessness and depression. Perhaps the most intriguing applications of attribution
theory to date, however have involved effort to apply such framework to
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understanding and alleviating two serious personal problems: depression and learned
helplessness (Alloy at al,1990). Although many factors play a role in depression, one
of that has received increasing attention in recent years was termed a self defeating
pattern of attributions. In contrast to most people, who show the self bias, depressed
individuals tend to adopt an opposite pattern. They attribute native outcomes to
lasting internal causes such as their own traits or lack of ability, but attribute positive
outcomes to temporary external causes such as blind good luck or special favours
from others. As a result such persons come to perceive that they have little or no
control over what happen to them – which they are mere chip in the winds of
unpredictable fate. Little wonder that they become depressed and tend to give up on
life (Abramson et al,1990).
Attribution has to do quite a lot with learned helplessness (Peterson and Seligman,
1984). It appears that individual‘s attribution style – the extent to which they tend to
attribute native outcomes to stable internal causes such as, their own traits versus
specific external causes- may determine both their susceptibility to learned
helplessness and extent to which they can be protected against its occurrence by
exposed to situation in which they can control native events. Evidence for this
conclusion has recently been provided by Remirez et.al (1992). At a university in
Spain, researchers exposed students to a task known to induce learned helplessness.
Subjects tried to choose the correct stimulus impair of stimuli. They were told that
when they would fail to choose response, they would be exposed to a loud and
irritating noise. But in fact they could not avoid the noise because there were no
correct answers. Before performing this task, some subjects worked on a different
task in which performance was under their control; this task was designed to protect
or immunize them against the effects of the later helplessness experience.
Among these immunized participants, some were known to have an external
attribution style – they generally attributed native outcomes to external causes. In
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contrast other had an internal attribution style- they had generally attributed natives
outcomes to internal causes. In a third phase of the study, all participants performed a
task in which their performance was under their control. Participants in a control
group were never exposed to helplessness inducing conditions; they worked only to
solvable tasks. Results indicated that the immunisation procedures worked, but
mainly for participation with an external attributional style. Such persons did as well
on the final task as those in the control condition. In contrast, immunized participants
with an internal atributional style performed more like those who were in the state of
helplessness and never had an immunizing experience. After exposure to such
conditions, individuals literally seemed to give up. They believed that nothing they do
matter much, and as a result they experienced strong native feelings like feelings of
hopelessness and sharp drop in motivation.
Perhaps worst of all, since they assume that events are outside their control, they
bothered to find out that what can they do to make difference in many situations.
Thus, as the name of this effect suggested, they learn to feel helpless in a wide range
of situation- even ones where outcomes are under their control. This finding indicates
that attributions indeed play an important role in learned helplessness. Moreover they
suggested that altering individual‘s attributional style, so that they attribute native
outcomes to external causes, can lessen their susceptibility to the feeling of
helplessness. Given the devastating effects that learned helplessness can exert upon
individual‘s careers, personal relationship and psychological health, this is another
instance in which insight gained from attribution theory have contributed measurably
to practical effort to enhance human welfare. Hiroto (1974) introduced factors such as
a skill and change group and internal and external groups and he found that the
helplessness produced in his subjects was linked more strongly to those who were in
the chance group and were internal.
Learned helplessness is a conditioned phenomenon and an exposed to such
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experiences in the formative years of the personality has a lasting impact on the
overall personality of the individual. It has been noted that learned helplessness as
acquired from one‘s experiences is carried over to the person‘s daily working life and
has detrimental impact on it. The impact may interface with the individual‘s
adjustment with the environment. The inability to control the environment is a
powerful native stimulus and may result in sadness, hopelessness, reduced motivation
and decrease in the ability to respond in stressful situations. It has also been noted
during recent researches that learned helplessness interacts with a numbers of
variables; it is affected by different variables and in turn affects them (Khandelwal,
2003).
Learned Helplessness and Emotional Exhaustion Cynicism
Burisch, (1993) Investigators have argued that burnout and learned helplessness are
related to each other. They assert that helplessness is a symptom of burnout; however,
the precise nature of such a relationship has yet to be explained. Given the influence
of burnout and learned helplessness on both organisational and individual outcomes,
understanding their association is important because such an understanding can shed
light on the development process of both helplessness and burnout. In doing so,
however, first one must understand the antecedents and consequences of burnout and
learned helplessness.
Tepper, (2001) employees who feel they are being treated unfairly develop cynical
attitudes toward both their job and organisation, and suffer feelings of distress,
emptiness, and hopelessness, all of which are known to be characteristics of burnout
and helplessness. Therefore, it is worthwhile to examine the role of perceived
unfairness in the development of burnout and helplessness for both employees and
employers
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Wright & Cropanzano, (1998) argue that when individuals‘ feel unable to cope with
stress, they burn out and feel helpless and, thus, withdraw from work as a coping
mechanism. Although studies have addressed the relationship between burnout and
turnover intentions (Leiter & Maslach, 2009).
2.1.1.3.Learned Helplessness and Organisational Factors:
Hewitt & Flett, (1990) claims that helplessness depends on perceptions, thereby
individual factors, it is impossible to deny the role of organisational factors, which
could reduce sense of accomplishment and control over work outcomes. Literature
about work stress and burnout give important insights about organisationally induced
helplessness. By leaving no room for decision-making and taking initiative,
organisational structure, norms, procedures could reduce employees‘ sense of control,
which in turn could make employees more vulnerable to helplessness. Employees of
relatively centralized, bureaucratic organisations that rely on formal rules and policies
often experience feelings of alienation and helplessness because inability to determine
work methods and decide on work matters (lack of autonomy) creates perceptions of
non-contingency between behaviour-outcomes, which constitute the core of
helplessness. Previous studies clearly demonstrated that lack of autonomy in
organisations increased helplessness (Ashforth, 1989) and other stress syndromes like
emotional exhaustion (Fernet, Austin, Trépanier & Dussault, 2012).
Shepherd, Tashchian, & Ridnour (2011) showed the effects of role ambiguity and
conflict on strain, stress and burnout, which are closed related to helplessness. Role
ambiguity and conflict is argued to weaken effort-to-performance and performance-
to-reward expectancies Tubre & Collins, (2000), which could reduce control over
outcomes, thereby induce helplessness. Consistent with this argument, physicians and
bank employees, feeling ambiguity regarding roles, responsibilities and expectations
(scoring high on role ambiguity) scored high on helplessness scale in two different
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field studies (Tayfur, 2011). Recent study (Tayfur & Arslan, 2012) also reported
relationships among helplessness, time-related stressors and support such that high
workload and work family conflict increased helplessness; while supervisor support
alleviated the effects of workload and work-family conflict on helplessness.
Organisations can induce helplessness, powerlessness and other strains by
diminishing employees‘ sense of control. Although not tested empirically, Yuksel and
Ozkiraz (2012) claimed that employees working in public sector could be vulnerable
to helplessness for several reasons.
Abramis, (1994) stated that personnel systems, which rewards employees based on
seniority rather than merit, bureaucratic organisational structure and lack of
participation could increase feelings of helplessness. Although empirical analyses are
limited in number, organisational factors that might induce helplessness could be
listed by looking at the results of previous studies about stressor-strain relationships
and propositions of learned helplessness models.
Learned Helplessness and Empowerment
Conger & Kanungo, (1988) has suggested Empowerment as a means of facilitating
productive and motivated behaviour in organisations In general; empowerment is
defined as a cognitive state that results in increased intrinsic task motivation (Thomas
& Velthouse, 1990). In contrast Learned Helplessness (LH) has been defined as a
debilitating cognitive state in which individuals often possess the requisite skills and
abilities to perform their jobs, but exhibit suboptimal performance because they
attribute prior failures to causes which they cannot change, even though success is
possible in the current environment (Martinko & Gardner, 1982). A comparison of
these definitions indicates that they both pertain to cognitive states wherein
motivation is either increased or decreased.
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Theoretical models of empowerment (Spreitzer, 1995) and LH (Abramson, Seligman,
& Teasdale, 1978) have been developed independently, yet they share many
similarities, suggesting the possibility that empowerment and LH are polar opposites
on a single underlying continuum of motivation.
First, both empowerment (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990) and LH (Martinko & Gardner,
1982) models make the same ontological assumption (Morgan & Smircich, 1980) that
it is necessary to examine individuals' "objective" and "subjective" realities as the
bases for understanding and explaining behaviour. To illustrate, Thomas and
Velthouse (1990) acknowledge the role of objective reality in empowerment, but go
on to suggest that individuals' judgments and behaviour regarding tasks also are
shaped by cognitions that go beyond verifiable reality. In describing LH, Martinko
and Gardner (1982) note that cues from the environment are coupled with individual
difference variables to influence individuals' interpretations regarding work
performance.
Secondly, models of both empowerment and LH explicitly acknowledge their
grounding in the S-O-B-C (stimulus, organism, behaviour, and consequences) social
learning theory approach presented by Davis and Luthans (1980), with Thomas and
Velthouse (1990) suggesting that their model resembles the social learning sequence
of stimulus, organism, behaviour, and consequences and Martinko and Gardner
(1982) suggesting that the overall framework for the model is the social learning
theory approach It is of note that Spreitzer's (1995) more recent depiction of
psychological empowerment continues this approach, containing constructs organized
in a sequence of antecedents, psychological empowerment, and consequences. Thus,
both empowerment and LH models include similar components, depicting
interpretive styles (including attributions) and global assessments from past
experiences as influences on affect and behaviour.
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Third, Thomas and Velthouse (1990) note that their model of empowerment is one in
which the focus is on intrapersonal cognitive processes. Martinko and Gardner (1982)
use almost the same wording noting that, in their model of organisationally induced
helplessness, the intrapersonal cognitive processes of the organism are emphasized.
Recognizing these similarities between theoretical depictions of empowerment and
LH, and because of recent increases in the application of attribution theories to
organisational settings the purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth
examination of the dynamics of both empowerment and LH in order to (1) more fully
understand the underlying dynamics of each of these separate constructs, and. (2)
explore the relationship between these two constructs to determine whether they can
be more parsimoniously described as manifestations of the same motivation process.
If the second point proves to be valid, the substantial body of evidence that currently
exists regarding LH can inform and extend the growing body of literature regarding
empowerment. At the same time, the applications-oriented literature on
empowerment can facilitate a more pragmatic understanding of implications and
theory associated with LH.
Learned Helplessness and Performance Deficit
Argyris (1957), for example, argues that there is an in congruency between the needs
of individuals to become healthy and mature and the properties of modern
bureaucracies such as formalisation, standardisation, and rigid rules. Over time, he
argues, employees become shaped by the organisation and are unable to demonstrate
creative and mature behaviour even when it is desired and rewarded.
Blauner's (1964) research on alienation is closely related. Although Blauner expected
to find alienation directly related to increasing levels of technology, he found that it
was more a function of bureaucratisation, centralisation, and rigid rules. In general, he
concluded that alienation was caused and characterized by a sense of powerlessness
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and lack of control over the production process. Like Argyris' worker victimized by
the organisation, the alienated worker was generally passive and could not be
depended on to exercise initiative on the rare occasions when it was encouraged and
rewarded.
Cherniss (1980), contends that staff "burnout" by health service professionals is
produced by unpredictable work environments that cause workers to feel helpless and
to withdraw. In a related but dissimilar example, Stedry and Kay (1966) found that
people reduced their levels of productivity when they believed it was impossible to
achieve imposed goals. Finally, Larwood and Wood (1977) suggest that cultural and
organisational conditioning encourages passive behaviour by women and thus
reduces the probability of assertive and aggressive behaviour when it is appropriate.
Rotter's (1966) suggests that if an employee attributes poor performance to the stable
internal dimension of lack of ability, it is likely that the employee will become
depressed, have lowered expectations for performance, and behave in a passive
maladaptive way by failing to perform or withdrawing from the situation. On the
other hand, if the employee attributes poor performance to lack of effort, it is more
likely that the employee will not feel depressed, will expect that performance can be
improved, and will behave in a productive way. Thus, attribution is a key component
that drives the behaviour and is responsible for organisational and societal outcomes.
Learned Helplessness and Organisational Justice
Ozge T., Pinar B., and Selin M. (2013) performed a study. The study tests an
interactive model that considers the mediating effect of burnout and learned
helplessness on the relationships between organisational justices. Organisational
injustice is expected to act as a workplace stressor, triggering emotional reactions
such as exhaustion, cynicism, and helplessness. Data were collected through
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sequential design from 217 banking employees and analyzed with full-latent variable
model using AMOS 17. Results suggest that when people work to attain a certain
outcome and realize it is achieved independently of their behaviours, they start to
believe they have no control over the situation, so any actions or responses on their
part will prove futile. Further, if people believe outcomes will remain beyond their
control in the future, with their responses proving useless no matter what they do,
they risk becoming passive, regardless of whatever actual power they may possess to
change their circumstances.
Martinko and Gardner (1982) mentioned, it seems reasonable to believe injustice and
helplessness are associated with each other, as perceived injustice shapes people‘s
evaluation about work and initiates the development of stress. When discussing the
development of learned helplessness in work life, indirectly the role of justice
perceptions comes. They noted employees often feel performance evaluations are
unrelated to their performance, which causes them to experience a situation in which
they can neither win nor improve. A state of non-contingency expressed between
performance and evaluation could be regarded as a ―violation of procedural justice,‖
Learned Helplessness and Turnover Intention
Martinko and Gardner (1982) suggested that learned helplessness induces native
attitudes and behaviours such as absenteeism, job dissatisfaction, and turnover
intention. In another model (Carlson & Kacmar, 1994), helplessness was claimed to
increase withdrawal, which was related to turnover intention (Geurts, Schaufeli &
Rutte, 1999). Sparr and Sonnentag (2008) found a positive association between
learned helplessness and intentions to leave the organisation. Recently it‘s reported
that helplessness lessened the number of years nurses intended to stay in a particular
department. Therefore in this study, it is assumed that as people feel helpless in
reaction to prolonged stress, it might cause them to consider leaving the organization.
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2.1.2. Organisational Citizenship Behaviour:
In the view of Deluga, (1994) Organisational citizenship behaviour promotes the
internal balance and flexibility of an organisation, thereby enhancing the probability
of long-term success. Such theorizing has been supported by empirical evidence
(Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997) of relationships between organisational citizenship
behaviour and indexes of organisational efficiency. Organisational citizenship
behaviour include acts of altruism, conscientiousness sportsmanship, courtesy
(Schnake, 1991), and organisational obedience, loyalty, and participation (Van Dyne,
et al, 1994). Employees‘ attitudes about their jobs (perceptions of fairness, job
satisfaction) have been identified as consistent predictors of organisational citizenship
behaviour (Podsakoff, et al, 2000). Several organisational experiences bear on the
formation of such attitudes and correlate with organisational citizenship behaviour.
These include supervisory concern and feedback (Eskew, 1993), ethical and
consistent performance evaluations and promotional processes (Eskew, 1993;
Greenberg, 1986), employee control in organisational processes (Greenberg, 1986),
supervisory trust-building gestures (Deluga, 1994, 1995; Organ, 1988;), and
supportive relationships between leaders and members (Moorman, 1993).
Organisational citizenship behaviour is performed not only because it expresses a
valued principle, or because it is calculative, but also because it is appropriate and
routinized in a social system of interlocked roles and positions (Cyert and March
1963).
2.1.2.1 Organisational citizenship behaviour and Gender influence:
Although the excellent work by Bolino (1999) on citizenship behaviours and
impression management advances our understanding of organisational citizenship
behaviour, he does not consider how the actors‘ social identity characteristics (i.e.
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gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation) might influence the way in which
organisational citizenship behaviours might be enacted by the individual and noticed
and valued by the observers. In this regard, we would like to suggest that the
Characteristics of organisational citizenship behaviours suggested by Bolino(1999)
(i.e. type, target, magnitude, timing and audience), and the way they are interpreted
and evaluated, are likely to be influenced by the actors‘ gender, among other
attributes. Findings summarized in an extensive meta-analysis on gender differences
in helping behaviours by Eagly and Crowley (1986) show that women and men differ
in their helping behaviours regarding the characteristics mentioned by Bolino (1999).
According to the findings of Eagly and Crowley (1986), those helping behaviours
expected of men are of greater magnitude and more dramatic than those expected and
performed by women. They encompass non-routine and heroic, risky acts of rescuing
others, the target of these behaviours is commonly strangers, and the presence of
audience, as well as the availability of other helpers, may also be relevant to heroic
helping.Even when men and women perform helping organisational citizenship
behaviours at similar levels, the evaluation of organisational citizenship behaviour
may be higher for men than for women (Allen, 2000).
An empirical study by Chen and Heilman (2001) also provides some support for the
assertion that differential expectations of men and women would influence the ways
in which their helping OCBs are perceived and valued. Their study demonstrates that,
when women performed helping OCBs, their performance was rated no differently
from that of women about whom the raters had no information concerning their
OCBs. However, when women refused to provide helping OCBs, their performance
ratings were lower. In contrast, when men refused to perform helping OCBs, their job
performance was rated no differently compared to the case in which no organisational
citizenship behaviour information was provided regarding their behaviours.
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2.1.2.2 Organisational citizenship behaviour and Exchange Relationships
Although studies support Organ‘s (1990) proposition that positive social exchange
relationships facilitate organisational citizenship behaviour (Farh, et al, 1990;
Moorman, 1991; Moorman, et al, 1998), several unexplained results have emerged.
For instance, certain types of attachments, such as organisational commitment,
predict organisational citizenship behaviour in some studies (Shore & Wayne, 1993)
but not in others (Settoon et al., 1996). In addition, various perceived organisational
experiences that exert a positive influence on organisational citizenship behaviour do
not appear to be social exchange relationships. For example, whereas individuals‘
perceptions of work scope and job characteristics appear to facilitate organisational
citizenship behaviour (Farh et al., 1990; Van Dyne, et al, 1994), these perceptions
seem more related to the attributes of individuals‘ jobs than to social exchanges.
Other than social and economic exchange relationships, work exchange relationships
can also be discussed. Work exchange relationships, are those that involve the
implicit assumptions surrounding work-related tasks, help explain why perceptions of
work characteristics, such as work variety, autonomy, and identity, predict
organisational citizenship behaviour but do not seem to belong as predictors in a
social exchange model.
Three Distinct Exchange Relationships
Theory on exchange relationships traditionally includes two types of exchanges:
economic and social (Blau, 1964). Organ (1990) summarized their differences:
Economic exchange has a contractual character; the respective parties (, the
individual participant and the organisation) agree in terms of a specific quid pro quo,
over an articulated domain of behaviour and a precise time span; the respective
obligations are finite and do not depend on trust, since the terms are enforceable by
third parties. Social exchange, by contrast, involves diffuse, ill-defined expectations
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in terms of the nature, value, and timing of the benefits rendered and received by the
parties.
Organ (1990), in an economic exchange, the individual and the organisation hold an
explicit agreement defining reciprocal obligations that are specific in nature. Organ
(1990) proposes that individuals experience either a social or an economic exchange
relationship with their organisation at a given moment. People tend to presume a
social exchange relationship in the binning, and this presumption continues until
organisational experiences lead them to doubt that the relationship is fair. They then
redefine the relationship as an economic exchange. Thus, in Organ‘s theory,
economic and social exchange relationships should be uncorrelated.
Mathieu & Zajac (1990) emphasize those individuals‘ attachments to the
organisation, such as their organisational commitment (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990),
mediate this association (Meyer & Allen, 1997). For example, Meyer, et al (1993)
studied the relationship between different types of organisational commitment and
organisational citizenship behaviour. They found a significant relationship between
organisational citizenship behaviour and attachments such as affective and normative
organisational commitment (NOC) and a non-significant relationship between
organisational citizenship behaviour and the attachment represented by continuance
organisational commitment. Thus, individuals can bond to the organisation through
more than one type of attachment (Mowday et al, 1982), and these different
attachments exert specific effects on organisational citizenship behaviour (Meyer &
Allen, 1997). Although relationships between perceptions and attachments may be
reciprocal (Fiske & Taylor, 1991), previous organisational citizenship behaviour
studies suggest that the primary direction of causality proceeds from perceptions to
attachments to behaviour (Van Dyne et al., 1994). Thus, it is expected that
individuals‘ positive perceptions of exchange relationships generate attachments that
in turn influence organisational citizenship behaviour.
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Meyer et al. (1993) found no relationship between continuance commitment and
organisational citizenship behaviour. Shore and Wayne (1993) found a native
relationship between continuance commitment and organisational citizenship
behaviour. Pearce and Gregersen (1991) found that work attachments, such as the
heightened sense of responsibility that results from positively perceived job
characteristics (PJC), generate organisational citizenship behaviour. Farh et al. (1990)
found that PJC have a direct positive effect on organisational citizenship behaviour;
however, their study does not include attachments. Van Dyne et al. (1994) showed
that when attachments are included, they mediate the relationship between PJC and
organisational citizenship behaviour. Thus, we suggest that attachments produced by
job characteristics are likely to increase an individual‘s propensity to engage in
organisational citizenship behaviour.
2.1.2.3.Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Job Satisfaction
Smith (1983) found job satisfaction, as the best predictor of organisational citizenship
behaviour. After seventeen years of research, job satisfaction is still the leading
predictor of organisational citizenship behaviour (Organ and Ryan, 1995). In fact few
behavioural scientists claim job satisfaction as the single predictor of organisational
citizenship behaviour (OCB). According to Penner et al. (1997), job satisfaction is
only one reason for the accurate prediction of organisational citizenship behaviour.
Moorman (1993) found that Job Satisfaction measures which reflect a cognitive basis
would be more strongly related to organisational citizenship behaviour than measures
of Job Satisfaction which reflect an affective basis.
Payne Stephanie C. et al. (2006) found that the employee satisfaction was positively
related to service-oriented organisational citizenship behaviours, customer
satisfaction, and customer loyalty, whereas affective commitment was not related to
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these outcomes. The extent to which the predictor variables interacted with one
another and the role of employment status on these relationships was also explored.
High levels of job satisfaction or affective commitment resulted in more service-
oriented organisational citizenship behaviours for employees and self-employed
workers, whereas high levels of both resulted in more service-oriented organisational
citizenship behaviours for owners.
After joining an organisation every employee faces initial problems which make him
very unpleasant during initial days. So, it can be noticed that in initial days employees
generally do not exhibit organisational citizenship behaviour but after spending some
time in the organisation they get acquainted with the environment and feel
comfortable in the organisation. It means long stay in organisation increases positive
affectivity and experienced employees generally exhibit organisational citizenship
behaviour. Remus Ilies et al. (2006) found that at the individual level, experience-
sampled positive affect and job satisfaction predicted experience-sampled reports of
organisational citizenship behaviours over time.
Work itself is a biggest source of motivation. Instead of looking for external source of
motivation, organisations must organize work in a manner, so that work itself may
become a biggest motivating factor. Wegge et al. (2006) found that objective working
conditions substantially correlated with subjective measures of work motivation,
Moreover employees experiencing a high motivating potential at work reported more
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour, higher job satisfaction, and less turnover
intentions. Work not only provides a platform to employees for exhibiting
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour but also reduces the turnover intensions. In
these days recruitment is not problem retention is a problem.
Morality in judgment or moral judgment helps employees in exhibiting
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour. Wagner et al. (2000) conducted a study of peer
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ratings of altruistic Organisational Citizenship Behaviour in a sample of 96 U.S.
nurses showed that the contextual variables of job satisfaction, organisational
commitment, and trust in management were germane for the younger participants.
The dispositional variable of moral judgment was a unique predictor of altruistic
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour among the older participants. Every employee
will like to see moral behaviour of top management. This can only be provided by
providing an environment of moral judgment.
It seems that job‘s self efficiency is also a strong predictor of Organisational
Citizenship Behaviour. Samuel et al. (2006) estimated two models to describe both
direct effects of task variables upon Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and
indirect effects through the mediator of Job Satisfaction. Findings were mixed in that
some task variables directly impacted particular elements of Organisational
Citizenship Behaviour, while other task variables demonstrated a mediated effect
through Job Satisfaction, Perhaps chief among the discoveries was the positive
relationship between Job Self-efficacy and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour.
Only committed employees can exhibit Organisational Citizenship Behaviour.
Commitment leads to Organisational Citizenship Behaviour is not very rare to find in
most of the organisation. In fact, commitment creates an emotional bond between
employees and organisations. This bond is a solid platform for exhibiting
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour. Harif Amali Rifai (2005) explained the
theoretical model proposes both distributive justice and procedural justice as
antecedents of job satisfaction and job satisfaction has an effect on organisational
citizenship behaviour (OCB) through affective commitment. Job satisfaction has a
significant impact for developing affective commitment. The results also support that
affective commitment is a significant predictor of organisational citizenship
behaviour.
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Trust seems to be factor on which exhibition of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour
depends. In fact, trustworthy relationship is a base of generating organisational
citizenship behaviour. Dirks and Ferrin (2000) found the relationship between trust
and the attitudinal outcomes (job satisfaction and organisational commitment)
appears to be considerably stronger than the relationship between trust and the
behavioural outcomes (job performance, organisational citizenship behaviours and
turnover intention).
Some attitudinal measures like perceived fairness, organisational commitment, and
leader supportiveness seems to have a solid impact on Organisational Citizenship
Behaviour. Organ and Ryan (1995) found the relationship between job satisfaction
and Organisational Citizenship Behaviour is stronger than that between satisfaction
and in-role performance, at least among non managerial and nonprofessional groups.
Other attitudinal measures (perceived fairness, organisational commitment, leader
supportiveness) correlate with Organisational Citizenship Behaviour at roughly the
same level as satisfaction. They also testes the prediction that job satisfaction,
although not a strong correlate of productivity, does relate to organisational
citizenship behaviour, because the latter is less constrained by either ability or work-
process technology.
Barrick and Mount (1991) found in public sector organisation number of agreeable
employees are more than private sector. This also is a basis of our study. Agreeable
employees exhibit higher degree of organisational citizenship behaviour.
‗Agreeableness‘ alone is a very important trait. Taking a base of agreeableness John
and Srivastava (1999) highlighted that individuals high on agreeableness may engage
in helping behaviour than individuals low on this trait. The assumption that
agreeableness is a good indicator of organisational citizenship behaviour is further
strengthened by Elanain (2007) who clearly observed a significant positive
correlation between agreeableness and organisational citizenship behaviour.
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2.1.2.4.Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Corporate Entrepreneurship:
OCB provide positive outcomes with specific ways, managerial and co-worker
productivity can be increased, the coordination of activities among team members and
workgroups can be facilated and can be enhanced organisational ability to adapt to
environmental change, can be reduced the need for an organisation to devote scarce
resources to simple maintenance functions (Bolino, 2002). Because of these positive
outcomes scholars have a great deal of research since Organ's study to OCB. OCB
has been defined as "individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or
explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes
the effective functioning of the organisation"
(Organ,1988). OCB is sometimes called pro-social behaviours, extra-role behaviours
or contextual performance. Several studies from a variety of occupations indicate that
extra-role behaviour (OCB) is related to innovative and spontaneous behaviours
(Podsakoff et al., 2000) and proactive behaviours. Proactive behaviours have a critical
role for work accomplishment (Chiaburu, 2007) in new normal era. In this era
because of the increasing competition and unpredictable changes, employees should
be more and more proactive and innovative in their work environment (Chiaburu,
2007). If organisations support new ideas and change, they may generate and express
innovative ideas, and innovative culture may have a direct effect on OCB (Choi,
2007). The importance role of innovation in OCB is emphasized in the literature by
several scholars (Van Dyne et al., 1994). The willingness acts of creativity and
innovation is an important dimension of OCB. This dimension aims (Podsakoff et al.,
2000). Moreover, Rutherford et al.(2007) claimed CE scale items emphasize that CE
at individual level focus on willingness to introduce and improve innovative
activities. In addition to this, the relationship between OCB and entrepreneurship
values has been investigated they reveal that there is a positive relationship between
entrepreneurship values and OCB, as reflected in figure 2.1
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Figure 2.1: Conceptual Model
Source: Cemal Zehir, (2012). The Impact of Corporate Entrepreneurship on Organisational
Citizenship Behaviour and Organisational Commitment. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or
peer-review under responsibility of The 8th International Strategic Management Conference.
2.1.2.5.Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Individual-collectivism:
The individualism-collectivism (IC) dimension is usually examined at the
societal/national level, but it is also central in characterizing how work is conducted,
and is therefore relevant at the organisational level (Chatman and Barsade, 1995).
Organisational cultures that emphasize individualistic values tend to place priority on
pursuing individuals‘goals and reward their performances based on their own
achievements (Triandis et al., 1988). An organisation‘s emphasis on IC depends on
factors such as history, industry, the nation/country in which it operates, etc., but both
ends of the IC spectrum are considered effective organisational models (Chatman and
Jehn, 1994). Chatman and Barsade (1995) suggest that personal cooperativeness and
an organisation‘s emphasis on individualistic/collectivistic values may each, and
interactively, contribute to cooperative behaviour.
Corporate Entrepreneurship
Organisational Citizenship Behaviour
Affective Commitment
Continuance Commitment
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Much research has focused on the IC dimension Schermerhorn and Bond, (1997)
conduct a meta-analysis on the predictive power of IC on allocative behaviours and
call for an understanding of how to design management systems that are most
effective given any particular cultural setting. IC is a bipolar construct where an
individualist considers his/her personal interests more important than the interests of a
group. On the other hand, a collectivist values membership in a group and looks for
the benefits to the group even at the expense of his/her own personal interests
(Hofstede, 1980, 1984). Collectivistic orientation refers to the person‘s IC scale
(Hofstede, 1984) and is defined as ‗orientation toward group-based work [which]
differs from traditional group attraction constructs such as cohesiveness in that
collectivism is context free, referring to a general orientation toward group goals and
proclivity to cooperate in group endeavours‘ (Eby and Dobbins,1997,). Wagner‘s
(1995) research on IC is extended to the group level analysis to determine the
explanatory power of collectivism by Eby and Dobbins (1997) who conclude that
collectivistic orientation is related to cooperative behaviours. Cooperative behaviours
are viewed as fundamental to OCB.
2.1.2.6.Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Performance Evaluations and
Other Managerial Decisions:
Podsakoff and their colleagues (1993) have suggested several reasons why managers
may value OCBs and take them into account when evaluating employee performance.
These reasons are summarized in Table 2.1.
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Potential
Reason
Explanation
Norm of
Reciprocity/Fa
irness
Gouldner (1960) have noted that people try to reciprocate those who help
them, do them a favor,or treat them fairly. Therefore, if citizenship
behaviors have positive effects for both the manager and the organization,
managers might repay employees who exhibit OBCs (perhaps out of a
sense of fairness) by giving them higher performance evaluations.
Implicit
Performance
Theories
Berman and Kenny (1976) have noted that raters often possess implicit
theories about the cooccurrence of events or behaviors. Thus, if a
manager implicitly believes that citizenship behavior and overall
performance are related, and the manager frequently observes an
employee engaging in citizenship behaviors, the manager‘s ―implicit
performance theory‖ might cause him/her to infer that an employee is a
high performer.
Schema-
Triggered
Affect
Fiske and Pavelchak (1986) have argued that, when an object is identified
by a person as an example of a previously defined, affectively laden
category, the affect associated with the category is quickly retrieved and
applied to the stimulus object. Thus, if managers include citizenship
behaviors, along with high levels of task performance, in their definition
of ―good employees,‖ employees who exhibit OBBs will trigger positive
affect and subsequently will be evaluated more favorably than those that
do not exhibit these behaviors.
Behavioral
Distinctivenes
s and
Accessibility
DeNisi, Cafferty, and Meglino (1984) have proposed that managers
search for distinctiveness information when they are asked to make
evaluations of employees. Since OCBs are generally not considered to be
formally required by the organization, they may be particularly distinctive
forms of behavior that the managers may seek out and remember in the
evaluation process.
Attributional
Processes
(Stable/Interna
l) and
Accessibility
DeNisi, Cafferty, and Meglino (1984) also have noted that incidents of
performance that are attributed to stable, internal causes are most likely to
be retained in memory, recalled, and considered in the [manager‘s] final
evaluation‖ (pg. 376). Because citizenship behaviors are less likely to be
considered a required part of an employee‘s job, managers are more
likely to attribute these behaviors to internal, stable characteristics of the
subordinate—which would make these behaviors more accessible and
exert a bigger impact on managers‘ evaluations of performance.
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Illusory
Correlations
Chapman and Chapman (1967) have argued that illusory correlations
result from the tendency of people to see two things or events as
occurring together more often than they actually do. In addition, Cooper
(1981) has noted that there are several sources of illusory correlations that
may occur in rating tasks, including: (1) the rater may have an insufficient
sample of either in-role or citizenship behavior (undersampling); (2) the
rater may be influenced by a single, salient incident of behavior
(engulfing); (3) the rating scales may be abstract and insufficiently
defined (insufficient concreteness); (4) the rater may not be sufficiently
motivated or have sufficient knowledge to do a good job; and (5) the
rater‘s recall of the ratee‘s performance may be distorted—all of which
may lead the rater to give greater weight to the OCBs in forming his or
her evaluations.
Table 2.1: Reasons Why OCBs Might Influence Managerial Evaluations of Performance
Sources: Adapted from Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Hui (1993)
2.1.2.7.Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Organisational Effectiveness:
A key tenet of Organ‘s original definition of organisational citizenship behaviour
(Organ, 1988) is that, when aggregated over time and people, such behaviour
enhances organisational effectiveness. For many years, this assumption went untested
and its acceptance was based more on its conceptual plausibility than direct empirical
evidence (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993). Conceptually, there are several reasons why
citizenship behaviours might influence organisational effectiveness (George &
Bettenhausen, 1991; Karambayya, 1990; MacKenzie et al., 1991; Organ, 1988, 1990).
As summarized and illustrated in Table 2.2.
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Potential
Reasons Why
OCBs Influence
Work Group
and/or
Organizational
Performance
Examples
OCBs may
enhance
coworker
productivity
Employees who help another coworker ―learn the ropes‖ may
help them to become more productive employees faster.
Over time, helping behavior can help to spread ―best practices‖
throughout the work unit or group.
OCBs may
enhance
managerial
productivity
If employees engage in civic virtue, the manager may receive
valuable suggestions and/or feedback on his or her ideas for
improving unit effectiveness.
Courteous employees, who avoid creating problems for
coworkers, allow the manager to avoid falling into a pattern of
―crisis‖ management.
OCBs may free
resources up for
more productive
purposes
If employees help each other with work-related problems, then
the manager doesn‘t have to; consequently, the manager can
spend more time on productive tasks, such as planning.
Employees who exhibit conscientiousness require less managerial
supervision and permit the manager to delegate more
responsibility to them, thus, freeing up more of the manager‘s
time.
To the extent that experienced employees help in the training and
orienting of new employees, it reduces the need to devote
organizational resources to these activities.
If employees exhibit sportsmanship, it frees the manager from
having to spend too much of his/her time dealing with petty
complaints.
OCBs may reduce
the need to devote
scarce resources
to purely
maintenance
functions
A natural by-product of helping behavior is that it enhances team
spirit, morale, and cohesiveness, thus reducing the need for group
members (or managers) to spend energy and time on group
maintenance functions.
Employees who exhibit courtesy toward others reduce intergroup
conflict, thereby diminishing the time spent on conflict
management activities.
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OCBs may serve
as an effective
means of
coordinating
activities between
team members
and across work
groups
Exhibiting civic virtue by voluntarily attending and actively
participating in work unit meetings would help the coordination
of effort among team members, thus potentially increasing the
group‘s effectiveness and efficiency
Exhibiting courtesy by ―touching base‖ with other team
members, or members of other functional groups in the
organization, reduces the likelihood of the occurrence of
problems that would otherwise take time and effort to resolve.
OCBs may
enhance the
organization‟s
ability to attract
and retain the
best people by
making it a more
attractive place to
work
Helping behaviors may enhance morale, group cohesiveness, and
the sense of belonging to a team, all of which may enhance
performance and help the organization to attract and retain better
employees.
Demonstrating sportsmanship by being willing to ―roll with the
punches‖ and not complaining about trivial matters sets an
example for others and thereby develops a sense of loyalty and
commitment to the organization that may enhance employee
retention.
OCBs may
enhance the
stability of
oragnizational
performance
Picking up the slack for others who are absent, or who have
heavy workloads, can help to enhance the stability (reduce the
variability) of the work unit‘s performance.
Conscientious employees are more likely to maintain a
consistently high level of output, thus reducing variability in a
work unit‘s performance.
OCBs may
enhance an
organization‟s
ability to adapt to
environmental
changes
Employees who are in close contact with the marketplace
volunteer information about changes in the environment and
make suggestions about how to respond to them, which helps an
organization to adapt.
Employees who attend and actively participate in meetings may
aid the dissemination of information in an organization, thus
enhancing its responsiveness.
Employees, who exhibit sportsmanship, by demonstrating a
willingness to take on new responsibilities or learn new skills,
enhance the organization‘s ability to adapt to changes in its
environment.
Table 2.2:. Summary of Reasons Why OCBs Might Influence Organizational Effectiveness
Sources: Adapted from Podsakoff & Mackenzie (1997)
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2.1.2.8.Organisational Citizenship Behaviour and Counterproductive Work
behaviour:
Paul E.and Suzy F.(,2010) studied that counterproductive work behaviour (CWB) and
organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB) are two forms of active and volitional
behaviour frequently . These are the forms of extra-task behaviours that might harm
(CWB) or help (OCB) organisations have until recently been dealt with separately,
and have been considered to be opposite relative to causes and consequences
(Sackett, 2002). Researchers have begun to integrate these two categories of
behaviour both conceptually and empirically (Dalal, 2005), with many of the findings
showing that they are related oppositely to potential antecedents, and negatively with
one another. However, there is growing evidence that the presumption of CWB and
OCB being negatively related is an over simplification, and that there may be
circumstances in which they are positively related to one another. Dalal‘s (2005)
meta-analysis of the CWB–OCB relationship showed that there are methodological
moderators that have substantial effects on the observed relationship between the two,
and calls into question their strong negative interrelationship. Douglas & Martinko,
(2001) has proposed that such behaviours are the byproduct of injustice and stressful
environments associated with negative emotions, most notably anger, as well as job
dissatisfaction On the OCB side, justice and job satisfaction have also been
prominent, although with correlations that tend to be opposite to those with CWB
(Dalal, 2005).
Spector & Fox, (2002)claimed that there are understimulation at work that can lead to
both CWB and OCB. Negative emotions play a mediating role, which can result in
CWB or OCB. Engaging in both productive and counterproductive extra-task
behaviour can be a means of coping with feelings of boredom that can arise from
understimulation at work Boredom is a negative emotional state characterised by low
arousal and dissatisfaction in response to understimulation in the environment (Kass,
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Vodanovich, & Callender, 2001). Given that boredom is a reaction to the
environment, one would expect it to be prevalent in jobs with repetitive tasks that are
low in skill requirements (Spector & Fox, 2002). Of course, the interaction of an
individual‘s personality and skills with job requirements is likely to be an important
factor in experiencing boredom on a given job. Bruursema (2007) found that there are
a number of ways that individuals can deal with boredom on the job, if handled
positively improves OCB and if negatively inmproves CWB, as reflected in figure
2.2.
Figure 2.2. Understimulation at work leading to both CWB and OCB.
Souurces: Bruursema (2007)
Accordingle to Peters & O‘Connor, (1980) when individuals find themselves unable
to do job tasks because of constraints, they may have to do extra tasks in order to
compensate. This might involve informally organising co-workers to support efforts
to get tasks done, finding ways to learn new skills not required, or taking on tasks that
are not part of the job in order to do the job. Such efforts, if they go beyond assigned
tasks, are in many cases forms of OCB. Spector et al.,(2009)argue that the attributions
people make for causes of constraints may be a key factor in their emotional and
behavioural responses that can lead to CWB, as reflected in table 2.3.
Under stimulation
Boredom
CWB
OCB
Boredom Pronenesss
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Figure 2.3. Effect of Organisational Constraints for OCB leading to anger and CWB.
Sources: Spector et al.,(2009)
Perrewé and Zellars (1999) suggested that guilt arises when an individual feels
personal control and responsibility for an action. According to these views, guilt over
CWB will motivate the individual to engage in positive problem-solving efforts to
repair the situation. The connection between CWB and OCB in such cases can also be
viewed from a justice/equity standpoint. An individual, who feels that his efforts fall
below an acceptable level, perhaps due to CWB, will be motivated to repair the
inequity. This could occur most readily by increasing contributions to the
organisation through OCB, particularly directed toward organisations, as reflected in
table 2.4.
OCB Due To Co-worker Lack of Performance
OCB Due To Organisational Constraints
OCB Not Rewarded As Expected
Anger
CWB
Attributions
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Figure 2.4. Guilt over unjustified CWB leading to OCB.
Sources:Perrewé and Zellars (1999)
2.1.2.9 Organisational citizenship behaviour: The political view
However, although the word citizenship carries social and political implications, little
enrichment of the concept has been derived from political theory. Apart from Graham
(1991) and Van Dyne, et al (1994), no study has tried to explain organisational
citizenship behaviour from a more general perspective of the global concept of
citizenship. Previous studies mentioned the relationship between workplace values
and behaviours and political domains (Brady, et al , 1995). Most of these view the
workplace as a potential determinant of a wider political culture. However, empirical
evidence as to causality is scarce. Political scientists, especially those concerned with
the state of public administration, claim that an independent form of voluntary
behaviour is already structured in the very basic construct of modern societies. They
refer to the third sector as one example of this behaviour, which supports the state and
its public administration agencies in fulfilling elementary commitments to the citizens
(Brudney, 1990). This line of research promotes our understanding of how society in
general may benefit from spontaneous behaviours of ordinary citizens. We think that
issues of citizenship, voluntary activities, and spontaneous involvement of the people
in the administrative process are among the most significant topics in contemporary
writing on public administration.
Podsakoff and MacKenzie (1997) mention the potential relationship between
organisational citizenship behaviour and customer-oriented behaviour (COB). Thus,
Unjustified CWB
Guilt
OCB
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organisational citizenship behaviour may be very useful, especially in public
organisations that serve wide populations. The new public management (NPM)
approach argues that to improve its functioning, the public sector must become more
responsive to citizens‘ demands and encourage flexibility, creativity, and spontaneous
behaviour by its employees (Pollitt, 1988, 1990); Hence, a better understanding of the
general environment and the antecedents of organisational citizenship behaviour can
contribute to higher quality of services and better productivity of public agencies that
serve citizens in modern societies On the grounds of previous studies (Podsakoff &
MacKenzie, 1997), it is assumed that better organisational citizenship behaviour in
the public sector contributes to improved productivity and higher performance rates
of public personnel. It also advances quality services and high responsiveness to
citizens‘ demands. Studies found positive relationships between good citizenship in
the workplace and work outcomes. Good organisational citizenship expresses
extrarole behaviours and a better psychological contract between organisations and
employees (Organ, 1988)
To establish a sociopolitical heritage of organisational citizenship, a clear link must
first be established between internal and external voluntary actions of individuals.
Graham (1991) is one of the few researchers who attempted to conceptualize
organisational citizenship behaviour by starting from the political inheritance of
citizenship rather than extrarole/organisationally functional defining criteria.
Graham‘s typology is based on three catories of citizenship behaviours revealed by
classical philosophy and modern political theory (Aristotle, 1962). Together, these
catories comprise what Inkeles (1969) termed the active citizenship syndrome. The
first catory is ―obedience,‖ or respect for orderly structures and processes. Citizens
are responsible for obeying existing laws, which also protect them. Because
organisational citizenship behaviour represents informal organisational contributions,
the expectation is that it will be affected more by informal citizenship behaviours than
by formal demonstrations of citizenship such as obedience. Therefore, this article
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does not deal with obedience. The second catory is ―loyalty,‖ namely, the expansion
of individual welfare functions to include the interests of others, the state as a whole,
and the values it embodies. Loyal citizens promote and protect their communities and
volunteer extra effort for the common good. The third catory, participation, concerns
participation in governance, keeping well informed, sharing information and ideas
with others, engaging in discussions about controversial issues, voting in
constitutional elections, and encouraging others to do likewise (Graham, 1991; Van
Dyne et al., 1994). Graham argued that these three citizenship catories could be used
in organisational settings. Participation in civic activities, both inside and outside
organisations, is basically a voluntary behaviour. People may or may not choose to
participate in civic activities such as voting or involvement in community ventures.
Organisational citizenship behaviour is also a voluntary behaviour because it is not
formally required from employees. Moreover, good organisational citizens are not
directly rewarded for such activities. Involvement in voluntary behaviour in the civic
sphere may thus encourage similar behaviour in the work setting, namely,
organisational citizenship behaviour. Van Dyne et al. (1994) empirically tested
Graham‘s typology and concluded that although two forms of citizenship—
participation and loyalty—could be applied to measure organisational citizenship
behaviour, the inclusion of obedience as an organisational citizenship behaviour
dimension was not empirically supported.
This expectation is noted in several studies of political theory (Almond & Verba,
1963). The basic argument is that work and politics are similar institutions so
experiences in one domain can spill over to the other. Almond and Verba (1963)
argued that institutions are closer to politics and government when they exist at the
same time, are similar in dree of formal authority, or have similar criteria for
authority positions. The ―closer‖ two social institutions are, the greater is the
likelihood of congruence between their authority structures. The workplace is closer
in time and in kind to the political sphere. Work exists contemporaneously with
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politics, and work and politics are formally structured. Roles in the political sphere
can train occupants to perform workplace roles because experiences of self-direction
or conformity in politics inculcate congruent values and orientations. Congruence lies
in the generally analogous formal authority patterns between institutional spheres.
The more closely two experiences approximate each other, the more likely is
transference from one experience to the other (Sobel, 1993).
Amore recent study by Brady et al. (1995) also shows how experiences in one domain
can be transferred further. Their study suggests a resource model of civic skills (i.e.,
institutional involvement, skill opportunities, and skill acts) that can provide ―a
powerful explanation of political participation‖. People use preexisting civic skills
(education-based organisational and communications skills as well as innate skills) or
develop civic skills through their involvement in the institutions of adult life to
perform skill acts. In turn, when individuals perform skill acts in one institution,
political or nonpolitical, they increase their skills so that they can engage in still more
skill acts in that or in some other domain. The study by Brady et al. (1995) tries to go
beyond socioeconomic status by emphasizing the unique effect of some social
institutions (, church and workplace) on political participation. However, resources
and skills can also be transferred from the political environment to other
organisations. As noted by Brady and his colleagues (1995), ―civic skills could be the
result as well as the cause of political activity‖ and generate different types of
citizenship behaviour. Hence, political participation and general citizenship traits can
provide the individual with civic skills relevant to the workplace. Practicing skill acts
(planning meetings, making speeches, participating in debates, being involved in
communal life, etc.) develops civic skills that are potentially transferable to work and
may be used to enhance organisational performances.
Four dimensions of general citizenship can be mentioned. Participation in political
activities and community involvement best represent the participation catory. As for
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loyalty, civility is a good example of such behaviour. Faith in citizen involvement is
more of an orientation that represents loyalty and willingness to participate in a
democratic process. The first dimension is participation in political activities, which
is classic and one of the most researched constructs in political science (Peterson,
1990). People who are more involved in political activities like voting, sending
support/protest messages to politicians, taking part in political demonstrations, or
signing petitions on political issues are expected to be more involved in the work
setting. This expectation derives from a positive spillover effect. Experience,
expertise, and resources gained in political activities might facilitate higher levels of
job performance and organisational citizenship behaviour (Brady et al., 1995).
The second dimension is participation in community activities. Stewart & Ranson
(1994) views communitarianism as a necessary behaviour of citizens that should be
encouraged by modern societies. The more willing citizens are to initiate voluntary
behaviours (, in fields such as education or local administration), the better the state
operates and society prospers (Brudney, 1990). Community activity is also considered
a more informal way of participation than national activity (Sobel, 1993). Certain
individual characteristics serve to promote both national and local participation, but
other personal and local community characteristics primarily stimulate participation
in local politics (Pettersen & Rose, 1996).
People active in their community are expected to show higher levels of organisational
citizenship behaviour than those who are not active. The rationale is similar to that for
political participation, although Sieber‘s (1974) explanation of personality enrichment
or development might also be relevant here. For example, tolerance gained through
recognition of discrepant viewpoints might be helpful in similar situations in the work
setting. The following two dimensions represent the loyalty catory of citizens
behaviour. Civility focuses on daily behaviours that show care, kindness, compassion,
and consideration toward other citizens, in particular those who need such support.
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These behaviours match the definition of loyalty because loyal citizens are expected
to volunteer extra effort for the common good. They are also expected to display
higher levels of organisational citizenship behaviour because civility seems to
represent an altruistic behaviour outside the work environment. Sieber‘s (1974)
explanation of personality enrichment or development provides a rationale for the
way civility will be related to organisational citizenship behaviour.
The fourth dimension, faith in citizen involvement, differs from the above three in
that it is more an orientation than a behaviour. Political orientations are considered an
important aspect of citizenship because they help to shape individuals‘ understanding
of the political world and their place in it (Peterson, 1990). Theiss-Morse (1993)
argues that most people are apparently involved in the political sphere in ways
consistent with their citizenship perspective. Her study shows that greater predictive
power is gained by measurement of people‘s perspectives on good citizenship,
producing better specified models to explain behaviour. Faith in citizen involvement
is defined as the extent to which people believe that the average citizen can effect
changes in the political system and that by being involved they can influence the
political system (Schussler, 1982). Hence, this variable is a good representation of
loyalty and trust in the political system. People who believe that they can have some
say in the political system will transfer such an orientation to the work setting,
resulting in higher levels of organisational citizenship behaviour.
Participation in decision making and forms of commitment are mentioned in political
science theory as components of citizenship behaviour, loyalty, and involvement in
society (Pateman, 1970).
Graham (1991) and Sobel (1993) promote the idea of direct spillover of general
citizenship behaviour to the work setting. This expectation is based on the argument
that such spillover provides resources for role performance (Brady et al., 1995) when
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experience and expertise gained in political activities might facilitate higher levels of
organisational citizenship behaviour. Pateman (1970) and Peterson (1990) also
support a direct relationship between these spheres, arguing that a reciprocal
relationship may exist The fourth type of positive spillover mentioned by Sieber
(1974) considers personality enrichment or development and further supports the
direct relationship. The direct relationship model expected a direct relationship
between each of the four general citizenship variables and organisational citizenship
behaviour.
Several scholars have argued that the relationship between determinants and
organisational citizenship behaviour is not direct but mediated (Latham & Skarlicki,
1995; Moorman, 1991). The notion that general citizenship is not related to behaviour
at work directly was also advanced by political theory. Brady et al. (1995) argued that
―the opportunity to practice civic skills in an institution requires both involvement in
the institution and a setting that provides the chance to practice some skills‖ .The
relationship one has with the organisation can determine whether one will transfer
one‘s civic skills to a given work setting. Individuals‘ attitudes to the organisation
thus comprise a significant source of knowledge on the chances of using civic skills
as a positive work input.
In search of a reliable description of individual-organisational relationships, we
turned to three well-studied contextual work attitudes: job satisfaction, organisational
commitment, and participation in decisions. These variables were tested as mediators
of the relationship between general citizenship and organisational citizenship
behaviour. Job satisfaction and organisational commitment are good examples of
employees‘ attitudes in the workplace that were found to relate to organisational
citizenship behaviour (Organ & Ryan, 1995; Williams & Anderson, 1991).
Highly satisfied and committed employees are more likely to engage in OCBs
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because of reciprocal exchange relationships and better attachment they have with the
work environment. Participation in decisions in nonpolitical organisations was found
to be cumulative: Persons participating in decisions in one organisation were likely to
do so in others. Political participation is also a learned social role acquired by practice
in democratic skills. The more individuals participate, the better able they become at
it (Pateman, 1970). Participation breeds participation, and intense participation in
politics might influence work participation (Sobel, 1993). Accordingly, citizens
involved in the civic setting will be involved in the decision- making process in the
organisation because of the experiences and the skills they acquired (Brady et al.,
1995; Peterson, 1990).
Employees who participate in extra organisational decision-making processes will
tend to participate similarly within the organisation. Consequently, they will show
higher job satisfaction and organisational commitment (DeCotiis & Sommers, 1987;
Zeffane, 1994). Committed, satisfied, and involved employees will thus reciprocate
with higher levels of organisational citizenship behaviour. This idea was supported by
Organ and Ryan (1995). Their findings showed comparable effect sizes between
satisfaction, fairness, organisational commitment, leader supportiveness, and
organisational citizenship behaviour. Participation in decision making has not been
tested frequently for its relationship to organisational citizenship behaviour, but it is
presented in political theory as an essential construct that bridges participation in the
civic setting to the work setting (Pateman, 1970; Sobel, 1993). It is also considered a
good indicator of fairness and justice in the relationship between an employee and the
organisation (Farh, Podsakoff, & Organ, 1990; Skarlicki & Latham, 1995). Milbrath
(1965) described the findings of a comparative survey of political participation in five
countries. In those with higher levels of political participation, there was also a much
higher level of social and organisational activity. According to this relationship, all
three mediators will be affected by citizenship behaviours, and all will affect
organisational citizenship behaviour. Committed and satisfied employees who are
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involved in the organisation will reciprocate with higher levels of organisational
citizenship behaviour.
2.1.2.10 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour for Teachers
School Teacher
A search for articles on organisational citizenship behaviour in schools yields
substantially fewer than ten citations worldwide (Bogler & Somech, 2004), of which
only one is from the United States. These quantitative studies have linked personal
and contextual factors (job satisfaction, school culture, autonomy, participative
leadership) to teacher organisational citizenship behaviour. An inventory of teacher
organisational citizenship behaviour based on scales developed in non-education
sectors (with a necessary matching) was suggested by Somech and Drach-Zahavy
(2000).
Teacher organisational citizenship behaviour may differ in some aspects from the
commonly held conceptualisations of organisational citizenship behaviour originated
in non educational organisations, for two major reasons: First, it was found that
employees will be more likely to engage in organisational citizenship behaviour when
objective criteria for assessing in-role performance are lacking (Bolino, 1999).
Teaching is characterized as an ambiguous, uncertain organisational technology with
vague boundaries and an unclear input-process-outcome connection (Meyer, et al
1992). Second, the ideal of service is imbedded in the ideal of teaching and includes a
responsibility over other persons‘ development and commitment to moral values
(Day, 1999), a commitment that is basically emotional in nature (Hargreaves, 1998;
Nias, 1989). Good teachers, Hargreaves (1998) commented, are ―emotional,
passionate beings that fill their work and their classes with pleasure, creativity,
challenge and joy‖. It is assumed, therefore, that teachers‘ organisational citizenship
behaviour may comprise many more emotional aspects than other employees‘ OCBs.
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An examination of organisational citizenship behaviour among teachers is beneficial
on three levels. First, as teaching has an ―endless appetite‖ for the investment of
scarce personal resources (Nias, 1989), mapping OCBs in school may help sharpen
the boundaries between officially prescribed relations and extra role activities, thus
minimizing role conflicts that may derive from ambiguity and uncertainty of role
expectations. Second, organisational citizenship behaviour researchers argue that this
sort of behaviour is critical to organisational functioning because it reduces the need
to allocate scarce resources to the maintenance function within organisations (Organ,
1988). Thus, schools may benefit by exploring teachers‘ organisational citizenship
behaviourbecause a greater understanding of this sort of behaviour may help the
establishment of ―Organisational citizenship behaviour encouraging environments‖ in
which the facilitators of organisational citizenship behaviour will be intensified and
its barriers reduced. Third, as additional research is needed in a variety of
organisations and occupations to identify all types of organisational citizenship
behaviour (Schnake, 1991).
University Teachers
Citizenship behaviours of university teachers (CBUT) are defined as behaviour that
tends to be discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward
system and that contributes to the effective functioning of the teaching institution
measured in terms of student academic performance (Rego, 2000a, 2000b, 2001,
2002). Focus is on teachers‘ behaviour towards their students in the classroom. There
are two reasons for this. First, quality in higher education bins in the classroom (see,
Hansen and Jackson, 1996), although the ‗the core activity of universities – teaching
– remains largely untouched‘ (Hansen and Jackson, 1996). Second, at the start of their
investigative work, studies focusing on CBUT used measurement instruments adapted
from organisational citizenship behaviour instruments (Koh et al., 1995) or
emphasized teachers‘ behaviours in relation to the organisation and/or colleagues
(Skarlicki and Latham, 1995). The empirical work described has four CBUT
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dimensions:
1. Participatory behaviour concerns the encouragement of student participation in
the teaching–learning process.
2. Practical orientation means that the teacher explains the topics using examples
that are relevant to the students‘ life.
3. Pedagogical conscientiousness means teachers‘ willingness to perform duties
professionally (for example, to prepare lessons well, to demand high standards, to
teach with responsibility and conscientiousness).
4. Courtesy means respectful behaviour towards students.
Findings of Pwell (1987) are from the graduates‘ point of view, encouraging student
participation in class, adopting a practical orientation, being more conscientious when
preparing and organizing lessons, and being friendly and courteous are considered
necessary for a good university teacher. Being only conscientious and/or
nice/courteous is not enough: it is necessary to possess the four citizenship
behaviours.
The general trend presented here should not obscure four important details when one
compares the points of view of graduates, students and teachers. (i) Students and
graduates (like teachers) give greater weight to the four CBUT. It is likely that
professional experience gained after graduation enables them to make a more
accurate evaluation of the importance and impact of their former teachers. The hard
reality of the labour market may be responsible for this greater awareness. (ii)
Graduates (like teachers) value teachers‘ practical orientation and conscientiousness
more highly than do students. Arguments used previously help explain this, namely,
that professional experience makes graduates more aware of both the importance of
the practical knowledge conveyed (or not) by their teachers and professional
conscientiousness (i.e., accuracy, method and organisation). (iii) Courtesy is given
greater weight by graduates than by students and teachers. Although surprising, the
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finding draws attention to the importance of teachers‘ actions rather than the technical
content of lessons. The data support the view that the impact of ‗teachers
consideration‘ behaviour (Fleishman, 1953; Fleishman and Harris, 1962) remains
after graduation. Further, our study supports the longitudinal study of Rego (2000b)
in that it confirms that this dimension is the only one to predict students‘ academic
performance. This finding must be read with caution; however, it might be argued
that a courteous teacher has a motivating effect on students, leading them to increase
effort and commitment and thus improve their academic performance. One can
conceive that courtesy, together with other citizenship actions, may increase student
motivation, commitment, enthusiasm, satisfaction, personal identification, self-
confidence and propensity to assume responsibilities (Harvie and Leiter, 1999).
Therefore, it is possible that it may increase dedication to work, stimulation and
learning (Stringer and Irwing, 1998). However, there may be another explanation. For
example, some personality traits (benevolence) can predispose teachers to be more
courteous/friendly and, at the same time, to give higher marks to their students. That
is to say, it is not courtesy that leads to good/better student performance but, instead,
it is personality that leads to courtesy and the higher marks received by students.
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2.1.3. Organisational Culture:
The concept of culture is particularly important when attempting to manage
organisation-wide change. Practitioners are coming to realize that, despite the best-
laid plans, organisational change must include not only changing structures and
processes, but also changing the corporate culture as well.
2.1.3.1.Indian Culture and Job Behaviours- Empirical Findings:
India is a home to diverse languages, dialects, rituals, and ceremonies. Unity despite
diversity has been the cardinal mantra of the nation‘s journey since ancient days of
the Indus valley civilisation. Indian socio-cultural dimensions of high power distance,
low masculinity, and high context-sensitive thinking are incompatible with
participative management in organisation Jiang and Klen Hellreiegal et al. (2000).
Moreover, within the context of organisations, Indian employees can embrace global
work values while retaining deep connection to their societal culture Arnold & Spell
(2006).
The impact of free world economy in India is not only felt in products as well as
services sold by organisations to their customers but most importantly in
philosophies, ideologies, and practices to manage the human capital. Navaie-Waliser
(2004) believes that the management practitioners have blindly applied American
management ideas and practices with little or almost negligible modifications in
several developing countries including India. A sizeable Indian population has deep
seated belief in fatalism and as a result any significant change in attitudes as well as
behaviours is relatively difficult to accomplish Robbert and Reilly (1979).
Furthermore, it has been a common observation that India has a vast pool of talented
people in all walks of life but still the nation severely lacks in basic and cutting edge
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research in many areas. For that matter, McClelland (1961) believes that while some
may attribute this phenomenon to the lack f resources and others may attribute it to
structural issues, an alternative explanation may be that it could be due to the lack of
adequate positive reinforcement from society. Hence, it suggests that beliefs and
value systems of the nation play a significant role in either sharpening or developing a
particular kind of functional attitudes and job behaviours to flourish at the workplace.
Globalisation of business is likely to have a tremendous impact on lifestyles and role
relationships, especially in developing countries like India (Gopalan and Stahl, 1998).
The foreign multinational companies (MNCs) are more likely to confront with a
tradition and culture which purely symbolise ―closed economies‖ for centuries and as
a result will have difficult times ahead to build as well as manage organisational
culture for any kind of competitive advantages. Though the general mindset of people
in India has undergone significant change in the satisfaction of social needs,
especially the need for achievement, they are to a greater extent still more parochial
in thinking, feeling, and behaving. The usual practice of layoff and terminations in the
western world may backfire in India as people generally have deep faith in
maintaining long-term relationships with each other (Bedi, 1995). There has been a
significant change, as job hopping has become increasingly common among the
younger generation. Employment in India is largely considered as an extension of
social justice (Khandwalla, 1990) and this is much more evident in the government of
the day which keeps on practicing job reservations for socially down-trodden people
in privately run organisations as the job opportunities in public sector are on the
downslide.
Moreover, Indians have a strong distinction between ―insiders‖ and ―outsiders‖ and as
a result prefer loyalty and dependability over efficiency and independence (Sinha,
1990). Therefore, the best of western cultural practices used to enhance employees‘
work motivation may have to be examined and implemented with caution in
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organisations in India as satisfaction of the lower order needs may be more important
to many employees. In other words, there has to be a trade-off between contextual
and content factors in India rather than just copying the western world in all its
organisational practices (Gopalan and Stahl, 1998). Doing business in India requires
understanding of similarities that hold this diverse country together and also the
differences that underlie the country's hundreds of indigenous languages and various
ways of life (Fusilier and Durlabhji, 2001). Deshpande and Farely (1999) in a study
comparing culture in Indian and Japanese companies find that the Japanese firms are
highly consensual than Indian firms and also that India firms are more highly
entrepreneurial than Japanese firms. Research on Indian work culture indicates that
high power distance, collectivism and affective reciprocity are major cultural values
of Indian managers (Chhokar, 2000). With respect to uncertainty avoidance, Hofstede
(1980) notes that Indians are high on uncertainty avoidance but a study by Koberg
and Chusmir, 1987 found Indians to be moderate on uncertainty avoidance.
But the foreign MNCs starting-up their business in this part of the world are likely to
face problems in understanding beliefs and value systems inherent in Indian culture.
Denhardt, 2004 report that studies on Indian culture and behaviour often yield
inconsistent and contradictory findings. This may be because of the controversy
regarding the appropriateness of universal theories of organisation and management
for explaining work behaviour in India Taber (1975), and also to the typical tendency
on the part of managers to internalise both Indian and western values at the same time
(Sinha, 1990). This is a dualism in Indian management practices Kettl, 2002 needs to
be corrected for the betterment of both individual employees and their organisation.
Johnson (2004) in a meta-analysis of organisational development efforts in India
finds that the cultural contexts have always been ignored and as a result long-term
results for the organisations were found to be unsustainable. Indians have also been
found to possess tendencies towards context sensitivity and balancing in
organisational behaviour. Moreover, there is great deal of inconsistency in behaviour
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across situations and also any kind of extreme views are discouraged (Sinha and
Kanungo, 1997).
The literature on culture in Indian organisations offers differing views on the design a
suitable organisational culture for firms in India. In one perspective, Indian culture
may be in an evolutionary stage. Such a state of affairs is likely to prohibit
consummate understanding of Indian culture necessary for increasing the productivity
of organisations. Therefore, the architecture of organisational culture in India in its
present form based on empirical inputs of yesteryears may be assumed to severely
lack the capability to absorb external pressures and dynamics of workplace job
behaviours. Such a condition is undesirable for organisations and needs to be
corrected. This study attempts to unravel this unconscious reality of the workplace by
carrying out investigation of 18 organisations across six major industry sectors in
India. It has been designed to find out the relevant and significant aspects of
organisational culture that are practiced across these industries.
At the same time, this study aims at investigating significant difference, if any, in
peoples' perception towards the relevant aspects of culture in their organisations
across industries. Finally, the study attempts to arrive at sound implications in the
form of suggestions for the six industries under investigation.
2.1.3.2. Organisational Culture and Job Satisfaction:
Researchers link job satisfaction with many factors fairness of rewards, growth
opportunities, participation in decision making, supervisory support and
compensation etc. A large number of researchers, however, link job satisfaction with
organisational culture Taber Hellreiegal et al. (1975), Mckinnon Hellreiegal et al.
(2001), Navaie-Waliser Hellreiegal et al. (2004), Chang and Lee (2007), and Mansoor
and Tayib (2010) etc.
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A dissatisfied employee cannot produce healthy and satisfied results. According to
Peters and Waterman (1982) success of the organisation depends on the brilliance or
excellence of the culture. A supportive organisational culture of institution would
play its role in two dimensions. On one hand it would raise the satisfaction level of
employees which may be helpful for employees to give good performance. On other
hand when new entrance would observe cooperation and mutual trust among
employees and between employee community and management they would try to
behave in the same manner after getting into their respective responsibility. This
study done by Hebb (1949) and Morse (1953) aims to determine the impact of
organisational culture on job satisfaction of the employees. The objectives of the
study are to understand the different responses of employees about organisational
culture and job satisfaction and to determine the effect of organisational culture on
job satisfaction.
According to Hebb (1949) and Morse (1953) changes in the organisational culture
affects the job satisfaction of the employees and it also changes their behaviours and
attitudes. Hellreiegal et al. (1974) report the existence of relationships between
organisational culture, culture and job satisfaction. Wallach (1983) reveals that job
performance and job satisfaction are related to organisational culture. Further, he
observes that job satisfaction and culture of the organisation are interdependent on
each other. Zammuto and Krakower (1991) suggest that management of the
organisation with the positive culture can enhance the performance and satisfaction
level of the workers. Kline and Boyd (1994) determine the relationship between
organisational structure and job satisfaction. They observe that employees at different
levels are influenced by diverse work aspects and different facets of work
environment. Kerego and Muthupha (1997) explain that working conditions and
channels of communications highly affect the job satisfaction. Sempane et al. (2002)
find that there is a close relationship between job satisfaction and organisational
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culture where job satisfaction is the result of organisational culture. In their study,
however, some facets prove positive relations and others native relations. They argue
that this varied relation depends on employees that how differently they perceive
cultural perspective. Huang and Chi (2004) opine that if the employees are satisfied
with the culture of the organisation it will motivate them to work hard and their
obligations would be consistent which finally would raise organisational
performance. Tang (2006) suggests that supportive culture of the organisation raises
the job satisfaction of the employees. According to Hoppock (1935), and Rad, (2006)
job satisfaction of the employees is affected by the culture of the organisation.
Greenhaus (1990) and Gorris (2006) find that various forms of the communication in
the organisation and the relationship between the employee and the employer have
positive impact on the job satisfaction of the employees. McHugh et al. (1993) argue
that bad and poor culture of the organisation will lower the level of job satisfaction
and lower productivity from the employees, and finally all these factors contribute to
decrease the efficiency and performance of the organisation. Hansen et al. (1989)
describe that the behaviour of the employees towards their mode of thinking whatever
they think intentionally or unintentionally is strongly influenced by the culture of the
organisation. Jiang and Klein (2000) argue that supportive culture of the organisation
increases the satisfaction level of the employees and decreases the turnover ratios
from the organisation.
Chang and Lee (2007) conclude that organisational culture has a positive impact on
the job satisfaction of the employees. Mckinnon (2003), Arnold (2006) and Mansoor
and Tayib (2010) observe strong positive impact of organisational culture on the job
satisfaction. However, Johnson (2004) opines that some component of the
organisational culture may not be positively associated with the job satisfaction.
Aoms and Weathington (2008) argue that the organisation with strong and suitable
culture positively affects not only the satisfaction of the employees but also the job
commitment of the employees with the organisation. Chang and Lee (2007)
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emphasize over the group oriented culture in the organisation for raising the
employees‟ job satisfaction. However, they find a positive relationship between the
culture of the organisation and job satisfaction. Analysis of this study supports to
conclude that organisational culture takes two forms i.e. organisational culture related
to managers and organisational culture related to employees. The effect of these both
kinds of culture is positive and significant on job satisfaction of employees. Yet,
organisational culture related to employees plays stronger role in creating job
satisfaction of employees of managers and leaders, Jiang and Klein (2000). On the
basis of findings of this study it has been recommend that policy makers should create
supportive organisational culture in order to raise the job satisfaction level of
employees. Policy makers should also focus on organisational culture related to
employees and exercise such policies which may raise the level of cooperation,
mutual trust, respect of opinions and thoughts of colleagues, and open mindedness to
seek and accept feedback among employees. Managers and leaders should support
and should encourage the employees to take initiatives and calculated risks and the
organisations should also focus to develop liaisons with related outside community.
2.1.3.3.Organisational culture on the relationship between shared leadership and
team proactivity:
One key issue that culture researcher‘s stress is that culture can have a powerful, yet
of times unconscious, impact on individuals and teams (Schneider, 1990). While
culture is elusive and multi-faceted, it seems quite probable that culture should affect
the display and form of shared leadership exhibited in groups (Adobor, 2004). For
example, if a cultural attribute is that of ―do not question authority‖, the ramifications
for shared leadership seem likely to be different than in a culture where ―questioning
authority‖ is highly valued. For understanding and analyzing organisation culture,
Wallach (1983) conceptualized three culture dimensions: bureaucratic, innovative,
and supportive. These dimensions provide a useful and measurable typology (Koberg
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and Chusmir, 1987).
According to Wallach (1983), bureaucratic culture has clear lines of responsibility
and authority. In bureaucratic culture, work is hierarchal, systemic, and
compartmentalized. Cameron and Quinn (1999) considered bureaucratic culture as
hierarchical culture. They observed that managers surrounded in hierarchical culture
are good at controlling, administrating, coordinating, and maintaining efficiency.
Some researchers have shown that bureaucratic culture has a negative relationship
with job satisfaction, job involvement, and employee commitment and involvement
(Chen, 2004;). Shared leadership is at odds with bureaucratic culture because shared
leadership encourages employee involvement and rejects the hierarchy, control,
domination, and power that bureaucratic culture creates. Shared leadership stimulates
members‘ participation in decision-making and teamwork and creates ongoing
communication (Ensley et al., 2003). In the perspective of shared leadership,
members of the organisation share mutual interests and create a shared culture.
Therefore, bureaucratic cultures influence perception of shared leadership negatively,
which in turn result in lower levels of proactivity among team members.
An individual who is well suited to innovative culture is results-oriented, risk-taking,
creative, pressurized, stimulating, challenging, enterprising, and driving (Wallach,
1983). The entrepreneurial leadership approach focuses on innovative and creative
environments
for the satisfaction of customers and the benefits of the organisation (Osborne and
Gaebler, 1992). In innovative culture, creativity and risk-taking are primary values to
survive in the competition of capital markets. Cameron and Quinn (1999)
conceptualized such culture as market culture. Innovative culture produces burnout
and stress that are routine occupational hazards of the constant pressure (Wallach,
1983). This is significantly negatively related to the propensity to leave (Koberg and
Chusmir, 1987). The philosophies of innovative culture borrow the principles of
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market economics (Terry, 2003). Thus, innovative culture is not related to consensus
in decision-making, teamwork, and communication (Shadur et al., 1999). On the
other hand, shared leadership challenges citizens to engage in the effort by convening
a diverse set of peoples, agencies, and interests (Luke, 1998). Shared leadership is far
from an innovative culture that stresses customer satisfaction and risk-taking.
Therefore, innovative cultures reduce the perception of shared leadership, which in
turn lead to low team proactivity.
A supportive culture exhibits teamwork and a people-oriented, encouraging, trusting
work environment. In these places, people are generally friendly, fair and helpful to
each other. Supportive cultures are characterized as open, harmonious, trusting, safe,
equitable, sociable, relationships-oriented, humanistic, collaborative, and likened to
an extended family. In such a culture, employees support one another through
encouraging and recognizing individual and team contributions and accomplishments
(Marks et al., 2001). This helps to create an environment where employees in a team
feel that their input is valued and appreciated. By actively participating in a team and
feeling supported, team members are more likely to work cooperatively and develop a
sense of shared responsibility for team outcomes (Kirkman and Rosen, 1999). Social
support is associated with group maintenance and culture (Yukl, 1989), supportive
behaviours (Seers, 1996), relational leadership (Barnard, 1938), and developing and
maintaining a team by providing ―interpersonal glue‖ that helps build a strong
internal social network (Barry, 1991). Therefore, a supportive culture facilitates
shared leadership in an organisation.
2.1.3.4.Organisational Culture and Motivation
Motivation is the key component of organisational culture. Organisational culture
plays a significant role in an organisation regarding how people feel about their work,
levels of motivation, commitment, and in turn job satisfaction. These views are
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further backed by Suppiah et al. (2011) by explaining that people are the key factors
for competitiveness and organisations can demonstrate highly complex social
structure because of their cultural strength. There is a clear mutual interdependence
between organisation and its employees, where both the parties have an impact on
each other's potential in achieving success. Such a relation gives birth to the relation
of employee motivation and job satisfaction Schein (1985).
There are evidences from researches that motivation and job satisfaction cannot be
related in isolation. Organisational culture should be prompted to ensure employee
motivation in order to achieve organisational goals Suppiah et al. (2011)). Motivated
staffs take pride whilst doing their job and thus feel responsible for the organisational
success. But it has been an issue for some managers regarding how to motivate their
employees, Management News. According to Hofstede (1980), recognition of the
work done by the employees will make them work harder in future. Motivation can
be seen to be linked to culture by looking at the five sources of motivation proposed
by Kanter (1982). He details that employees are motivated through mission (inspiring
employees to believe in the importance of their work), agenda control (enabling
employees to control their careers), a share of value creation (rewarding employees
for successful efforts), leaning (providing learning opportunities) and reputation
(giving employee's opportunity to get a name for themselves). These five sources of
motivation link in with the work of Denison
(1990) and Truskie (1999) as all three sources focus upon the same general areas.
Consequently it can be seen that there is a link between motivation and culture, as
strongly integrated cultures will often result in motivated workforce.
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2.1.3.5.Organisational Culture and its link with Creativity and Innovation:
Organisational culture seems to be a critical factor in the success of any organisation
(Martins and Terblanche, 2003). Successful organisations have the capacity to absorb
innovation into the organisational culture and management processes (Tushman and
O‘Reilly, 1997). Organisational culture was believed by Tushman and O‘Reilly
(1997) to lie at the heart of organisation innovation.
Organisational culture affects the extent to which creative solutions are encouraged,
supported and implemented. A culture supportive of creativity encourages innovative
ways of representing problems and finding solutions (Martins and Terblanche, 2003).
Creativity is regarded as both desirable and normal and innovators are favoured as
models to be emulated (Lock and Kirkpatrick, 1995).Against the background of the
systems approach, which sees organisations as open systems consisting of different
sub-systems interacting with one another, Martins and Terblanche (2003) explained
the relationship between organisational culture, creativity and innovation as follows:
• External environment (e.g. economy and competitiveness encourage
continual changes in products, technology and customer preferences) (Tesluk
et al., 1997).
• Reaction to critical incidents outside and within the organisation, which is
reflected in the strategy (e.g. innovation strategy) of the organisation (Tesluk
et al., 1997).
• Managers‘ values and beliefs (e.g. free exchange of information, open
questioning, support for change and diversity of beliefs) (Tesluk et al., 1997).
• The structure of the organisation, which in turn allows management to reach
organisational goals (e.g. a flexible structure characterized by
decentralisation, shared decision making, low to moderate use of formal rules
and regulations, broadly defined job responsibilities and flexible authority
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structure with fewer levels in the hierarchy) (Hellreiegal et al., 1974).
• Technology, which includes knowledge of individuals and availability of
facilities (e.g. computers, the Internet) to support the creative and innovative
process (Shattow, 1996).
According to the literature there is some broad agreement on the type of
organisational culture needed to improve creativity and innovation. However, there is
a subtle balance required as there also seems to be a paradox in the sense that
organisational culture can stimulate or hinder creativity and innovation (Tushman and
O‘Reilly,1997).
2.1.3.6.Organisational Culture’s influence on organisational change:
Organisational culture appeared to have some influence on attitudes toward
organisational change (Ahmed, 1998). According to Ahmed (1998), innovation is the
engine of change and the possession of positive cultural characteristics provides the
organisation with necessary ingredients to innovate. Culture could enhance or inhibit
the tendency to innovate. Pool (2000), however, suggested that organisational culture
allowed an organisation to address ever-changing problems of adaptation to the
external environment and the internal integration of organisation resources, personnel
and policies to support external adaptation. Therefore, it is expected that certain types
of culture might facilitate the change process while other types of culture might not.
One major issue confronting organisations is to determine which type of
organisational culture favors organisational change. This can be a challenging task for
top managers, as the managers have to decide how to implement changes in their
organisation. Some have argued that the process has to start at the top while others
have suggested that it should also start with the bottom-up approach (Lupton, 1971).
As such it appears that there may be a relationship between organisational culture and
attitudes toward organisational change.
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In this research, organisational culture is defined in terms of the sociability and
solidarity dimensions as proposed by Goffee and Jones (1998). Goffee and Jones
(1998) categorized organisational culture into four main types based on two
dimensions: sociability and solidarity. Sociability is defined as the extent of
friendliness in relationships between people in an organisation. Solidarity is the
ability of people to pursue shared goals efficiently and effectively for the larger good
of the organisation without much regard for the impact on individuals and the
relationships between them. Based on these two dimensions, Goffee and Jones
suggested that there were four main types of corporate culture, namely the communal
culture, fragmented culture, networked culture and mercenary culture. In this
framework, culture is a community or the way in which people relate to each other.
This typology was selected as it was found (from personal interview and observation)
that the categorisation of the cultural types appeared similar or comparable to
organisations in Malaysia.
The attitude toward change refers to the three types of attitudes as proposed by
Dunham et al. (1989) comprising three types, namely the affective, cognitive and
behavioural attitudes toward change. One issue raised, is which of the three types of
attitudes are more critical, is it the cognitive, affective or behavioural. Should
organisational changes start by adopting the cognitive or affective mode and then
followed by the behavioural mode? Following argument, those one of major obstacles
of change is ―fear of the unknown‖ or ―unfamiliar situation‖, the cognitive mode can
be an effective mode to be addressed first. This is because once a person has
information and knowledge of the potential changes to be made, his or her feelings
toward change may be changed to favor such changes. It should also be highlighted
that handling the cognitive component on attitude toward change can also be a
daunting task if it is not well communicated. This will be demonstrated by the action
or behavioural mode of the person in responding to the changes. As such, this model
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provided a comprehensive approach in understanding the attitudes toward
organisational change.
2.1.3.7.Organisational Culture and Leadership :
In the field of organisational culture and leadership it‘s found that the two areas have
been independently linked to organisational performance. For example, researchers
have examined the links between leadership styles and performance (Kotter and
Heskett, 1992), and also between organisational culture and performance
(Berrio,2003). Furthermore, numerous aspects of the organisational culture literature
allude to the role of leaders in ‗creating‘ and ‗maintaining‘ particular types of culture
(Schein , 1992).
Since Schein (1992) published the book Organisational Culture and Leadership, more
researchers have recognized culture as a multidimensional and multilevel concept.
Schein describes three levels of culture. The first level consists of visible
organisational structures and actions, such as dress code, facilities and procedures.
This level of culture can be easily observed. The second level consists of espoused
values manifested in the public images of organisations, such as strategies, goals, and
philosophies. While not as visible as the artifacts present in the first level, these
values can be ascertained by norms, the way things are done in the organisation. The
third level consists of basic assumptions, or unconscious beliefs, perceptions,
thoughts, and feelings. These determine both behaviour norms (the way people
should behave) and organisational values (the things that are highly valued).
According to Buono and Bowditch (1989), the visible elements created by an
organisation on the first level are treated as objective organisational culture, while the
elements on the second and the third levels are concerned with subjective
organisational culture. Most researchers agree that subjective culture is more
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important as a significant determinant of beliefs, attitudes, and behaviours, and it thus
provides a more distinctive basis for characterizing and interpreting similarities and
differences among people in different organisations. On this understanding, university
culture as a particular form of organisational culture can be defined ―as the collective,
mutually shaping patterns of norms, values, practices, beliefs, and assumptions that
guide the behaviour of individuals and groups in an institute of higher education and
provide a frame of reference within which to interpret the meaning of events and
actions on and off campus‖ (Kuh & Whitt, 2000). While the term organisational
culture is used as if an organisation has a monolithic culture, most organisations have
more than one set of beliefs influencing the behaviour of their members (Morgan,
1986). Cultural diversity appears to be more obvious in higher education institutions
(Kuh & Whitt, 2000). The ‗small homogenous society‘ analogues used in
anthropological studies of culture is sorely strained when applied to many
contemporary institutions of higher education.
Farough Amin (2008) demonstrates that there is a relationship between organisational
culture and leadership styles; the more congruence are between organisational culture
and leadership styles the more effectiveness will be in managerial skills.
2.1.3.8.Organisational Culture and Employee retention:
In a study of six public accounting firms over a six year period, Sheridan (1992)
found organisational culture values varied significantly among these firms and these
variations in cultural values had a significant effect on the rates at which newly hired
college graduates voluntarily terminated employment. Sheridan (1992) also found
that the relationship between the employees. Job performance and their retention also
varied significantly with the organisational culture values. He also emphasized that
the effects of culture were stronger than the combined influence of the labour market,
at the time of the study, and the college graduates demographic characteristics.
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2.1.3.9. Organisational Culture and Organisational performance:
In today‘s economy, firms are challenged to continuously offer a portfolio of
innovative products and services. Despite the key role of portfolio innovativeness for
corporate performance, firms differ in their focus on building innovation capabilities
and generating innovation outcomes (Hambrick, 2007).Research of the link between
organisational culture and performance had increased substantially during the past
two decades (Lim,1995). In the 1980s, there were ‗obsessions‘ by researchers to
focus on the Strong Theory- a search for strong shared values in organisation which
were supposed to result in performance for the organisation. Perters and Waterman
(1982) claimed that high performance firms could be distinguished from low
performance firms because they possessed certain cultural traits and ‗strong culture‘.
Organisational culture has the potential to enhance organisational performance,
employee job satisfaction end the sense of certainty about problem solving (Kotter,
and Heskett, 1992). If an organisational culture becomes incongruent with changing
expectation of internal and external stakeholders, the organisation‘ effectiveness can
be decline as has occurred with some organisations (Ernst,2001). Organisational
culture and performance clearly are related (Kopelman, Brief & Guzzo, 1990),
although the evidence regarding the exact nature of this relationship is mixed. Studies
shows that the relationship between many culture attributes and high performance has
not been consistent over time (Denison,1990).
We can summarise the effect of organisational culture on employee bahaviour and
performance based on four ideas (Bulach, Lunenburg & Potter 2012). First knowing
the culture of organisation allows employees to understand both the organisation‘s
history and current methods of operation. This insight provides guidance about
expected future behaviour. Second. Organisational culture can foster the commitment
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to the organisation‘s philosophy and value. The commitment generates shared feeling
of working towards common goal. That is, organisation can achieve effectiveness
only when employee shares values. Third, organisational culture through its norms
serves as control mechanism to channel behaviours towards desired behaviours and
away from undesired behaviour. This can also be accomplished by recruiting;
selecting and retaining employees whose value best fit the value of the organisation.
Finally, certain types of organisational cultures may be related directly to greater
effectiveness and productivity than other.
In other study Denison (1990) found, in his study of organisational culture, that
companies with a participative culture reaped a return on investment, which averaged
nearly twice that of firms with less efficient cultures. His conclusion was that cultural
and behavioural aspects of organisations were intimately linked to both short-term
performance and long-term survival (Petty et al., 1995). Petty et al. (1995) conducted
a study amongst 3977 employees across a United States company to assess whether
there was a relationship between organisational culture and organisational
performance. The results of this study indicated that organisational performance was
linked to organisational culture. The authors affirm that there was a strong link
evident in the correlation between teamwork and performance. This correlation
indicated that teamwork, being the major aspect of culture, was significantly related
to performance. The authors also contend that such behaviours as helping others,
sharing of information and resources, and working as a team seemed to enhance
performance in the organisation studied.
Brightman and Sayeed (1990) found, in a study done by Glazer, S. (2004) of an
electric utility company, that cultures affect organisational performance. The study
revealed four factors that differentiated financially successful companies from less
successful companies. These four factors were: successful companies had greater
horizontal coordination; they possessed more affective internal communications; they
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encouraged their employees to air conflicts and criticisms openly; and they showed
greater concern for developing people.
According to Ogbonna and Harris (2000) there has been a lot of literature defining the
link between culture and performance of an organisation. Despite the fact that some
authors have written against the link between the two, most of the theorists have
come up with sufficient evidences describing the link between the organisation's
culture and performance of the company. For instance Brown (1998) suggested that
one of the important consequences of the Strong organisational culture is its impact
on the performance of the company. Also, Denison (1990) conducted the research on
performance-culture link using the data from 34 companies of America in a period of
5 years. Based on the quantitative studies, the author, constantly, examined the
cultural characteristics and performance of these companies throughout the period of
5 years. He used the data of ‗return on investment and sales‘ to measure performance.
Although there were variances among some of the measurement indicators strength to
find the relation between the two, he was successful in finding out a link between the
culture and organisational performance. He found that long term financial
performance is linked with the decision making and work design of an organisation.
Despite the encouraging results of the study, it had its limitations too. Lim (1995)
came up with a strong criticism of Denison's studies and stated that the study was
based on the measurement of organisational culture rather than measuring
organisational culture. In order to overcome the limitations present in the study of
Denison (1990), he chose data from 32 voluntary fund-raising service organisations.
The amount of money raised at that time by the organisations was taken into account
to measure performance and for the measurement of organisational culture;
organisational culture inventory promoted by Conte, J. M., Landy, (2010) was taken
into consideration.
Kotter and Heskett (1992) conducted an extensive study in order to find culture-
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performance link. Data was collected from 207 companies over the period of 5 years.
Various measures of culture and economic performance data were taken into
consideration to make their study successful. At the end of the study, only a minor
relation was found between strong culture and long term performance which was their
initial objective. Studies were conducted by Ogbonna and Harris (2000) in order to
investigate the relation between the organisational culture and company performance.
They included leadership style as one more variable in their model. Data was used
from 1000 registered British companies. Customer satisfaction, sales growth, market
share, competitive advantage and sales volume were the variables used to measure
performance. In order to measure organisational culture, innovative, competitive,
bureaucratic, and community cultures were taken into account. Their study revealed
that all the variables used to measure organisational culture are having their direct or
indirect impact on the organisation's performance.
Similarly, Deal and Kennedy (1982) suggested that organisational performance can
be enhanced by strong shared values. Their suggestions were criticized by Carrol
(1982), and Saffold (1988) who commented that ‗a simple model‘ relating
organisational culture to performance no longer fits- a more sophisticated
understanding of the tie between culture and performance must be developed. In the
1990s, the ―obsession‖ in testing the Theory of Adaptability (Denison (1990) and
Kotter and Heskett (1992) however, found inconsistent results on the link between
culture strengths and organisational performance. Denison (1990) and the Strong
Culture Theory have again been criticized by other scholars.
For example, Denison and Mishra (1995) argued that instead of striving for strong
culture, researchers should attempt to reduce the gap between employees‘ prefer of
the organisational practices. Denison and Mishra (1995) pointed out that the empirical
evidence for the impact of the organizational performance using organizational
culture practices was still limited, but it formed a fruitful basis for more refined
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organizational culture-performance research. Researchers used different
organisational dimensions to measure organisational culture although some of these
researchers such as Gordon and Gordon (1997); Kotter and Heskett (1992); Denison
and Mishra (1995) had utilized almost the same organisational cultural dimensions
like Other researchers such as Petty et.al.(1995) who developed different dimensions
of organisational culture in their studies.
They had also obtained inconsistent results about the link between organisational
culture and performance (Petty et.al. (1995) In terms of sample, Denison and Mishra
(1995); Kotter & Heskett (1992), assessed organisational culture by using only
managers or executives. This has been heavily criticized by a few scholars. For
example, Lee (2002) argued that to study organisational culture, it was imperative
that researchers investigate all levels of organisation. There was a need to use
organisation culture practice to study organisational culture performance link because
most studies link values to performance (Salzainna, 2004). Between 1990 and 2007,
more than 60 research studies covering 7619 companies and small business units in
26 countries have found that market culture and business performance are strongly
related. This positive correlation is identified by more than 35 performance measures,
including return on investment, revenue growth, customer retention, market share,
new product sales, and employee provides executives with an empirical basis for
embracing a strong market culture as a means of creating a competitive advantage for
their firms and the superior business performance that results. In one study, authored
by Kotter and Heskett (1992) of Harvard Business School, it was reported that firms
performance enhancing cultures grew their net income765 % between 1977 and 1988,
as compared with 1% for firms without performance enhancing cultures over the
same period, Gordon and Gordon (1997).
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2.1.3.10 Organisational Culture and Organisational Effectiveness:
Steers (1975) and Zammuto (1982) described the measurement of effectiveness was
the most issue in the organisational culture theory. For linking organisational culture,
Ouchi (1980) identified the characteristics to determine the organisational
effectiveness. Quinn and Rohrbaugh (1983) examined that relationship organisational
culture and effectiveness by utilizing the competing value framework. Denison,
Haaland and Goelzer (2004) illustrated the different organisational cultures were
involved with the different organisational effectiveness. Kotter and Heskett (1992)
studied the relationship between strength of culture and organisational effectiveness.
Ostroff and Schmitt (1993) found that the organisational effectiveness was influenced
by the organisational culture. Denison and colleagues (1990) completed the research
found that the organisational culture heavily influenced the organisational
effectiveness of business.
According to Smith, Arnold, and Bizzell (1988), the ultimate purpose of stratic
management is to help organisations increase performance through improved
effectiveness, efficiency, and flexibility. Thibodeaux and Favilla (1995) utilized the
planning and goal setting, flexibility and adaptation, information management,
communication, readiness, evaluations by external entity and stability concepts of
organisational effectiveness to research the strategic management process. In the
model of organisational effectiveness for consultation management (Ridley and
Mendoza, 1993), it included the rules and regulations, sensitivity, contributing to the
environment, transformation and planning variables. The process control, information
management and goal setting importance are emphasized on the organisational
effectiveness (Quinn, 1988). In these contexts, the relationship between
organisational culture and organisational effectiveness becomes important. In
accordance with the studies presented above, the organisational culture has a positive
influence on organisational effectiveness.
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2.1.3.11.Organisational Culture and Performance Management Practices:
According to Kandula (2006) the key to good performance is a strong culture. He
further maintains that due to difference in organisational culture, same strategies do
not yield same results for two organisations in the same industry and in the same
location. A positive and strong culture can make an average individual perform and
achieve brilliantly whereas a negative and weak culture may de-motivate an
outstanding employee to underperform and end up with no achievement. Therefore
organisational culture has an active and direct role in performance management.
Murphy and Cleveland (1995) believe that research on culture will contribute to the
understanding of performance management. Magee (2002) contends that without
considering the impact of organisational culture, organisational practices such as
performance management could be counterproductive because the two are
interdependent and change in one will impact the other.
Yilmaz (2008) states that: Following Schein, E (1992) at the core of Denison‘s model
are the underlying beliefs and assumptions that represent the deepest levels of
organisational culture. These fundamental assumptions provide the foundation from
which (1) more surface-level cultural components such as values and observable
artifacts – symbols, heroes, rituals, etc. – are derived, and (2) behaviour and action
spring (Denison, 2000). In Denison‘s model comparisons of organisations based on
relatively more ‗‗surface-level‘‘ values and their manifest practices are made. Such
values are deemed both more accessible than the assumptions and more reliable than
the artifacts (Denison, 2000 in Yilmaz, 2008).
Denison‘s organisational culture model is based on four cultural traits involvement,
consistency, adaptability, and mission that have been shown in the literature to have
an influence on organisational performance (Denison, 1990; Denison & Mishra,
1995). The four traits of culture in Denison‘s framework are as follows:
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a) Involvement: Effective organisations empower their people, build their
organisations around teams, and develop human capability at all levels
(Lawler, 1996). Executives, managers, and employees are committed to their
work and feel that they own a piece of the organisation.
b) Consistency: Organisations also tend to be effective because they have
―strong‖ cultures that are highly consistent, well coordinated, and well
integrated. Behaviour is rooted in a set of core values, and leaders and
followers are skilled at reaching agreement even when there are diverse points
of view (Khatri, N.,2000).
c) Adaptability: Ironically, organisations that are well integrated are often the
most difficult ones to change. Internal integration and external adaptation can
often be at odds. Adaptable organisations are driven by their customers, take
risks and learn from their mistakes, and have capability and experience at
creating change (Nadler, 1998).
d) Mission: Successful organisations have a clear sense of purpose and direction
that defines organisational goals and strategic objectives and expresses a
vision of how the organisation will look in the future (Heck, et al,1990).
The five Performance Management practices includes:
a) Clear and measurable goals based on scale CLRMSG by Verbeeten, (2008).
Goal setting theory asserts that people with specific and challenging goals
perform better than those with vague goals, such as ―do your best‖, specific
easy goals or no goals at all. Thus, goal setting theory assumes that there is a
direct relation between the definition of specific and measurable goals and
performance.
b) The performance measurement system instrument (labelled BROADPMS) is
based upon the instrument by Cavalluzzo and Ittner (2004) captures the
extent to which different types of results-oriented performance measures
have been developed for the activities of the organisation apart from financial
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measures.
c) Consultative Performance Appraisal which included items (1) The superior
will normally discuss the performance of his/her subordinates with them, and
(2) performance appraisal includes the supervisor setting objectives and goals
of subordinates for the period ahead in consultation with them.
d) Training Effectiveness/Evaluation included items (1) My company conducts
systematic analysis to determine the needs for training programs, (2) we
conduct cost-benefit analysis to assess the effectiveness of our training
programs, and (3) we evaluate our training programs to determine whether
the training objectives are met.
e) Performance-based Compensation included items (1) Job performance of an
individual is very important in determining the earnings of employees in my
company, and (2) promotion is based primarily on seniority (reverse-coded).
As reflected in figure 2.5
Figure 2.5- A conceptual model of organisation culture and performance management practices.
Source: Denison & Mishra (1995) and authors own.
Organisational performance management system create career paths for employees as
well as groupings of people who remain in the firm for a long enough time for a
company culture to form. This outlook suggests that firms can implement such
management practices that foster job security and internal career development in
Organisational Culture
Involvement Culture
Consistency Culture
Adaptability Culture
Mission Culture
Performance Management Practices (PMP)
Clear and measurable goals
Performance measurement system
Consultative Performance Appraisal
Training Effectiveness/Evaluation
Performance-based Compensation
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order to keep turnover low, and maintain those social phenomena that comprise
organisational culture (values, beliefs, norms, assumptions) within the organisation,
and therefore forming a strong organisational culture.
2.1.3.12 Ethical Culture and Organisational Outcomes:
Bourne and Snead's (1999) investigate how external organisational contexts and
ethical culture interact, one that does is exploration of how community norms and
values determine employees' ethical perceptions, and hence determine the
organisational ethical culture. Another such study by Cullen, Parboteeah, and Hoegl
(2004) investigated how external organisational context affected ethical decision
making. Similarly, Belak and Mulej (2009) found that ethical culture changes over
the life cycle stages of an enterprise.
Another recent study by Weber and Gerde (2011) found that both organisational role
and environmental uncertainty influenced ethical culture in military units. The
original study by Victor and Cullen (1988) found that organisational form was a
significant predictor of ethical culture perceptions. They hypothesized that Ouchi's
(1980) transaction organisational forms were responsible for encouraging various
types of ethical culture. A study by Wimbush, Shepard, and Markham (1997) also
found that various organisational forms encouraged several kinds of ethical culture.
Similarly, Wyld and Jones (1997) proposed that organisational context factors were
very important in establishing ethical culture. Stone and Henry (2003) investigated
the development of ethical culture from an information technology (IT) perspective,
and found that IT influenced the development of various types of ethical culture.
Similarly, Jin, Drozdenko, and Bassett (2007) found that organisational structure in
IT organisations affected the development of ethical culture there.
Several studies have investigated ethical culture in a nonprofit versus profit context
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(Agarwal & Malloy, 1999; Brower & L Shrader, 2000). This realm of research has
found that nonprofit organisations tend to encourage different types of ethical culture
than do for-profit or government organisations A recent study (Duh, Belak, &
Milfelner, 2010) investigated differences between family and nonfamily enterprises in
terms of ethical culture. Kidwell, Kellermanns, and Eddleston (2012) also studied
family firms and investigated the role of conflict and justice perceptions in the
development of ethical culture.
Another realm of research exploring the antecedents of ethical culture has focused on
strategic and managerial orientations. One study examined the relationship between
strategic and managerial orientations and ethical work culture (VanSandt, Shepard, &
Zappe, 2006). Another study by Parboteeah, Chen, Lin, Chen, Lee, and Chung (2010)
examined the role of managerial practices in establishing ethical culture, and found
that practices such as communication and empowerment influence ethical culture
from a functional perspective. Several studies have investigated the role of leaders in
establishing ethical culture (Dickson, Smith, Grojean, & Ehrhart, 2001). Leadership
orientations have also been considered as an explanatory variable for the
establishment of ethical culture (Schminke, Ambrose, & Neubaum, 2005), as have
entrepreneurial orientations (Neubaum, Mitchell, &.Schminke, 2004). Managerial
orientations have also been found to influence organisational actors' perceptions of
ethical culture (Martin &. Cullen, 2006; Schwepker & Hartline, 2005).
Job satisfaction is a popular outcome variable studied by numerous scholars and
studies in the context of ethical culture (Goldman & Tabak, 2010). This construct has
been studied in a variety of contexts, including differing countries, employees, and
industries. An early study by Deshpande (1996b) investigated the impact of ethical
culture types on facets of job satisfaction, such as pay satisfaction, promotion
satisfaction, coworker satisfaction, supervisor satisfaction, work satisfaction, and
overall job satisfaction. He found that with the exception of pay satisfaction, ethical
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culture were associated with all other measures of satisfaction.
This particular finding in terms of person-organisation fit and ethical culture was
verified by later studies (Valentine et al, 2002). Cullen and colleagues (2003) directly
investigated the effects of ethical culture types on organisational commitment and
found positive associations between benevolent and principled culture and
organisational commitment, and negative associations between egoistic culture and
organisational commitment.
.
The research linking ethical culture and turnover intentions has a very similar
conclusion to the commitment findings, chiefly that egoistic culture tend to encourage
turnover intentions (Mulki, Jaramillo, & Locander, 2008), and principled and
benevolent culture tend to reduce employee turnover intentions.
Wimbush and colleagues (1997) corroborated the earlier model and found that ethical
culture dimensions were related to ethical behaviour. Deshpande (1996b) also found a
link between ethical culture and ethical behaviour of successful managers. This
particular finding has been replicated in Polish, Russian, and Chinese contexts
(Deshpande, George, & Joseph, 2000; Deshpande, Joseph, & Shu, 2011; Simha &
Stachowicz- Stanusch, in press).
2.2 Rationale:
On reviewing the literature, it may be concluded that more research is required in the
field of culture in an organisation. Organisational Culture is one of the most important
characteristics to influence the overall productivity and effectiveness of an individual.
At all the level, in all departments and all kind of organisation strong presence of
organisational culture amongst all employees is necessary.
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The demands of the present world are very critical. To fit into the present world the
organisations are developing various tactics that can generate good organisation
culture, which will support organisation for long term sustainability. The present
study will try to investigate into the impact of learned helplessness, and
organisational citizenship behaviour on organisational culture.
Although a generic acknowledgement exists yet there is clearly a definite need of a
formal study of ―Effect of Learned Helplessness and Organisational Citizenship
Behaviour on Organisational Culture‖. Despite marked amount of work done
different on these subject but no study till the time is done on its inter relation &
effect on each other. So the gap existing in the research establishing relationships
between the independent variables as learned helplessness and organisational
citizenship behaviour to dependent variable organisational culture is being tried to be
filled by this research work.
