21

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Study of contemporary literatureThe assessment of water quality lies on carefully examining the delicate

interface between Physics, Chemistry and Biology. While the biological methods

show the degree of ecological imbalance, the chemical methods measure the

concentration of the pollutants (Shrotriya and Dubey 1991). The assessment and

evaluation, as well as devising methods for abatement of pollution, require a study of

these three components (Rana and Palria 1988).

Physico-Chemical International findings

Allhajjar et al., (1990) studied the effects of leachate from septic system

on the quality of under lying shallow ground water in the vicinity of the septic

systems were examined for two years in South Central Wisconsin. The increase in

the electrical conductivity value and chloride concentration in the ground water

sources with decreased distance from the drain suggested that these two parameters

can be taken as indicators for detecting plumes of contamination from septic system.

Ground water contamination was examined within a rural setting of the

Inner Blue grass karst region of Central Kentucky, USA for major ions including

nitrate and some species of bacteria by Scanlon (1990). These bacteria were

indicative of pollution from septic tank effluent, among other potential contamination

sources.

Along the stretch as reported by Sohetal (1991). By analyzing the physic

Sengai Pertama a tributary of Sungi Perai Malaysia received domestic and agricultural

effluents chemical para- meters it was observed that the water unfit for the domestic

use and fisheries.

Seigely et al., (1993) studied various chemical and bacteriological

parameters in the wells close to a feedlot and septic system of Audubon, USA. It was

observed the concentration of nitrate and bacterial counts were more pronounced in

the wells nearer the septic system.

Alla EI- Dinetal (1993) reported the quality of well water from six regions

of the kingdom of Saudi Arabia with respect to physic-chemical and bacteriological

22

parameters.Sixteen percent of the wells crossed the WHO limit for ammonia. Faecal

coliform was present in 21.4% of the tested well waters. Animal and human wastes

were the significant source of well water pollution.

Water samples from deep tube wells of Hazaribagh, Armanitola and

Banani of Bangladesh were analyzed for 26 parameters to determine their suitability

for drinking purpose as well as their possible contamination by Alangir et al., (1994).

Liu et al., (1994)studied the Ching-Pu and Sat- Lun landfill sites located in the

Taiwanese cities of Taiwan and Kaohsiung on the effects of reclaimed municipal

landfills on the local environment. The results showed that leachates from the

decomposing waste deposits seeped downward to contaminate the ground water.

Ground water Sources used for human consumption were tested for

chemical and bacteriological parameters in EI-Tall and EL-Kabier region of

Islamia ,Egypt .Water from wells of about 14 m depth were contaminated by

sulphate, chloride and carbonate ions and their salinity crossed the drinking

water standard Diab (1995) .Those samples were also potentially pathogenic

regarding their coli counts .

A research was undertaken by Asbrand (1996) in two districts of

South Berlin ,Germany to have an idea of the extent of ground water pollution

due to contamination with sewage water. Pollution of this aquifer especially by

nitrate, phosphate and other salts was attributed to the presence of sewage plant

in nearby area .The influence of sewage was clearly detectable by the high

concentration of inorganic salts in the wells located a few kilometers away

from the sewage tratment plant.

Pollution profiles and mechanism of ground water contamination in

Shijiazhuang city of China were investigated and discussed byGuo et al

,.(1996). The results of analysis and geochemical modelling showed that the

main reason for ground water pollution in the city was the leakage of sewage

channels. Excessive concentration of inorganic salts was attributed to the

dissolution and dolomite and gypsum.

Malard et al., (1997) studied a limestone aquifer of DueBindorf,

Switzerland relating to physico chemical and biological dynamics for a period

of two years. They found that the spatio - temporal pattern of ground water

23

contamination was due to the spillage of sewage effluents through the fracture

zone.

Bore wells of Caliber municipality ,Nigeria were sampled and

analyzed using standard field and laboratory techniques to determine the water

quality status of ground water (Udom et al., 1998) . Nkansah et al (2001) studied

the ground water quality in the Kwahu west district of Ghana. This investigation

determined the use of physico-chemical parameters together with trace metal

contamination as indices of quality. Wright and Nobel (2002) compared the

contamination, of surface and ground water sources and soils in the vicinity, due to

leaching, percolation and infiltration.

Pradhan et al., (2003) investigated the quality of drinking water used by

the communities and their awareness regarding water quality and water borne diseases

in Bungamati Locality in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. The observation indicated that

the factors responsible for contaminating drinking water at source points included

lack of protection and proper treatment of water, leakage in pipe distribution system,

intermittent supply of water, poor drainage system and poor environment surrounding

of water sources. So, the drinking water is not potable. The communities are unaware

of the quality of water they use. Incidence of water borne diseases appears to be the

common health problem among the sample households in the study region. It is found

more serious during the dry summer.

Gregor Muri (2004) studiedbasic physical and chemical characteristics of

the water in 14 Slovenian mountain lakes. Surface water was sampled once a year

over three consecutive years (2000-2002). The influences of lake and catchment area

properties on the measured parameters were studied. The lake’s tropic status and size

of catchment area were found to affect the water chemistry. Pearson correlation

coefficients were calculated to identify the strength of relation between the variables.

The highest correlation was found among the alkalinity, calcium and conductivity.

Cluster analysis was additionally performed to obtain natural groupings in the data.

Finally, the condition of the lakes was assessed. Although the water quality has

deteriorated in some lakes (especially in Jezero na Planini pri Jezeru),most of the

lakes are still in a good condition

24

Wakida and Lerner (2005) explored for non-agricultural sources of

nitrate in groundwater at Nottingham, England. They found that leaky sewers and

solid wastes, including landfills,contribute to the nitrate content in the urban

aquifer.From a study conducted by Achyuthan Nair et al., (2005) on the

assessment of the well water quality of Benghazi ,Libya , recorded very high

nitrate contents in some of the well waters ,which are of concern.

Lang et al., (2006) observed that the major anthropogenic

components in the surface and ground water include K+, Na+ ,Cl- ,SO42-and

NO3 with Cl-and NO3 being the main contributors to ground water pollution in

Guiyang ,China and its adjoining areas. The seasonal variations in

concentrations of anthropogenic components demonstrate that the karsts ground

water system is liable to pollution by human activities.

Karikari and Ansa-Ansare (2006) conducted water quality assessment in

the Densu basin of Ghana between july 2003 and March 2004 and identified human,

animal and agricultural activities as the main source of pollution. The dominance of

chloride over sulfate was probably due to household effluents, fertilizer use and other

anthropogenic point sources.

Almasri (2007) found evidence of deterioration of groundwater quality

due t nitrate contamination in agriculture-dominated watersheds of Palestine.

Maurizo et al(2005 / 2008)studied data from numerous studies in Murgia

Plateau and Salentine Peninsula in south-eastern Italy.They concluded that the

groundwater pollution is quite absent only in the interiors of these areas that constitute

the recharge zone and that groundwater flowing from these areas to the sea is

progressively polluted. This pollution load discharges into the sea or into wetlands

and lagoons, constituting a huge hazard for the ecological equilibrium.

Sajidu (2007) collected drinking water samples from boreholes and pipes

at 23 sampling sites, mostly villages within the district, for fluoride and other water

physicochemical parameters during dry and rainy seasons of 2004 and 2005

respectively. Fluoride endemic areas were identified as those villages around Mtubwi

F.P School and Liwonde L.E.A School. This finding was supported by the prevalence

of a high proportion of dental florosis in standard 3 and 4 pupils in these two schools.

25

Positive correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with pH, total

dissolved solids and carbonates, while phosphates correlated negatively with the

fluorides. No correlation was observed between concentrations of fluoride with

nitrates, electro conductivity, total hardness, carbonates and chlorides.

Akoto et al., (2007) studied the trace metals and some physiochemical

properties in drinking water samples from the Brong Ahafo region of the Republic of

Ghana, where drinking water is not treated before it is consumed. The concentrations

of most of the investigated parameters in the drinking water samples from Brong

Ahafo region were within the permissible limits of the World Health Organization

drinking water quality guidelines. There were no correlations between metal

concentrations in the drinking water samples.

Naaz Abaas, et al, (2007) determined the bacteriological analysis of hand

pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples

were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN) was

3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal

streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.

Shittu et al., (2008) didpysicochemical and bacteriological analyses on

well water, stream water and river water used for drinking and swimming purposes in

Abeokuta, Nigeria. The results obtained were compared with WHO and EPA

standards for drinking and recreational water. With the exception of Sokori stream

and a well water that did not comply with Turbidity and Mg2+ standards respectively,

all others were within the standards set for PH, Color, Total solids, Total dissolved

solids, acidity, total hardness, Ca2+ hardness, chloride and Iron.

Scoaris, et al, (2008) identified the presence of Aeromonas sp. in the

bottled mineral water, well water and tap water from the municipal supplies. The

positive samples for mineral water are 12.7%, well water 8.3% and tap water 6.5%.

The recovery of Aeromonas sp. was significantly higher in the bottled and well water

when compared with tap water from municipal supplies

26

One of the major source of groundwater contamination is the surface

impoundments used by municipalities and industries, which dispose of wastewater

without treatment to the receiving bodies or used by farmers for agriculture purpose.

This research work was carried by Jakhrani (2009) to investigate the contamination

level of groundwater by determination of physical and chemical properties and was

observed that the groundwater quality is deteriorated because of higher concentration

of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and hardness as compared to WHO

standards.

Li et al., (2009) studied the factors associated with chemical compliance

of drinking water in regional New South Wales, Australia. In particular, the findings

of this study should prompt mangers of water utilities to examine carefully the

chemical quality of their drinking water supply and identify opportunities for

improvement. Water users should review their data on source water and drinking

water to determine whether there is need to optimize or add treatment processes.

The contamination of surface waters through human activities has been

intensified over the past years as the population density has increased. In order to

ascertain the drinking water quality of Greater Zab River in Erbil, Kurdistan, Iraq, for

human consumptionKafiet al., (2009) the following water quality parameters were

determined which were chosen as the major indicators namely pH, Total Dissolved

Solid. EC, TH, Cl-, F-, Na+, K+, Ca+2, Mg+2, NO3-, SO4

-2,PO4-3 and the concentration

of eight heavy metals analyzed in this study were within the guidelines given by

WHO or US EPA for drinking water. The data analysis shows that the river water is

certainly unsafe for drinking purposes without any form of treatment, but safe for

various other surface water usage purposes.

Omofonmwan (2009), examined the effects of solid waste on the quality

of underground water in Benin metropolis, Nigeria. The analysis of physical,

chemical and biological parameters of raw water from eight wells collected around

the metropolis close to refuse dumps shows that these wastes produce leachates and

gases when they are decomposing and are washed by percolating and infiltration rain

water into ground water. However, most of the water parameters tested fall within

WHO recommendations, while some are not safe.

27

Evens Emmanuelet al., (2009) carried out the study of Groundwater

contamination by microbiological and chemical substances released from hospital

wastewater. Contamination of natural aquatic ecosystems by hospital wastewater is a

major environmental and human health issue. Disinfectants, pharmaceuticals,

radionuclides and solvents are widely used in hospitals for medical purposes and

research. COD,Chloroform, Dichlomethane, Dibromochloromethane,

Dichlorobromomethane and Bromoform contents were measured. Furthermore, the

presence of heavy metals (Chrome, Nickel and Lead) and faecal coliforms were

studied. Certain aspects of the scenario studied require improvement, especially those

relating to the characterisation of drugs in groundwater and the detection of other

microbiological indicators such as protozoa, enterococcus and viruses.

Onder Ayyildiz (2009) studied bactericidal effect of chlorine dioxide in

untreated artificial and domestic wastewaters and secondary effluent of various

organic loads. Results indicated that the inactivation of Escherichia coli in artificial

wastewater was similar with that in real municipal wastewater. Among three waters,

the bactericidal effect of chlorine dioxide was lowest in secondary effluent. The

bacteria log inactivation increased by up to threefold when the COD concentration of

raw wastewater was decreased by half. An unfavourable COD effect was also

observed for the disinfection of secondary effluent. To explain the COD effect on

bacteria inactivation, chlorine dioxide residuals were measured with time through

each disinfection process. Results from statistical analyses have revealed that, in

comparison to the correlations using CT values, the inactivation data can be better

correlated with the ratio of COD to ClO2 concentrations. The results of this study

would be a useful guide for many municipalities and communities in determining

chlorine dioxide dosages for water and wastewater disinfection systems.

Water samples were collected by Ocheri Maxwell (2010) from 26 rural

community boreholes and analyzed for iron concentrations as it affects the quality of

water for drinking in line with WHO drinking water standards for both rainy and dry

seasons. Iron concentrations in the boreholes were noted to be higher in the rainy

season than in the dry season. The source of iron in groundwater may be attributed to

dissolution of iron minerals from rock and soils, corrosion effect of galvanized hand

pump components and land use activities.

28

Ramirez et al (2010) investigated the source of microbiological and

chemical contamination of groundwater in Cuautla-Yautepec aquifer in Mexico and

observed a gradient for dissolved solids according to altitude; the concentrations of

dissolved solids increased in wells with lower altitudes.

Alnos Easaand (2010) collected groundwater samples at the pumping

level. Harmful effects of waste water on the chemical compositions of ground water

were detected.

Gil et al., (2010)reported that the south of Europe is suffering an acute

shortage of water. One way to solve this deficit is to use membrane bioreactors

(MBR) to reuse the treated wastewater for tasks where drinking water is not required,

e.g. irrigation. The aim of this research was to monitor physical–chemical (COD,

BOD, and TN) and microbiological (EF, TC, and FC) parameters, as well as the

energy costs in a Kubota MBR pilot plant located in Southeast Spain for one year, as

well as to check the feasibility of the MBR process. The system showed a high

robustness providing a fairly constant effluent with a large reduction of the entry

pollutants and thus providing a highly reliable operation. High TSS, COD, BOD,

NH+4 and TN removal efficiencies up to 97, 94, 95, 98 and 81% respectively where

achieved. The removal of the different microbials was quite high, with values in the

permeate below 10 colony forming units (CFUs) most of the time.

Celalettin et al 2010 evaluated the bacteriological and chemical analysis

of drinking water used in Kenya. Among 191 drinking water samples collected from

23 different regions of 23 Kenya districts, it was determined that the values of Ca,

Mg, & Cl in 2 samples exceeded the suggested levels. As a result of bacteriological

analysis evaluation of total 2039 mains water samples collected from 31 different

regions it was observed that there was 5.3% contamination rate

Gregory et al., (2011) studied the water quality used for washing

carcasses and abattoir premises at two sites in southeast Bangladesh. In addition, the

effect of discharging untreated washings from slaughter premises on water purity in

the receiving waterways was assessed from pH, dissolved oxygen and electrical

conductivity measurements. Premises effluents did not have a significant effect on the

physico-chemical properties of the water in the receiving canals, as determined from

29

the difference between the 4 m upstream and 4 m downstream samples, relative to the

entry point of the effluent.

Christopher et al., (2011) reported the environmental impact of leachate

pollutants on ground water samples from three boreholes located near a landfill at

Akure, Nigeria. The concentration of waste materials in the landfill site had

systematically polluted the soil and groundwater over time. Water hardness was

higher due to the leaching of both Ca and Mg into the groundwater table. Dumping of

industrial wastes and accumulation of heavy metals are considered the greatest hazard

on landfill site from the study. Presence of Fe, Pb and Cr in detectable quantities was

an indication of toxicity level in the groundwater and therefore poses serious

environmental risk to humans, animals and even the soil.

Vialle et al., (2011) studiedthe quality of harvested rainwater used for

toilet flushing in a private house in the south-west of France over a one-year period.

Temperature, pH, conductivity, colour, turbidity, anions, cations, alkalinity, total

hardness and total organic carbon were screened using standard analytical techniques.

Total flora at 22o C and 36o C, total coliforms, Escherichia coli and enterococci were

analysed. Overall, the collected rainwater had good physicochemical quality but did

not meet the requirements for drinking water. The stored rainwater is characterised by

low conductivity, hardness and alkalinity compared to mains water. Three widely

used bacterial indicators - total coliforms, E. coli and enterococci - were detected in

the majority of samples, indicating microbiological contamination of the water.

Pearl Kaplan et al., (2011) presented studies on theoccurrence of

Biochemically Active Compounds during Drinking water treatment plants in North

Carolina. They highlighted the complexities in safeguarding drinking water sources

from anthropogenic contaminants including the determination of BACs that remain

unchanged through drinking water treatment and the identification of transformation

products of BACs resulting from disinfection. The transformation of BACs during

drinking water treatment is important to guide future occurrence studies and direct

policy decisions that protect the safety of drinking water for consumers.

Mohamed Nageeb Rashed et al., (2012) investigated the physico-

chemical and bacterial characteristics of Nasser Lake water and houses drinking

30

water, as well as fish cultures and its wastewater, in three villages west of Lake

Nasser, Egypt. Fifteen representative water samples (Nasser Lake, different drinking

water, fish cultures, and wastewater sources) were collected from three villages (Garf

Hussein, Bashaier, and Kalabsha) in the west of Lake Nasser. Physico-chemical, total

viable counts, and bacterial qualification of water were achieved. The obtained results

indicated that the produced water, supposed to be for domestic use in the three

villages, contained all the tested organisms. The investigated water samples of the

lake and drinking water in the selected three villages are supposed to be chemically

safe according to World Health Organization and to Egyptian standards for drinking

water. Water pollution index (WPI) was used in this study and the result concluded

that for irrigation canals from the lake to the agriculture site, fish cultures (both

concrete and earth pond systems), and drainage canal of fish ponds need to be treated

before it is discharged to the ke. It is better to reuse it after treatment for agricultural

purposes or recycled it to the fish cultures.

Indian findings:

Water samples have been collected from problematic ground water and

surface water sources in different villages belonging to nine blocks/taluks of

Gulbarga district, Karnataka State. The water samples were analyzed for

physicochemical properties. Different types of statistical models like correlations and

regressions were applied to study the interrelationships between these variables.

Significant differences between blocks/taluks and different sources of water obtained

using analysis of variance two ways classification technique. This study was

conducted by Reddy (1991).

Analysis of six tube well water samples, which is the source of drinking

water in Roorkee city of Hardwar district was carried out along with physicochemical

and biotic analysis. Presence of bacterial community in relation to biotic factors is

sought by Garg Dinesh (1991).

Ravichandran et al (1991) studied the groundwater quality of Madras in

the context of polluted waterways of the city. Multiple regression analysis indicated

that the areas around waterways were contaminated with nitrates and phosphates,

while pH and electrical conductivity were beyond acceptable limits.

31

Dhanaselvan et al (1991) reported that the groundwater quality of Kanpur city Uttar

Pradesh was contaminated by both industrial and domestic sewage.

Hydro geochemical studies have been carried out in Seetammadhara,

which is an integral part of the Visakhapatnam urban area by Madhusudhana Reddy

(1991). Water samples were collected from both dug wells and bore-wells and

analyzed for chemical quality studies. The controlling factors of groundwater

chemistry and criteria for water uses were discussed.

Ramaswami (1991) collected water samples from dug and tube wells near

the Noyil River in Tiruppur Municipal area for the assessment of chemical quality

with reference to Indian Standards for drinking water. It was observed that values of

several parameters exceeded the permissible limits pointing out to the necessity of

proper treatment, disposal and management of wastes discharged into the river and on

open land.

Physico chemical and bacterial parameters of some bore wells and dug

wells of Challapalli Mandal, Andhra Pradesh were monitored by Rao et al,. (1992)..

The quality of well water samples was assessed by comparing with existing

standards for important parameters and correlation coefficient among various

water quality parameters were determined .

Ground water samples during post monsoon and pre monsoon were

analyzed in upper Gunjana Eru river basin of Cuddapah district, Andhra

Pradesh to assess the quality of water. The inequality was due to agricultural

and domestic activities through infiltration and percolation during monsoon as

reported by Raju et al., (1992).

Subba Rao and Subba Rao (1993) studied the chemical quality of

groundwater in the industrial zones of Visakhapatnam. They report that fifteen

percent of the industrial well waters recorded more than 3000 uS/cm level of

conductivity and that major ions crossed the safe limits at many places. Toxic

elements including lead, chromium, arsenic, zinc, cobalt have been traced in large

32

amounts in the groundwaters of the industrial zones, with a zinc plant being identified

as the worst offender.

Somasundaram et al., (1993) investigated ground water quality of

Madras urban aquifer to determine variations in major ions and nitrate

concentration. In addition, a detailed local survey of pollution in ground water

sources adjacent to a sewage - polluted water course was carried out for heavy

metals and bacterial populations. The source of pollution was almost certainly a

combination of inadequate sanitation and industrial discharge spillage.

Presences of nitrates in ground water and its relationship with other

physicochemical constituents of water were studied in a grid pattern by Vijay Kumar

et al. (1993). Nitrate concentration was found to increase with decreasing pH and

increasing hardness, Cl-, SO42- and TS content where alkalinity, F and water table did

not exhibit any significant effect on NO3- content.

Ozha et al (1993) observed that major nitrate contributing sources for the

groundwater in Barmer and Churu of Rajasthan appear to be of geologic origin,

especially rock fossils and nitrate deposits. Further, nitrate concentration increased

with total hardness, calcium and magnesium and decreased as the depth of the water

table increased.

Ground water quality in the close vicinity of sewage outlets of

Patiala city, Punjab was evaluated by Mittel et al., (1994) for alkalinity,

hardness, sodium, potassium, pH and conductivity. Some of the samples exceeded

the maximum permissible limits of total hardness and sodium content as per

recommendations of World Health Organization.

Deterioration in the ground water quality near the limestone quarry

was reported in Raipur, Madhya Pradesh. Chemical analysis of water from the

quarry dug wells and tube wells were carried out and water was found to be

contaminated by disposal of domestic waste and landfills Bodhankar et al.,

(1994)

33

Venkata Reddy et al., (1994) studied the potability of groundwater (dug

wells and bore wells) in respect of eleven heavy metals from twenty one locations

from Dhanbad City considered to be the capital of highly industrialized Jharia

Coalfield. This study reflects that presence of some heavy metals in some sampling

points raising the doubts about potability of these waters. Heavy metals were present

at varied concentration levels and in some of the samples these were found either

insignificant or present at BDL concentration levels.

Patel et al. (1994)described the quality of ground water in rural areas of

the Rourkela Industrial Complex. The study was carried out in a two year period. 21

physicalcochemical and 11 metallic parameteters were analyzed in the ground water

samples from 14 rural areas of this industrial complex and values obtained were

compared with standards prescribed by World Health Organization, to assess the

quality of water for drinking purposes. Analysis of results showed that ground water

is perfectly fit for drinking.

Ramesh et al., (1995) studied the quality of ground water of Madras city,

India. The study revealed that the quality of potable water has deteriorated to a large

extent. Seawater intrusion into the aquifer has been observed in nearly 50 percent of

the study area. The toxic elements (As & Se) have already exceeded the maximum

permissible limits of drinking water in almost the entire city. A positive correlation of

As and Se with other toxic metals indicates that all these elements are anthropogenic

in origin.

An attempt was made to assess the nitrate level in ground waters of

suburban regions of Madras city, India byRengaraj et al (1996) .The high

nitrate concentration in these regions might be due to leaching of domestic

wastes from sewage lines, septic tanks and also the use of various nitrogenous

fertilizers in the agricultural lands.

34

The physico–chemical characteristics of ground water in different

villages of Haridwar distriact, Uttar Pradesh were studied on the basis of

different standards byJain et al.(,1996) .Higher value of certain constituents at

few places indicated that the water was not suitable for domestic

consumption.

Drinking water qualities of Ranchi were evaluated in respect of

physical, chemical and bacteriological properties .The results indicated that the

iron and fluoride concentrations were beyond the desirable limits in drinking

water sources and were distributed heterogeneously in the region byKumar et

al., (1997).

Viswanadham et al., (1996) observed that domestic sewage along with

industrial effluents polluted the groundwater of Pedana town in Krishna district.

Naidu et al., (1997).studied the water quality parameters in the

coastal towns of Andhra Pradesh to assess their suitability for domestic and

other needs .The results clearly indicated that some towns were polluted either

by industrial waste water or by sewage.

Drinking water samples were analyzed in Gandhi gram ,Tamil Nadu

by Mary et al., (1997) to estimate the concentration of fluoride, iron, hardness

and bacterial population. In most of the cases the concentration of iron, total

hardness and bacterial count were found to be beyond tolerance limits.

Mittel et al., (1997) evaluated the ground water quality in Patiala,

Punjab. Higher concentrations of various inorganic ions were observed in the

close vicinity of sewers. Leaching of contaminants from the sewers was the

only cause of ground water pollution of that area.

Gnanasundar et al., (1998) evaluated the groundwater in the coastal

aquifer in the urban zone to the south of Chennai city. They found a fresh water ridge

in the central part of this zone as well as sea water intrusion of upto 200 to 300 metres

from the coastline. They attribute the poor quality of groundwater at certain locations

35

to their proximity to the Buckingham canal, which functions as a drain for the urban

wastes.

Sudhir Dahiya (1999) examined groundwater samples from the rural

areas of Tosham subdivision, Bhivani district of Haryana. High concentrations of

chloride are due to contamination of sewage.

Water Quality survey of Rohtas district of Bihar was conducted by Ray et

al., (2000). Samples were collected from different sources and analyzed. Two

hundred and nine samples were collected from 196 villages. Results of water quality

survey identified the problems area in respect of high iron, manganese, fluoride ,

nitrate and brackishness of water in the district.

Fluoride in very limited quantities is desirable for healthy growth of teeth

and bones in human beings and prevents dental caries, and in excess quantities causes

the disease mottle enamel of teeth called Fluorosis. This Paper by Lingeswara Rao

(2001) discusses about the toxicity of fluoride in ground water of Chittoor district of

Andhra Pradesh.

As per an estimate by Dinesh Kumar et al., (2001) the landfills of NCT

Delhi cumulatively generate a significant quantity, 814800 cum, of leachates

annually, which is alarming from ground water quality point of view. In the present

paper issues related to ground water contamination through Municipal landfills

leachates in NCT Delhi have been discussed. An attempt has also been made to

evolve abatement measures on ‘Hydro geologic design principles’ and policy

guidelines for mitigating the menace of ground water contamination through landfill

sites.

To evaluate the quality of drinking water in and around Tiruchirappalli

city, twenty spots were identified within a radius of about 20 km. All the water bodies

were found to contain high level of inorganic salts and total hardness with high

electrical conductance. Since they are unsuitable for drinking purposes, method to

improve the water quality has been suggested by. Abdul Jamee (2002).

36

Das et al (2002) studied groundwater at 60 sampling points, over a period

of six years, in Cuttack and found concentrations of ammonium, nitrates and sulphates

were higher during the winters and lower during the rainy seasons and a negative

correlation between flourides and sodium, nitrates, sulphates and phosphates.

Kaplay and Patode (2002) report contamination of groundwater by lead

and iron in Tuppa area near Nanded in Maharashtra.

Ramanathan (2002), carried out study of Systematic sampling of

groundwater in different season’s from1997 to 1999 in the entire Periyar district of

Tamilnadu. Groundwater was colorless, odorless and is alkaline in nature. The water

chemistry showed distinct variation in space and time and the influence of the

anthropogenic sources. SAR, RSC, Na%, CR, TH etc shows that the water is

generally good for domestic, agricultural purpose and is not good for long distance

transport. Here the Fluoride concentration is generally lower than prescribed limit

except few areas where the concentration exceeds 1.5ppm.

Guruprasad (2003) examined the physico-chemical and bacteriological

quality of groundwater in Tadepalli mandal of Guntur district. Investigation was

aimed at assessing the impact of pollutants due to agriculture and human activities on

water quality. The results indicated high levels of nutrient load and pollution in the

hand pumps.

Ground water with higher concentration of magnesium causes

laxative effect to human beings and excess fluoride causes severe bone

fluorosis as determined byMishra et al.,(2003) .

From a study of the ground water Tiruchirapalli ,Tamil Nadu by

Ramachandramoorthy et al ., (2004) it was found that low calcium content and

high alkalinity increases the fluoride level in water where as the lower the

total hardness ,higher is the fluoride ion concentration .It shows that ground

water has been contaminated by the industrial activity and application of large

amount of fertilizer around the area.

37

Singh and Chandel (2004) analyzed groundwater samples from various

hand pumps of eight adjacent localities of various industrial areas in Jaipur city. It

was observed that the pH, EC, Ca2+, Na+, K+, Mg2+, SO42-, CO3

2-, HCO3-, Cl-, DO and

BOD value are within permissible limits of ISI and WHO , whereas NO3-, TDS, TH,

COD and WQI values show poor water quality in most of the studied groundwater

samples taken.

In the ground water samples of coal mining area of Assam, it was

found that pH values were lower than the WHO prescribed limit and the

concentration of major cautions and anions were appreciable byPotawary et al,.

(2005).

Rao and Nagaprapurna (2005) studied correlations among various

groundwater quality parameters and data from 63 groundwater samples collected from

jeedimetla industrial estate in Hyderabad city.

Monitoring of Sanganer nallah and surrounding tube wells was carried out

by Singh (2005) during rainy season. The results reveals that the discharge of

untreated industrial effluents and sewage in to nallah have contributed

considerable pollution in the ground water in its vicinal areas, and is harmful

for use in agriculture and drinking purposes. The levels of nitrate and fluoride

concentration are high in tube well water samples, and need serious attention.

Mishra et al (2005) evaluated the effect of industrial effluents on the

groundwater and surface water due to the steel plant and other major industries at

Rourkela in Orissa. Their analytical data of physico-chemical parameters indicated

that the groundwater of some the areas is contaminated due to municipal and

industrial solid waste dumping.

Poonkothai and Parvatham (2005) carried out experiments on physic-

chemical and microbiological parameters of automobile wastewater in Nammakkal,

Tamilnadu and found that the values for physico-chemical parameters were on the

higher side of permissible limits of BIS and those bacteria were present at high

concentrations.

38

Correlations among various ground water quality parameters were

made with the data of 63 ground water samples collected from the Jeedimetla

Industrial Estate in Hyderabad city by Nageswara Rao (2005). The correlations

were highly significant (>85%) between the parameters pH and alkalinity as

well as for pH and cadmium content, which agree with a 3rd degree polynomial.

Similarly EC and DS as well as EC and hardness agree with a power fit

model EC and copper content with a sinusoidal model, and hardness and

calcium content with the saturated growth rate model.

All physico-chemical parameters recorded in the study in sethiyathope

area in Cuddalore dist. taken up by Sivagurunathan et al,. (2005) showed higher

values in summer season than in winter season, except fluoride content in

ground water.

Water samples were collected from wells, springs and rivers/streams

during pre and post monsoon seasons to evaluate drinking water quality on the basis

of BIS and irrigation water quality by Rai (2005) The study showed alkaline nature of

surface and ground water. Calcium and magnesium are dominating cations and

bicarbonate is major anion in the study area. At some locations the

concentration of TDS, Mg, Ca, total hardness, Fe, Mn and Cr exceeded the

limits set up for drinking purposes.

Radha Krishna et al 2005 have studied the physico-chemical and

bacteriological parameters of drinking, bore well and sewage water samples in

Sivakasi, India. Most of the physico-chemical characters of drinking and bore well

water were within the permissible levels. However, in water samples from all sites,

bacterial count exceeded the recommended permissible level byWHO. Introduction of

sewage into the drinking and bore well water was the main reason for the bacterial

contamination. The sewage water recycling was necessary to minimize water-borne

diseases.

Ram et al., (2006) observed that high value of TDS ,Iron ,Total

Hardness, Calcium Hardness, Calcium and Magnesium in the underground strata

where the aquifer is available or due to leaching of various pollutants through

sides and bottom of unlined drain.

39

Prakash and Somashekar (2006) tested 1026 groundwater samples from

272 villages in Anekal, near Bangalore and found that water quality is better in the

deeper borewells and is also influenced by the rock formations.

Harish Babu et al., (2006) examined the physico-chemicalcharacterstics

of groundwater at Tarikere,Karnataka. They compared the values with BIS and WHO

and inferred that the areas near the industrial estate shower higher TDS, total hardness

and nitrates.

Anusha et al., (2006) studied the physico-chemical parameters of

groundwater samples from borewells and dug wells at Nacharam industrial area of

Hyderabad, India and found that pollutants were above the acceptable limits.

Tatawat and Chandel (2006) studied the groundwater quality of Jaipur

city experienced degradation due to rapid urbanization and industrialization. Eleven

ground water samples were collected from Jaipur City, Rajasthan (India) from

different hand pumps to study the chemical parameter, such as pH, EC, Total

Hardness Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Carbonate, Bicarbonate,

Sulphate, and Chloride, with the help of standard method of APHA during pre-

monsoon (April 2006 to June 2006).

Mukherjee and Nelliyat (2006) examined the effects of disposal of

industrial effluents on the groundwater at Mettupalem in Tamilnadu. They found that

the population has stopped using groundwater due to pollution.

Jadeja and Thakur (2006) studied the quality of groundwater in the

industrial area of Dharmapur in Porbandar city of Gujarat, by examining various

physico-chemical and bacteriological characterstics. TDS was above the desirable

limit. All the samples were rated as unacceptable for their taste on the basis of total

hardness.

Ground water samples were collected from different locations in Churu

tehsil, Rajasthan (India) by Sinha (2007), for their physico-chemical studies. On

comparing the results against drinking water quality standards laid by Indian Council

of Medical Research (I.C.M.R.), they found that most of the water samples are non

potable for human beings because of having much higher TDS values.

40

Ibrahim Bathusha (2007) collected Ground water samples from 18

wards of Coimbatore City north zone, among which 2 samples were collected

from 2 different locations from each ward, total 36 samples. Water quality

assessment was carried out for various physico-chemical parameters. Correlation

coefficients were determined to identify the highly correlated and interrelated

water quality parameters.

Srinivasa Rao et al., (2007) studied the temporal changes in groundwater

quality in the industrialized areas of Visakhapatnam, between 1982 and 2006. The

most remarkable finding is the increasing sulphate contamination during these 25

years.

On 26th December, 2004 tsunami had major impact on the quality of

groundwater along the south east coast of India, but especially in the tsunami-

affected areas of the Nagapatinam district of Tamilnadu. Major pollution resulted

primarily from increases in the salinity of groundwater. Samples of groundwater

were collected from 11 wells in this area and analyzed chemically and the results

observed by Ravi Sanker (2008) showed significant variations in water quality

parameters.

Pathak and Gopal (2008) enumerated pollution indicator bacteria such as

coliform, fecal coliform and fecal streptococci using a multiple-tube fermentation

method in 100 treated drinking water samples from 20 locations in residential,

commercial and industrial areas of a tropical city during summer. 34% of the samples

were bacteriologically nonpotable. Maximum coliform-contaminated (27%) samples

were derived from industrial areas, which samples contaminated with fecal coliform

(23%) and fecal streptococci (20%) originated from commercial areas. Coliform

identified as E.coli Klebsiella sp, enterobacter sp and citrobacter sp were present in

29%, 26%, 24% and 15% of samples respectively.

Environmental monitoring of drinking water sources at Angul –

Talcher Industrial area studies conducted by Basanta Kumar Sahu (2008)

reveals that dug wells are more polluted than the tube wells. It may be

mentioned that though the dug well sources were fit in terms of their water

41

quality indices, they cannot be considered safe for human consumption because

of high coliform counts.

Karunakaran (2008) collected ten Groundwater samples at different

locations in and around Namakkal were analyzed for their physicochemical and

microbial characteristics. Groundwater suitability for domestic and irrigation

purposes was examined by using WHO and BIS standards, which indicate the

groundwater in a few areas, were not much suitable for domestic and

agriculture purposes.

Bishnoi and Malik (2008) studied the quality of groundwater in the

environmentally degraded localities of paniput city in Haryana. They attribute the

high levels of chemical constituents to geological factors, poor sewage and

indiscriminate dumping of solid wastes. Correlation coefficient analysis showed a

positive and significant correlation of electrical conductivity with total dissolved salts,

total hardness, sulphate and total alkalinity. Total hardness was positively and

significantly correlated with magnesium and sulphate. Further, total alkalinity was

found to be positively and significantly correlated with bicarbonate. Fluoride was

higher than permissible limits in most of the samples.

Gadhave (2008) presented this paper to find quality of water samples

and to find out the magnitude of health problems in industrial area Shrirampur.

The natural quality of ground water tends to be degraded by human activities.

Six sampling points were selected for the study. The parameters studied were pH,

Total hardness, Chlorides, Sulphates, Calcium and the ion concentrations were

expressed in mg/L.

Kavita (2008), collected Ground water samples from 60 locations

iduring premonsoon and postmonsoonseasons.Groundwater sampleswere tested for11

physicochemical parameters following the standard methods and procedures.

Comparison of observed and estimated values based on water quality indices

revealed that drinking water at almost all the locations were found to be highly

contaminated, except a few locations, where it was found to be moderately

contaminated for both the monsoons.

42

Ground water samples were collected by Gupta (2009) from different

locations in the radius of 25 km. of Kaithal city, Haryana (India), were analyzed for

their physicochemical characteristics. On comparing the result s against drinking

water quality standards laid by ICMR and WHO, it is found that some of the

water samples are non-potable for human being due to high concentration of

one or the other parameter .

Agarwal (2009) examined the quality of groundwater in Dudu town in

Rajasthan and found levels of conductivity and TDS exceeding the acceptable limits.

In some of the cases, the groundwater was not only non-potable but unsuitable for

irrigation also. The alarming depletion of groundwater resources and deterioration in

quality has been highlighted. It is also reported that after rainfall, the EC and TDS

values decreased, whereas alkalinity and total hardness increased.

Various samples of groundwater were collected from different areas in and

around the Punnam village of Karur District, India and analyzed for their

physicochemical characteristics by Raja (2009).The results of this analysis were

compared with the water quality standards of WHO and CPHEEO. In this analysis

most of the physicochemical parameters were found above the prescribed standards.

Characterization of the physico-chemical parameters of groundwater from

fifteen different locations in Ambala, Haryana (India) was carried out by Prem Singh

(2009). To assess the quality of ground water each parameter was compared with the

standard desirable limits prescribed by WHO, BIS and ICMR. Systematic calculation

was made to determine the correlation coefficient ‘r’ amongst the parameters. It is

concluded that the water quality of water supply systems in different locations of

Ambala is of medium quality and can be used for domestic use after suitable

treatment.

Water quality of four open wells representing four localities around the

Kerala Minerals and Metals Ltd industrial area, Chavara, Quilon district was

studied by Shaji (2009) for a period of six months to assess the suitability of the

well waters for domestic purposes. The study revealed that the third and fourth

wells are free from heavy metal pollution, all the wells are having bacterial

contamination and the values of BOD, COD, TDS and phosphate exceeded the

43

maximum permissible limits and the dissolved oxygen was much lower than the

desirable limit in all the well waters. Hence all the four well waters are found

unsuitable for domestic purposes as it is confirmed by water quality index.

Gupta et al., (2009) tested ground waters which were taken from the

various places in and around Kaithal City town (Haryana , India) and the analysis

reports that the water quality like pH, EC, Cl-, TDS, Ca2+, Mg2+ and Hardness lies

within the maximum permissible limit prescribed by WHO and ICMR. Except few

parameters like DO, few samples were reported with lower DO than the permissible

level, but this value does not have any impact for the water to use for drinking

purpose. According to this report, the ground water in and around HCTM College,

water works areas are suitable for drinking, agriculture and industries and really it is

not harmful to human beings.

Physicochemical characteristics of ground water (Two open well, two bore

well) and municipal water in Amalner town were analyzed by Patil and Patil (2010)

during November 2007-February 2008. The results were compared with standards

prescribed by WHO and ISI 10500-91. Total 15 parameters were analyzed. It was

found that the underground water was contaminated at few sampling sites and Dekhu

road showed physicochemical parameters within the water quality standards and the

quality of water is good and it is fit for drinking purpose.

For the study of different samples of ground water Kiran Mehata (2010)

collected samples from the locations of Vadgam taluka of Gujarat state of India and

analyzed for their physic-chemical parameters for concentrations of ions. Its quality

was compared with drinking water standards of ICMR and EU (1998). Correlation co-

efficient (r) were also calculated for these water quality characteristics and found Fe is

positively correlated with many other parameters.

Groundwater samples were taken from 13 different locations of Kotputli

town by Ranjan Agrawal (2010). The quality analysis has been made through

different physico chemical characters. Comparative studies of samples in different

seasons were conducted and were found that there is no appreciable change in the

different parameters during rainy season. It was also analyzed that Electrical

Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were decreased in the rainy season,

44

and Alkalinity, Total Hardness were increased after the rainfall. A systematic

calculation of the correlation coefficient has also been carried out between different

analyzed parameters.

The detailed physic-chemical characteristics of groundwater resources

from different litho logical units in the Siliguri subdivision of Darjeeling district have

been evaluated for 18 parameters by Khondaker Emamul (2010).The study reveals

that groundwater is hard and contains more iron percentage than the permissible

limit. The rapid soil erosion and the associated runoff were caused by

geomorphologic conditions, deforestation due to shifting cultivation, and

climatic factors, which are probably responsible for the low concentration of

groundwater.

The Study of Jothi venkatachalam (2010) brings an acute awareness

among the people about the quality of ground water by analyzing various

physico-chemical characters. A systematic correlation and regression study

showed significant linear relationship among different pairs of water quality

parameters.

Groundwater samples were collected from eleven stations of Jaipur city

during monsoon season by Dinesh Kumar Tank (2010) and were analyzed for

physico-chemical parameters to assess the hydrochemistry of groundwater .

Comparison of the concentration of the chemical constituents with WHO (world

health organization) drinking water standards of 1983, the status of groundwater

is better for drinking purposes. Results indicate that nitrate concentrations are in

an alarming state with respect to the use of ground water for drinking purposes.

Rejit (2010) studied groundwater quality of Nedumkandam panchayat by

an integrated approach of traditional water quality analysis and Geographical

Information Systems (GIS). Fourteen wells were identified from the study area and

samples were collected and analyzed for various water quality parameters. All

parameters except PH, cadmium, and fecal coli forms were within the limit of drinking

water quality standards prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS, 1983).

Based on the WQI values, the study area was divided into poor, moderate, and good

water quality zones.

45

A systematic study has been carried out by Srinivasa Rao (2010 ) to

explore the Physico –chemical characteristics of ground water in Greater

Visakhapatnam Municipal Corporation (GVMC) area .Water samples from 32

bore wells ,16 open wells and two reservoirs at various locations in GVMC

area were collected and analyzed for PH ,EC ,D.O ,TH ,CaH ,MgH Total

alkalinity and Nitrate .The water samples near the sea are more chloride

concentrations than the samples far away from the sea .From this he

concludedthat the intrusion of salt water into ground water was due to the over

pumping of the ground water along the sea coast.

Ground water samples collected from different locations around sugar

factory area within the range of 4 kms by Ratnakant Sheth (2010). Ground water

from nine different spots were collected and analyzed for their physical

characteristics. Water quality index for different groundwater sources at industrialized

area was also calculated and found water samples were in the category of Good-Very

poor.

Remia et al., (2010) analyzed the physical and chemical characteristics of

drinking water in the selected areas of Koundampalayam panchayat in Coimbatore,

Tamil Nadu in India. The values of all the physical and chemical characteristics of the

water samples collected from all three zones were as per the standard limits

prescribed by the various agencies. Some parameters like total solids, calcium,

magnesium and chlorides crossed the standard limits.

Veena Choudary et al., (2010) studied the groundwaters of northwest

Rajasthan, India and found fluoride, boron and nitrate contamination.

Jayalakshmi et al., (2011) studied the physico-chemical parameters of

water and waste water in and around Vijayawada in Andhra Pradesh. They found that

the some of the waters are slightly polluted while waste water at certain sites was

highly polluted as a result of contamination with industrial, agricultural and domestic

wastes.

SathishKumarand Ravichandran (2011) assessed the quality of

groundwater in Cheyyar basin in Tamilnadu and found it to be severely polluted,

mainly due to industrial effluents.

46

Lalitha Kumari (2011) conducted experiments for physico-chemical

parameters of Bore and open wells in and around salt pans of Oolapalem and Ooguru

of Prakasam district. The findings clearly indicate that the saline effluents polluted the

water and it is not suitable for human beings and also for agricultural activities.

Hiremath, et al, (2011) analyzed seasonally the physico-chemical

parameters of 36 samples from different sources in Karnataka. Parameters like pH,

conductivity, TDS, total hardness, sulfate and chloride were studied and compared

with WHO standards. The investigation revealed that the water quality of sources and

some of the water samples are unfit for drinking.

Parihar et al 2012 evaluated the physico-chemical & microbiological

characteristics of 16 drinking water samples in Gwalior, M.P India. Electrical

conductivity, TDS, total aerobic microbial count & MPN were maximum in one

sample. pH hardness & Do were observed higher in 3 samples. Enteric pathogen

E.coli and Enterobacter were found in 9 samples. No coliforms were observed in 7

samples. These results showed that maximum samples were not suitable for drinking

purpose.

Narasimha, et al, (2012) assessed the physico-chemical parameters of

drinking water (pH, conductivity, TDS, total hardness and chloride). The chloride

content in 27.7% of groundwater samples is above the WHO standards. The physico-

chemical quality of drinking water varied drastically among different sites. 39% of

samples exceeded the desirable limit of WHO standards.

Singh, et al (2012) had analyzed the physico-chemical parameters of

ground water used for drinking, domestic & irrigation in the village Lutfullapur, U.P

India. A number of groundwater samples showed levels of electrical conductivity,

alkalinity, chloride, calcium, Na & K exceeding their permissible limits.

47

Microbial Contamination of water sources findings

International findings

The ground water samples near the septic tank disposal system in

northeastern and eastern New York were investigated by Chen (1987) for nutrients

and fecal coli forms. Seventeen out of 23 samples were found to be highly

contaminated within 30.5 m of the discharge point of the septic systems. Eleven of

those samples were collected from less than 122 cm below the ground level. The

depth of the ground water table and the distance from the discharge point of sewage

were the main factors influencing the pattern and severity of ground water

contamination.

A bacteriological survey was performed on 155 untreated rural ground

water samples including drilled wells, dug wells and springs in northwest Virginia

USA by Sworobuk et al., (1987). A total of 48% and 62% of the samples contained

faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci respectively. Water sources from shallower

older wells and lacking adequate casing characteristically were found to be heavily

contaminated with bacteria indicative of lack of sanitation.

In the study conducted by Simchen et al., (1990) some 302 cases of

diarrhea occurred in the studied population. The incidence of diarrhea in people aged

0-18 years during the baseline year and through the period of the epidemic was due to

allegedly contaminated spring that had been implicated previously as a source of

contaminated water and was closed for some weeks previously during 1988. The

human source of the contamination was probably the free-flowing sewage from the

nearby town of Tarshicha.

Payment et al., (1991) (North America) carried out a randomized

intervention trial. 299 eligible households were supplied with domestic water filters

(reverse-osmosis) that eliminate microbial and chemical contaminants from their

water and 307 households were left with their usual tap water without a filter. The

estimated annual incidence of gastrointestinal illness was 0.76 among tap water

drinkers compared with 0.50 among filtered water drinkers (p<0.01). It is estimated

that 35% of the reported gastrointestinal illnesses among the tap water drinkers were

48

water related and preventable. Their results raise questions about the adequacy of

current standards of drinking water quality to prevent water-borne endemic

gastrointestinal illness.

Bacteriological analyses were performed in the Sahelian area, France by

Gullemin et al., (1991). About 7.7% of bore-holes, 13.5% concrete wells and 66% of

the traditional wells found to be polluted with total coliform, faecal coliform and

faecal streptococci. After stepwise logistic regression analysis the link with each

factor persisted independently. The unsanitary conditions of the proximal

environment (P<0.001), hazards in re-priming (P<0.001) leaks in the pump (P<0.05)

and the absence of efficient system to keep cattle away from the water supply area

(P<0.05) seemed to contribute to the non portability of water.

Madison and Ghiorse (1993) presented generalized model for the

relationship between geological stratography and microbiological parameters. In

going across the horizons, the bacterial abundance decreases in direct proportion with

nutrient levels.

Le Chevallier et al., (1996) found that the occurrence of coliform bacteria

was significantly higher when water temperatures were > 150C. at a summer water

temperature ( 200C). The efficacy of chlorine concentrations tested was found to be

two or three times lower as compared to that found at a winter temperature (50C).

Grabow, (1996) investigated the water quality assessment and control,

and stated that water borne diseases are most important concern about the quality of

water and also that the pathogens involved included a wide variety of viruses,

bacteria, and protozoan parasites. The prevalence of various water- borne pathogens

changes with selective pressure changes.

Natural Protection of Spring and Well Drinking Water against Surface

Microbial Contamination Parameters for Parasites was studied byStephen Edberg et

al., (1997). Parasitic diseases associated with drinking water transmission prompted a

re-evaluation of source water monitoring criteria for public health protection. The

field of microbial indicators was reviewed and each candidate sentinel evaluated in

terms of its sensitivity, specificity, and technical feasibility. In addition, a clear

distinction was made between source water monitoring and monitoring in the

distribution system. Of all potential candidate microbial sentinels, Escherichia coli

are deemed the most efficacious for public health protection. Based on a conservative

estimate of its half-life in groundwater for 8 d, it is recommended that at least two

49

samples be obtained during this half-life. In addition to E. coli, two water quality

indicator sentinels, which are not necessarily direct public health threats, should also

be monitored at the same frequency. These are the total coliform group and the

Enterococci. If E. coli is present in any source water sample, the borehole and any

directly connected borehole should be embargoed. If either total coliforms or

enterococci are detected, only that individual borehole should be taken off line and

not used until the situation is remediated and the cause of the fecal contamination

eliminated. Clostridium perfringens spores serve as a useful long-lived indicator.

However, their perseverance in a sample should not be considered a direct public

health threat because spores may far outlive pathogens. As a parasite indicator, C.

perfringens should have the same importance as a positive coliform or Enterococcus

analysis. Coliphages do not yet fulfill enough of the criteria to be routinely employed.

Biological monitoring should be coupled with physicochemical monitoring to

establish a long-term history of the source. Because all natural waters vary in the

amounts of heterotrophic plate count bacteria, test methods should be employed that

are refractory to them. A combination of rigorous source protection and extraordinary

source monitoring serve as sufficient multiple barriers for parasite protection.

A detailed assessment of the microbial quality of some selected well water

samples of Crewe, UK was carried out by Fewtrell et al., (1998) for total coliforms,

faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci. The microbial quality of water samples was

generally poor with about 50% of the supplies failing to meet the required standards.

Bad sanitation and leaching from waste disposal might be the major cause of

contamination.

The impact of sediment fecal coliform reservoirs on seasonal water quality

in Oak Creek demonstrated by Christine Crabill et al., (1999) .in this study show

that sediment agitation by recreational activity and storm surges associated with the

summer storm season are responsible for the impact to water quality and not

recreational users directly, as suggested by previous studies. Sources of fecal

pollution in the Oak Creek watershed may include grazing cattle, natural animal

populations, septic tanks failed municipal sewage and recreational users.

Chandio (1999) suggested that applications of nitrogen-phosphorous-

potassium (NPK) fertilizers have been increasing in Pakistan over the last few

decades, with applications of nitrogen fertilizers reaching and excess of 2 million tons

by the late 1990s. As a result, high concentration of NO3-.N has been reported to be

50

common in ground water source in Karachi-Pakistan. Concentration of NO3-were

mostly less than 6mg/L in hand-dug wells and tube from canal-irrigated areas of

Pakistan, although concentrations up to 210mg/L nitrate were found to have been

directly contaminated by sewage.

Sridhar (2000) examined the physico-chemical quality of ground water of

Nigerian Urban centers and found high concentrations of various ions because of

contamination of drinking water pipelines with sewage disposal.

Studies by Norton and Lechevallier (2000) showed characteristic

changes in bacterial population through potable water treatment and distribution. It

appears to be necessary to ensure that water treatment and distribution do not cause

any shift in the composition of the bacterial population that would favour

opportunistic pathogens.

Gottlich et al., (2001) investigated fungal flora in ground water derived

from public drinking water distribution system, in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

E.coli or other coliform bacteria was observed in the water. Common opportunistic

and allergenic Aspergillus species were encountered only rarely. The fungal flora

was dominated by a limited number of species of Acremonium, Exophiala,

Penicillium and particularly Phialophora some of them occurred throughout the

entire drinking water system.

Kortatsi (2001) Suggested that Ground waterprovision is sometimes

unsustainable because of poor water productivity of wells, drying of wells after

prolonged drought and sometimes due to poor water quality. These problems are

usually caused by the lack of understanding of the hydrological regime.

Ikem (2002) Evaluated ground water samples collected near to waste

disposal sites in Ibadan and Lagos, Nigeria. The water quality is unfit for drinking

because of the presence of high concentrations of inorganic ions.

Carter et al., (2002) studied the relationships between levels of

heterotrophic bacteria and water quality parameters in a drinking water distribution

system. Orange and yellow pigmented bacteria were the dominant expressions in all

bulk fluid and biofilm samples. The fraction of pigmented bacteria in bulk fluid

samples was greatest at the standpipe. Pigmentation percentages were found to be

uncorrelated with standard physical and chemical parameters of water quality in

distribution systems.

51

Kaye Power et al., (2002) examined Water Board within Sydney’s

drinking water distribution system. Identification of bacteria isolated on m-Endo broth

indicated Klebsiella oxytoca as the principal coliform involved. High number of

Aeromonas hydrophilla were isolated.

Colford et al., (2002) studied characteristic changes in bacterial

population through potable water treatment and distribution. Therefore it appears to

be necessary to ensure that water treatment and distribution do not cause a shift in

composition of the bacterial population that favor opportunistic pathogens. There is

no clear cut evidence that heterotrophic bacteria as such pose a public health risk

particularly when they are ingested by healthy people via drinking water.

Kistemann et al., (2002) investigated microbial load of drinking water,

bacterial colony, Escherichia coli, Coliform, fecal streptococci and Clostridium

perfringens counts increased considerably during extreme runoff events. Parasitic

contamination occurred in catchment areas, the concentrations of Giardia and

Cryptosporidium rose significantly during events. The results show that substantial

shares of the total microbial loads in watercourses and in drinking water reservoirs

results from rainfall and extreme runoff events. Consequently, regular samples are

considered inadequate for representing the microbial contamination of watercourse

systems.

Demir (2003) studied ground water quality in Kesan area, Turkey. After

analyzing physico-chemical and microbiological drinking water quality parameters,

he found the ground water source were unfit for drinking and need some treatment.

Bradley et al., (2003) studied the spread of Vibrio cholrae around the

world and also the factors that determine its seasonal peaks in endemic areas. Since

1997, fortnightly surveillance in 4 widely separated geographic locations in

Bangladesh has been performed to identify patients with cholera and to collect

environmental data. These data were correlated with environmental factors, to

develop a model for prediction of cholera outbreaks. Human faecal material is

considered to be greater risk to human health as it is more likely to contain human

enteric pathogen

Scott, (2003),.Howard et al (2003) observed variations in water quality in

shallow protected springs in Kampala to assess the causes of microbial; contamination

and found large temporal and special variation. They found that local recharge of

faecal contaminated surface water is the principal source of contamination.

52

Ho et al., (2003) studied chemical and microbiological qualities of the

East River (Dongjiang) which accounts to about 80% of drinking water in Hong

Kong, which is located in the mainland side of China. Microbiological survey

revealed that pathogens such as Salmonella spp., Vibro sp., Giardia lamblia and

Crytosporidium parvum appeared occasionally in water samples. The water supplies

department of Hong Kong is recommended to intensify its water quality monitoring

program to cover pathogenic bacteria and parasites in watercourses and reservoirs.

Thomas Clasen et al., (2003) studied Thermo Tolerant Coliforms (TTC) from the

stored household water supplies of 100 households in 13 towns and villages in the

Kailahun District of Sierra Leone. At the non-improved sources, the arithmetic mean

TTC load was 407/100ml at the point of distribution, rising to mean count of

882/100ml at the household level. Water from the improved sources met WHO

guidelines, with no fecal contamination. 92.9% of stored household samples

contained some level of TTC, 76.5% contained more than the 10 TTC per 100ml

threshold set by the sphere project for emergency conditions. They need to extended

drinking water quality beyond the point of distribution to the point of consumption.

Nogueira et al (2003) evaluated the microbiological quality of treated and

untreated water samples and found that the highest number of water samples

contaminated by total coliforms (83%) and fecal coliforms(48%) were found in

untreated waters. Among the treated water samples examined, coliform bacteria were

found in 171 of the 1,033 sampling reservoirs. More than 17% of the treated potable

water contained coliforms TC and FC were seasonally influenced in treated water. It

was observed that warm weather had high percentage of contaminated samples. TC &

FC positive samples declined with decrease in temperature.

Pavlov et al(2004) reported that HPCs are commonly used to assess the general

microbiological quality of drinking water. In this study, 339 bacterial colonies were

isolated randomly from selected, treated and untreated drinking waters in South

Africa. The most commonly isolated genera were Aeromonas, Bacillus,

Corynebacterium, Klebsiella, Moraxella, Pseudomonas, Vibrio and Staphylococcus.

These findings are in agreement with some epidemiological studies, which indicated

an association between HPCs in drinking water and the incidence of gastroenteritis in

consumers

Miriam Paul et al (2004) investigated the possible deterioration in the

microbiological quality of ground water in drilled wells close to leaky sewer systems

53

in Rastah of southwest Germany. Increase in the total number of colony-forming units

provided evidence that leaky sewer systems elevate faecal indicator concentrations in

groundwater.

Wakida and Lerner (2005) studied the groundwater at Nottingham and

found that non-agricultural sources of nitrate are quite significant. Leaky sewers and

waste disposal sites are found to contribute to nitrate load in the aquifers.

Hunter et al., (2005) conducted a study in Wales and the Northwest

region of England from February 2001 to May 2002 and found that sources of

drinking water and treatments vary, but overall, the microbiological quality of the

water is excellent, as only 0.05% of water samples were positive for Escherichia coli.

Pusch et al (2005) detected enteric viruses and bacterial indicators in German

environmental waters. A German mining lake and the supplying surface waters, which are

located downstream of a sewage plant, were examined regarding their microbiological

and virological quality. Between October 2002 and September 2003, specific PCR

methods were used to determine the occurrence of enteric viruses in 123 water specimens

drawn at different sites downstream of the waste water treatment plant and in 9 samples

from the sewage plant influent. Cell culture methods showed that 3 out of 18 PCR

positive samples contained infectious entero viruses. Even though microbiological

parameters such as Escherichia coli, enterococci and coliphages indicated acceptable

microbiological water quality, the virological data of this study suggest the possibility

that surface waters may be a source for enteric viral infections.

Natasha Potgieter et al 2005 assessed the microbiological quality of 125 drinking water

samples in South Africa. The frequency of isolation of E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella and

C.jejuni was 70%, 5%, 5% and 2% respectively. The total coliforms ranged from 4.9X102

to 5.8X103 CFU/100ml, fecal coliforms from 2.6X102 to 3.7X103CFU/100ml and fecal

streptococci from 3.1X103 to 5.8X103 CFU/100ml in tap water stored in household

containers.

Surbeck et al., (2006) observed the flow independent nature of faecal

indicator bacteria and F+ coliphages is consistent with the idea that these

contaminations are ubiquitously present on the surface of the urban landscape and

rapidly partition into the surface water as the landscape is wetted by rainfall.

Almasri (2007) found evidence of deterioration of ground water quality

from nitrate contamination indicating that the nitrate levels routinely exceed the

54

maximum contaminant level of 10mg/L NO3- in many aquifer system in Palestine

that underline agriculture-dominated water sheds.

Ola et al., (2007) analyzed for some physical and chemical parameters as

well as changes in microbial population during storage. Suspended particles became

noticeable and the smell of water samples became unpleasant after 12 weeks of

storage. Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Staphylococcus aureus,

Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, Proteus sp. Streptococcus

faecalis and Micrococcus sp were the bacteria species encountered in stored water

samples. E.coil was the most frequently encountered. The presence of these bacterial

species has significant health implications. Total viable counts in water samples

increased from 3.8 x 105 cfu/ml on day 0 to 42. 0x 105 cfu/ ml by the 16th week of

storage, while coliforms increased drastically from week two to week six of storage

after which the population began to drop. The samples contained coliforms cast a

doubt over the portability status of water supplied to the communities in the area

under study.

Samples of tap, well, stream, and wastewaters were collected form

Abeokuta and Ojota state and analyzed microbiologically using standard methods.

Okonko et al., (2007).reportedthat the total viable counts for all the water samples

were generally high exceeding the limit of 1.0x102 cfu/ml for water. The MPN count

ranged from 9.3 to 44 MPN/ 100ml. the fecal colifrom counts on EMB agar plate

ranged between 5 and 48 cells, also exceeding the standard limit for water. The

isolated organisms were identified to be Staphlococcus aureus, Salmonella species,

Escherchia coli, Pseudomonas aerugionosa, Enterobacter aerogenes, Bacillus

species, Proteus species, Kleslella species, Flavobacterium species and

Acinetobacter species.

Naaz Abaas et al 2007 determined the bacteriological analysis of hand

pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples

were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN) was

3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal

streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.

Tista Prasaiet et al 2007 conducted a study to evaluate the quality of

drinking water of Kathmandu valley. A total of 132 drinking water samples were

randomly collected from 49 tube wells, 57 wells, 17 taps and 9 stone spouts in

different places of Kathmandu valley. The samples were analyzed for

55

microbiological parameters. Total plate and coliform count revealed that 82.6% and

92.4% of drinking water samples found to cross WHO guideline values for drinking

water. During the study, 238 isolates of enteric bacteria were identified of which

26.4% were E. coli, 25.6% were Enterobacter, 23% were Citrobacter, 6.3% were

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 5.4% were Klebsiella, 4.0% were Shigella, 3.0% were

Salmonella, 3.0% were Proteus vulgaris, 3.0% were Serratia and 1.0% were Vibrio

cholera.

Naaz Abaas, et al.,(2007) determined the bacteriological analysis of hand

pump water in Pakistan for fecal contamination. He found that 67% of the samples

were positive for fecal streptococci. The minimum most probable number (MPN)

was 3 and maximum was >2400 for fecal streptococci. Of the 54 samples of fecal

streptococci strains, 72.2% were identified as enterococci.

Kassenga 2007 investigated the microbiological quality of bottled and

plastic-bagged drinking water sold in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 130 samples

representing 13 brands of bottled water were analyzed for total coliforms, fecal

coliforms and heterotrophic bacteria. These were compared with 61 samples of tap

water. Heterotrophic bacteria were detected in 92% of the bottled water samples

analyzed. Total and fecal coliform bacteria were present in 4.6% and 3.6%

respectively. Microbiological quality of tap water was found to be worse compared

with bottled water, showing the presence of total coliforms and fecal coliforms with

49.2% and 26.2% respectively.

Scoaris, et al, (2008) identified the presence of Aeromonas sp. in the bottled

mineral water, well water and tap water from the municipal supplies. The positive

samples for mineral water are 12.7%, well water 8.3% and tap water 6.5%. The

recovery of Aeromonas sp. was significantly higher in the bottled and well water

when compared with tap water from municipal supplies.

Nurcihan Hacioglu et. al., (2008) investigated monthly variation of

comparison of data with WPCR. It is seen that waters of Biga stream at the sites

1,2and 3 belonged to class 4, for parameter BOD and fecal coliform and belonged to

class 3 for parameter total coliform. In that area a great potetential risk of infection of

waters from the Biga Stream.

Taulo et al (2008) studied microbiological quality of water, associated

management practices and risks at source, transport and storage points in a rural

community of Lungwena,Malawi. Sampling points revealed a significant difference

56

(p=0.042) higher than that of Salmonella spp. The microbiological quality of water

was found to be poor as a result of both poorwater management and environmental

sanitation practices.

Al-Futaisi et al (2008) established that, urbanization, industrialization and

agriculture manifest in contamination of water sources in the Barka catchment of

Oman. They found saline water intrusion into the coastal aquifers and high nitrate

content and bacteriological population in the other areas due to anthropogenic

influence.

Adekunle (2008) examined the impact of industrial effluents on the

quality of well water in the Asa Dam industrial estate in Nigeria and observed high

turbidity, discolouration due to oily film and high bacterial count, due to dissolved

mineral salts, industrial effluents and organic matter, respectively.

Shittu et al., (2008) studied well water, stream water and river water used

for drinking and swimming purpose in Abeokutta, Nigeria. The results obtained were

compared with WHO and EPA standards for drinking and recreational water. The

samples complied with bacteriological standards as Total coliform counts generally

exceeded 1,600 MPN/ ml, and pathogen count such as Salmonella- Shigella counts

and Vibrio chelerae counts were very high. The presence of pathogens in water for

drinking and swimming purposes is of public health significance considering the

possibility of the presence of other bacteria, protozoa and enteric viruses that are

implicated in gastro-intestinal water borne diseases and the low infectious dose for

these water borne pathogens.

Abdul Hussain Shar et al., (2008) analyzed the drinking water of Khairpur city. All

the water samples were contaminated (100%) with total coliform and fecal coliforms.

The counts were higher than the maximum microbial contaminant level established by

WHO. It was observed that pH was within the limits of WHO standards (6.5-8.5) and

the residual chlorine was not detected in any sample of drink and water.

Eschcol et al (2009) hypothesized that fecal contamination occurs mainly

during storage due to poor water handling. In their study 92% (47/51) of samples

tested at supply points were chlorinated and bacterial contamination was found in 2

samples. Samples collected from household storage containers showed an increase in

contamination in 18/50 houses (36%). Hence it was revealed that the biggest health

impact that can be made is at the household level

57

Lena Fadhil Hamza (2009), determined the efficiency of filter water for

pathogens. The results showed that some filters are not safe in elimination of bacteria

from water, as they have shown E.coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus

aureus, Streptococcus fecalis and Vibrio cholerae. It revealed that the efficacy of

filters, time of usage and cleaning of devices were unable to remove the microbial

contamination from the drinking waters totally.

Jakhrani (2009) stipulated that one of the major source of ground water

contamination is the surface impoundments used by municipalities and industries,

which dispose of waste water without treatment to the receiving bodies or used by

farmers for agriculture purpose. Ground water quality is deteriorated because of

higher concentrations of electrical conductivity, total dissolved solids and hardness as

compared to WHO standards.

Syed Hafizur (2009),considering the hypothesis “shallow tube-well water

might be contaminated by microorganisms from a nearby open pit latrine”, studied

litho-stratigraphy, physico-chemical properties along with microbial contamination

level of shallow tube-well water and socio-economic aspects related to sanitation of a

rural village (Gakulnagar, Bangladesh). Values of all parameters were found

within the tolerable limits, except coli form, in very few samples, where pit latrines

were adjacent to the tube-well. Values of total coli form bacteria showed an inverse

relationship with the distance between the tube-well and the pit latrine.

The antibiotic resistance patterns of coagulase negative staphylococci

(CNS) isolated from a drinking water treatment plant (WTP), a drinking water

distribution network, responsible for supplying water to the consumers (WDN), and a

wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), responsible for receiving and treating domestic

residual effluents. Genotyping and the 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis

demonstrated a higher diversity of species both in the WTP (6 species/19 isolates) and

WWTP (12 species/47 isolates) than in the WDN

(6species/172isolates). Staphylococcus pasteuri and Staphylococcus

epidermidis prevailed in the WTP and WDN and Staphylococcus saprophyticus in the

WWTP. Staphylococci with reduced susceptibility (resistance or intermediary

phenotype) to beta-lactams, tetracycline, clindamycin and erythromycin were

observed in all types of water and belonged to the three major species groups. The

highest resistance rate was found against erythromycin, presumably due to the

presence of the efflux pump encoded by the determinant msrA, detected in the

58

majority of the resistant isolates. This study by Catia Faria et al.,

(2009)demonstrates that antibiotic resistant CNS may colonize different types of

water, namely drinking water fulfilling all the quality standards.

Addo et al, (2009) conducted a bacteriological examination of 7 brands of

bottled water in Ghana. Using the MPN index for various combination of positive and

negative results, an MPN value of less than two (<2) total and fecal coliform were

recorded for all the 70 samples of bottled water. The results showed that the

bacteriological quality of the 7 brands of water samples analyzed was within the

acceptable limits set by WHO guidelines and therefore safe for human consumption.

Umezawa et al (2009) investigated the status of nitrate, nitrite and

ammonium contamination in the water systems, the mechanisms controlling their

source, pathways and distribution. Their study in three Southeast Asian cities revealed

that leaky sewers are the major source of these nutrient contaminants.

Addo et al., (2009) conducted a bacteriological examination of 7 brands of

bottled water in Ghana. Using the MPN index for various combination of positive and

negative results, an MPN value of less than two (<2) total and fecal coliform were

recorded for all the 70 samples of bottled water. The results showed that the

bacteriological quality of the 7 brands of water samples analyzed was within the

acceptable limits set by WHO guidelines and therefore safe for human consumption.

Abdul Hannan et al., (2010) evaluated the microbial analysis of 100

samples of drinking water from Lahore by Membrane Filter Technique. It was found

that E.coli was grown from 42% samples and coliform organisms were grown from

54% specimens. It was alarming that 59% of drinking water was unsatisfactory for

human consumption.

Ramirez(2010) , from his observations concluded that well water samples

having Coli form values were lower than the maximum permissible limit

indicated within the Mexican Ecological Criteria of Water Quality . The

concentrations of dissolved solids are increased in wells with lower altitudes.

The water is considered very hard, because of both carbonate and non-carbonate

hardness was detected. The average values of physicochemical parameters were

below the maximum permissible limits indicated in the Mexican official norm.

Madhab Borah, et al, 2010 analyzed the bacteriological quality of drinking

water samples and found that the bacterial levels failed to meet the limits of the water

59

quality standards. Water samples contained varying levels of fecal coliform bacteria

ranging from a Most Probable Number (MPN) of 10 to 2.8X103 CFU/100ml. 78.1%

of samples were contaminated with E.coli.

To assess the Quality of the island, ground water samples were collected by

Chin Yik Lin (2010) from five representative wells at the low lying area of Pulau

Tiga in order to study the physico-chemical parameters. In general, groundwater in

Pulau Tiga is moderate in conductivity and bacteriological analysis showed that the

groundwater quality was poor, with fecal coli form counts exceeding the WHO

permissible limits for drinking water. Coli form in ground water might be originated

from sanitation facilities located too close to the wells.

Obasohan (2010) highlighted the historical perspective of the

relationship between microbes and humans regarding the ranging water between

them, arising from the reckless exploitation of the biosphere by humans and the

resultant revolt by microbes in the form of various pathogenic diseases that now

plague mankind.

Assessment was done on the microbiological quality of water in hand-dug

wells in urban communities in Kumasi, Ghana byMoninuola (2010). A total of 256

water samples were taken from eight wells and examined for fecal coli forms,

enterococci and helminthes. High contamination levels were recorded in the wells,

more so in the wet season. This study shows a stronger influence of poor sanitation

and improper placement of wells on water quality compared to improvements made

from lining and protection of wells.

Muhammad Saeed Anwar (2010)studied a total of 530 water samples

collected from different localities of whole of the Lahore city, representing areas

with different socio-economic conditions. Among 530 water samples, 197 samples

(37.2%) were positive for bacterial contamination. It was observed that bacterial

contamination was maximum in areas with low SEC (43.6%), followed by

intermediate SEC (36.5%) and high SEC (22.9%). He concluded that bacterial

contamination is severe in Lahore.

A site survey , hydrologic assessment and sample analysis of indicator

bacteria in surrounding surface and ground waters, gives an idea on chemical

impacts of open dump sites on ground water quality .Consequently, field

logistics, sampling infrastructure and site data amassed for the chemical

60

evaluation study can be leveraged for use in the proposed microbial evaluation

study according to Schnabel., (2010).

Noel Sammon et al., (2010) studied drinking water quality, the potential

of water borne spores as a source of nosocomial fungal infection. The most commonly

recovered genera were Cladosporium, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fuserium. This

study has demonstrated that numerous micro-fungal genera, including those that water

supply which are opportunistic human pathogens, populate a typical treated municipal

water supply in sub-tropical Australia.

The Pearl River Delta (PRD) is one of the most developed and densely

populated regions in China. Quantifying the amount of pathogens in the source of

drinking water is important for improving water quality. Results showed that external

environmental factors, such as precipitation, location, as well as the internal

environmental factors, i.e., physicochemical properties of the water, were closely

related with the distribution of coliforms. Seasonally, the coliform bacterial

concentrations in wet season were one to two orders of magnitude greater than those

in dry season. Spatially, coliform bacterial levels in reservoirs near urban and

industrial areas were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in remote areas.

Correlation analyses by Huachang Hong et al.,(2010).showed that the

levels of coliforms had close relationships with pH, temperature, suspended solid,

organic and inorganic nutrients in water. Principal components analysis further

demonstrated that total coliforms in the reservoirs were closely related with water

physicochemical properties, while fecal coliforms were more associated with external

input brought in by seasonal runoff.

Sunette Walter (2010) reported that the presence of HPC bacteria in

drinking water distribution systems is usually not considered harmful to the general

consumer. However, precautions must be taken regarding the immune compromised.

He studied on the isolation, identification and characterization of HPC and other

bacteria from biofilm and bulk water samples from two sampling points. Application

of enrichment and selective media allowed for the isolation of 12 different bacterial

morphotypes. He also reported that the greatest diversity of bacteria was detected

early autumn 2008, while the lowest diversity occurred during mid-winter 2007.

61

RajiniKurup et al., (2010) determined the microbial and physico-chemical

parameters of water samples from Georgetown, Guyana. In the microbial analysis

the most prevalent species in biofilm and water samples within the study was

Lactobacillus sp. and the least prevalent species was Salmonella sp. The physico-

chemical analysis report presents values of parameters below the standards of WHO.

Turbidity was high in all the tested samples. On the whole the water samples show

poor quality both in terms of physico-chemical and biological parameters.

Edema et al., (2011) investigated the bacteriological quality of 108 commercial

sachet packed drinking water samples for pathogenic bacteria. Results showed that

87% of the sachet packed water samples examined contained Salmonella and E. coli,

indicative of fecal contamination and inadequate water treatment. E.coli counts used

as indicator of hygiene criteria were present in the range of 98 and 106 CFU/100ml of

water. Salmonella were between 2.12X10^1. These findings indicate that sachet-

packed water samples examined do not meet the microbiological standards for

drinking water quality. Monitoring should be done on a regular basis.

Emile Jemgoua, et al., (2011) examined the physico-chemical and

bacteriological characteristics of 17 water samples. Most of the water samples were

below or out of safety limits provided by WHO. Fecal coliforms were present in the

water samples (wells). Specific concern and development of chlorination was

proposed.

A study was conducted by Javed Ali et al., (2011).to evaluate the quality

of drinking water in Khyber Agency valley, which has always been crucial with

reference to public health importance. Quality assessment of drinking water were

carried out by determining, total plate count, total coliform bacteria, total fecal

coliform, E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The total plate count (TPC) was found in

the range of 3600-190 CFU/ml which indicated that none of the samples were found

in drinking water according to the WHO standards (100 CFU/ml). All the samples

were found contaminated with total coliform bacteria and unfit for human

consumption according to WHO standards. Total fecal coli form bacteria present in

80% samples. E. coliwere present in 66% samples while 33% analyzed samples were

contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus.

Milkiyas Taboret al., (2011) studied the bacteriological and physico-

chemical quality of drinking water and investigated the hygiene and sanitation

62

practices of the consumers in Bahir Dar City, Ethiopia from October–December,

2009. Water samples were collected from 35 private taps and 35 household water

containers for bacteriological analysis. The turbidity, PH, temperature and turbidity

were measured immediately after collection. . Finally, the hygiene-sanitation practices

of the consumers were surveyed using interview. Twenty seven (77.1%) of the

household water samples had high total coliforms counts. Twenty (57.1%) household

water samples and 9 (25.7%) of the tap water samples had no residual free chlorine.

Sixteen (45.7%) household water samples had very high risk score to thermotolerant

coliforms. Eight (22.9%) tap water samples had low risk score for total coliforms

whereas 21(60%) tap water had very low risk score for thermotolerant coliforms.

Twelve (34.3%) of the consumers collect water without contact with their hand and

9(25.7%) wash their hands with soap after visiting toilet. Water supplies at tap and

household water containers were contaminated with bacteria. Poor sanitation, low

level of hygiene, uncontrolled treatment parameters are the causes for contamination.

Control of physico-chemical parameters and promoting good hygiene and sanitation

are recommended.

Humphrey et al., (2011) studied the E.coli levels, in the coastal areas of

North Carolina, on four occasions between March 2007 and February 2008, and found

that groundwater E. coli densities near on-site wastewater systems were highest

during shallow water periods. They recommend increasing the vertical separation

distance from drain field trenches to seasonal high water table for improving shallow

groundwater quality.

Lugoli et al., (2011) investigated the microbiological contamination of

groundwater in the Salento peninsula of southeastern Italy and concluded that the risk

factors in this region arise mainly from anthropogenic activities, especially tourism

and agriculture. They observed widespread pollution from salt and microbial

contamination, the latter in 100% of the samples. Further, the water was found

unsuitable even for irrigation in a high percentage of cases (31.8),with high salt

concentrations, probably due to excessive extraction of water for intensive irrigation,

especially in summer.

Djuikom et al., (2011) carried out a bacteriological study over five months

to assess the water quality of seven wells located in Bepanda in Douala town of

63

Cameroon in Western Africa .They found that as long as any source of pollution

exists , water is of bad quality irrespective of the depth . They conclude that many

factors influence the groundwater quality: the type of pollution source(s) , the distance

separating the well and the pollution sources(s) , the maintenance of the well , the

nature of the ground , and many anthropogenic influences .

Akinbile et al., (2011) studied the impact of waste dumps on the quality of

groundwater in Akure , Nigeria and found high levels of contamination by heavy

metals and bacteria . The pollution was found related to the distance from the dump

sites.

Emile Jemgoua et al., (2011) examined the physico-chemical and

bacteriological characteristics of 17 water samples. Most of the water samples were

below or out of safety limits provided by WHO. Fecal coliforms were present in the

water samples (wells). Specific concern and development of chlorination was

proposed.

Javed Ali et al., (2011) evaluated the quality of drinking water from Khyler agency,

Pakistan. It was found that the total plate count (TPC) was in the range of 3600-190

CFU/ml, which indicated that none of the samples were in accordance with the WHO

standards (100CFU/ml). Total faecal coliforms were present in 80% samples E.coli

were present in 66% samples while 33% analyzed samples were contaminated with

staphylococcus aureus.

Gwimbi (2011) had examined the microbial content of 35 water samples

from different water sources. In his study 97% total coliforms and 71% E.coli were

detected. The concentration levels of total coliforms and E.coli were above the

permissible limits of the WHO drinking water quality guidelines in each case. He

observed that protected sources had significantly less number of colony forming

units[CFU] per 100ml of water sample compared to unprotected sources. His

findings suggest source water protection and good hygiene practices can improve the

quality of household drinking water where disinfection is not available.

Obi and George (2011) analyzed seven bore well waters by microbiological

and physico-chemical parameters in Nigeria. Five bacterial species namely

Enterobacteraerogenes, E.coli, Streptococci fecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and

Pseudomonas aeruginosa were isolated. The total HPC gave a range of 4.7x104 to

1.82x105cfu/ml, with a mean of 7.89x104cfu/ml. The total coliform count gave a

64

range of 4.1x103 to 8.6x103cfu/ml with a mean 6.24x103cfu/ml. Fecal coliform was

in 57.1% of water samples. The physico-chemical parameters fell within acceptable

limits except for nitrate [65-20mg/l] which is above WHO guidelines. These findings

show that the water samples did not meet WHO standards for drinking. Thus, the

bore well water should be treated before drinking.

Mrityunjoy Acharjee et al., (2011) evaluated the quality of drinking water

from houses in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Among 18 samples of water taken, two samples

were treated with chlorine. They found that all the other water sources were found to

be contaminated with total coliforms, fecal coliforms, E.coli, Klebsiella sp. ,

Salmonella sp. , Shigella sp. , Vibrio sp. and Aeromonas sp. Several biochemical

tests were performed for confirmation of suspected organisms. They found that

treated water samples were found to be microbiologically accepted than untreated

samples.

Azizullah et al., (2011) reported that water pollution is one of the major threats to

public health in Pakistan. Drinking water sources, both surface and ground waters are

contaminated with coliforms, toxic metals and pesticides throughout the country.

Various drinking water quality parameters set by WHO are frequently violated.

Human activities like improper disposal of municipal, industrial effluents and

agrochemicals in agriculture are the main factors contributing to the deterioration of

water quality.

Memon et al., (2011) assessed the drinking water quality of canal, shallow

pumps, dug wells and water supply schemes in Pakistan, by measuring the physical,

chemical and microbiological parameters as the Southern Sindh Province of Pakistan

deteriorating due to dumping of industrial and urban waste. They reported that all

four water bodies exceeded WHO minimum permissible limits for turbidity (24%,

28%, 96%, 69%), coliform (96%, 77%, 92%, 81%) and electrical

conductivity(100%, 99%, 44%, 63%) respectively. However, the turbidity was lower

in underground water i.e,24% and 28% in dug wells and shallow pumps as compared

to open water i.e, 96% and 69% in canal and water supply schemes respectively. In

dug wells and shallow pumps, limits for TDS, alkalinity, hardness and sodium

exceeded respectively by 63% and 33%, 59% and 70%, 40% and 27% and 78% and

26%. Some common diseases found in the study area were gastroenteritis, diarrhea

and vomiting, kidney and skin problems.

65

Pant (2011) assessed the quality of groundwater in the Kathmandu valley,

Nepal by physical, chemical and microbiological parameters. It was found that the

total coliform bacteria enumerated in groundwater significantly exceeded the drinking

water quality standard and observed maximum coliform [267 cfu/100ml] in shallow

wells. The electrical conductivity and turbidity were found to be 875ms/cm and 55

NTU respectively, which are above the WHO recommendations for drinking water

guidelines. However, Ph value was measured within the acceptable limit. Chloride

and total hardness concentrations were found to be within the recommendations of

WHO drinking water quality guidelines.

Ukpong et al., (2012) analyzed the physico-chemical and bacteriological

parameters of drinking water. They found pH, temperature, electrical conductivity,

alkalinity, DO, TDS, TSS, nitrate and phosphate were within in the desirable limits

of WHO. The total coliform count of the water samples ranged from 0 to

38CFU/100ml. The most frequently occuring bacteria were E.coli (27%),

Clostridium perfringens (20%) while the least found were B.subtilis (3%), Proteus

vulgaris.

Roohul Amin et al., (2012), studied the physico-chemical and bacteriological

analysis of drinking water of Peshawar. They found that the pH values were within

the permissible limits while the TSS of 5 samples was above the permissible limits.

In bacteriological analysis, except one sample collected from the tube well, most of

the samples were positive for total coliforms. Six samples of drinking water from

distribution system were positive for fecal coliforms and 4 samples positive for

E.coli.

Baig et al., (2012) had analyzed the physico-chemical and microbiological water

quality parameters of different water samples in flash flooding in Pakistan. They

found that the samples were microbiologically unfit for drinking due to the presence

of Escherichia coli, Shigella, Salmonella and Staphylococcus aureus [RANGE 18-96

+/- 14 CFU/100ml]. However, they found that the Ph, conductivity, TDS, total

hardness and nitrate of all the samples were within WHO permissible limits.

Kumar et al., (2012) analyzed the physico-chemical parameters like PH,

temperature; DO and COD of seven water samples and found that the levels were

within the standard limits. The microbial analysis showed the presence of

66

Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus vulgaris, Clostridium,

Shigella dysenteriae, Salmonella sp. and E.coli which are highly pathogenic.

Timilshina et al., (2012) assessed the microbial count of heterotrophs and total

coliforms of bottled water in Kathmandu valley. They found that 90% samples

showed the heterotophic bacterial count above the acceptable range (<50 CFU.ml)

and 63.3% samples showed the total count crossing the WHO guidelines (0

CFU/ml). The presence of heterotrophs and coliforms in the bottled water is a serious

concern for public health.

Roohul Amin et al in 2012, studied the physico-chemical and bacteriological

analysis of drinking water of Peshawar. They found that the pH values were within

the permissible limits while the TSS of 5 samples was above the permissible limits.

In bacteriological analysis, except one sample collected from the tube well, most of

the samples were positive for total coliforms. 6 samples of drinking water from

distribution system were positive for fecal coliforms and 4 samples positive for

E.coli.

Manji et al., (2012), investigated the incidence of Staphylococcus aureus,

coliforms and E.coli strains in both treated and untreated rural water supplies in

Nigeria. The isolation of S. aureus, Bacillus sp. and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

present enough evidence that water from these sources are unfit for human

consumption. Water sources failed to meet the standards for drinking water.

Martin et al 2012 analyzed the microbial quality of sachet and tap water

in Enugu state, Nigeria. For sachet water, E.coli and S. fecalis were isolates included

coliform and clostridium sp. An average of 66% clostridium sp was recovered from

all the tap water of 3 different locations. This study reports that the microbial quality

may vary rapidly and pathogen concentration may increase disease risks leading to

outbreaks of waterborne diseases.

Alvies (2013) evaluated the microbiological quality of different

commercial mineral water brands, wells and reservoir supplies in some areas of

Brazil. 18 samples of each source were analyzed. The results revealed that one sample

of mineral water and one sample collected from the reservoir supply had been

contaminated by a bacterium of total coliform group and there were found one

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bacterium/100 ml of water. None of the water samples showed contamination by fecal

coliforms.

Indian findings:

Verma et al., (1990) conducted a field study aimed at measuring the

personal cost of illness from five major water-related diseases and the work was

undertaken in a rural area of Uttar Pradesh (India) in 1981-82. The diseases included

in the study were enteric fever, actue diarrheal diseases, infective hepatitis,

conjunctivitis and scabies.

Karthikeyan et al, analyzed the physico-chemical parameters of 60 drinking

water samples from Erode district, Tamil Nadu. They observed the levels of pH,

electrical conductivity, TDS, alkalinity, hardness, bicarbonates, Ca, Mg, Nitrate, S, P,

Na and K. The concentration of nitrate, hardness, Ca & Mg in some samples seemed

to be more than the permissible limits. It is inferred from the study that these water

sources can be used for potable purpose only after prior treatment

Bhattacharjee et al (1992) evaluated the total and thermo tolerant coliform

counts in rural drinking water derived from ground water, piped supplies and surface

water for a number of areas in India. To evaluate these counts as indicators of recent

fecal contamination the total coliform and thermo tolerant coliform isolated have been

identified. Thermo tolerant E.coli formed 11.7% of the total coliform and 75.1% of

the thermo tolerant coliform. Citrobacter sp(20.4%) and Klebsiella sp(16.4%) was the

only other organism frequently encountered.

Jais et al., (1993) studied and assessed the bacteriological quality of

ground and surface water of Vijjaipur for E.coliforms and faecal coliforms. About

25% of the tube well samples were found to be contaminated by coliforms

particularly in the months of June and July.

Somasundaram et al(1993) studied the water quality for the aquifers in

the urban areas of Madras city and reported gross pollution of surface and

groundwater, with high levels of nitrates, heavy metals and micro organisms. They

suggest that this situatation is a result of factors such as inadequate sanitation,

industrial discharges and spillages and dumps.

Sharma et al., (1994) studied the ground water sources adjacent to the

sewage channel in Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh for their microbial quality. About 69%

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of the total samples, especially bore well water, were found to be contaminated. They

suggest that this might be due to the seepage from the sewerage channel and soak pits

near the bore wells, as well as the excessive extraction of the ground water through

bore wells which might have created vacuum thereby increasing the chances of

suction of contaminated waters.

Narain Rai and Sharma (1995) studied the bacterial contamination of

groundwater in rural areas of U.P. Total aerobic heterotrophic bacteria (THB), total

coliforms (TC), faecal coliforms (FC) and Escherichia coli Type-1 (ECI) were

estimated in fifteen well water samples collected from rural areas of Barailly and

Nainital districts. Maximum THB, TC, FC, and ECI were 28,000/ml,,4460 and 305

per 100 ml of water respectively while a few samples were free from ECI. The

presence of FC and ECI revealed the insanitary conditions of the wells.

Kataria (1997) investigated total coliform count in the drinking water

sources of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. Maximum Probable Number (MPN) in the study

area exceeded the WHO limit at different sampling stations as these were located in

low lying areas. Higher values in summer and monsoon indicated a higher degree of

pollution.

E.coli and total bacteria count was investigated by Rai et al (1998).in the

tube wells sources of Khagaria in Bihar. Very high MPN number at different stations

was attributed to the low landscape and stagnant ions present permanently in water

bodies throughout the study area.

From the microbial counts like TVC FC and FS, Das (2000) evaluated that

the rivers and canal at Cuttack are grossly polluted carrying high potency of microbes

and the concentration level reached an extreme level during the summer season

making the water unsuitable even for bathing

Garg (2003) studied the water quality of well and borewell of 10 selected

locations of Chitrakoot region.

Thakur et al (2003) opined that faecal contamination and sewage

contamination were the cause of high bacterial loads in the water samples of Jorhat

city. Water from the surface sources was found to be more polluted than the ground

sources.

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Highest load of Colifrom of faecal origin was observed in the down stream

site of river Thamirabarani at Ambassamuudram,byUmamaheswari, (2004) which

may be due to frequent contamination by the excreta of humans, animals and birds.

The incidence of low count of coliform and streptococci of faecal origin in the

upstream site may be due to the continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious

organic matter and continuous flow of river, depletion of nutritious organic matter and

continuous uses of detergents, antiseptics, soaps etc.

Sundari and Dheivamani (2004) conducted experiments on

microbiological quality of drinking water in and around Chidambaram Taluk of

Cuddalore district and found pathogenic contents.

From an experimental study by Ramani Vimala et al (2006) it was

revealed that poor quality of water may be attributed to the seepage of sewage

carrying a lot of pathogens into the ground water. By setting a treatment plant either at

domestic level or on a large scale by municipality may control the presence of

bacteria in the drinking water.

The investigation conducted by Senthilkumar et al (2006) on ground

water quality in Thanjavur city revealed that the MPN index showed positive

correlation with the nutrients. The drainage of domestic sewage in the well

surroundings, stagnation of waste water around tube wells, broken & cracked

platforms are accounted for high faecal contamination of groundwater.

The drinking, borewell and sewage water in the Sanmugasikamani

Nadar(S.N) street, Naivatti Nadar (N.N) street and Thiruthangal area of Sivakasi has

been studied Radha Krishnan et al.,(2007). The bacterial parameters like standard

plate count (SPC), total coliform count (TCC), faecal coliform count (FCC), faecal

streptococcal count (FSC). Most of the physicochemical characters of drinking and

borewell water were within the ISI permissible level. However in water samples from

all the sites, bacterial count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO.

Introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for

the bacterial contamination. The boiling of water is therefore advisable before

consumption. The physicochemical and bacterial characters of the sewage water were

unworthy. The sewage water recycling was necessary to minimize the water bourne

diseases.

Dash et al (2007) studied the bacteriological quality of the groundwater

and surface water in the rural areas around Angul-Talcher industrial zone in Orissa.

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252 samples from seven locations around the industrial zone were analyzed/ /+

bimonthly from July2001 to May 2003. Water from all the dug wells and 30 of the

tube well were found unfit for human consumption, whereas 70% of tube wells were

found to provide safe drinking during winter and summer.

Radha Krishna et al (2007) cocnducted experiments on the physico-

chemical and bacteriological parameters of drinking, borewell and sewage water in

three different places of Sivakashi. Most of the physico-chemical characters of

drinking and borewell water were within permissible limits of BIS, whereas bacterial

count exceeded the recommended permissible level of WHO. They concluded that the

introduction of sewage into the drinking and borewell water was the main reason for

the bacterial contamination.

Roy and Thakuria (2007) conducted experiments on the drinking water

quality in schools of Bongaioan district of Assam. Water samples from 15 different

schools were studied for their bacteriogical and physico-chemical parameters

including heavy metals. The anions viz., sulphate, chloride and fluoride and heavy

metal viz., arsenic, lead and chromium were within the permissible limits, while

mercury was present in 20% and copper and iron in 33.3% of the water samples

studied. Sixty-seven percent of water samples were acidic, while in 40% of the

samples turbidity was above the permissible limits. Water samples, particularly from

ring wells, have been found bacterialogically contaminated.

Anchal Sood et al., (2008) studied assessment of bacterial indicators in river

Ganga. The study confirmed the presence of bacterial indicators of fecal origin at

various altitudes in every stretch of Gangetic river system. The results of

bacteriological analysis of water revealed that the situation is alarming. The lower

regions of Gengetic river system of Uttarakhand facing sever anthropological

activities, mostly due to religious belief were heavily polluted. A huge bacterial gene

pool was obtained after study which was indicative of immense bacterial diversity in

the region.

Lalitha (2008) carried out experiments on microbiological quality of

drinking water in Warangal city and reported that ground water from deeper aquifers

had lesser microbial contamination.

Jain et al.,(2008) collected hydro-chemical and bacteriological data of

ground water and spring water at Nanital in Utterakhand. They report the absence of

71

bacteriological contamination in ground water, while six of the 28 spring water

samples had 10 coliform per 100ml.

Surindra Suthar et al (2009) studied the bacterial contaminations indrinking water samples collected from some rural habitations of northernRajasthan, India. A total of ten bacterial species were identified from drinkingwater samples. The bacteria belonging to the family entrobacteriaceae(Coliforms) showed the maximum occurrences in water samples. This datasuggested that drinking water quality deterioration in rural habitations of thisregion was due to poor sanitation.Surendra Suthar et al 2009 determined the bacterial contaminations in drinking

water samples of Rajasthan, India. A total of 10 bacterial species such as E.coli,

Pseudomonas aeruginosa, enterobacter aerogenes, Klebsiella sp, Proteus vulgaris,

Alcaligenes fecalis, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus lactis

and Micrococcus luteum were identified from drinking water samples. The bacteria

belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae showed the maximum occurrences in

water samples. The data suggested that the drinking water quality deterioration in

rural habitations was due to poor sanitation and unawareness about hygiene.

Prasanna Reddy et al 2009 detected coliforms in water samples collected from

mobile vendors, protected well and municipal tap water supplied from Jeedimetla,

Hyderabad by MPN method. The study revealed that the number of coliforms was

very high (>1500) in water samples collected from mobile vendors. The bacteria

identified were Escherichea coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus

aureus. Bacteriological examination showed that the water collected from mobile

vendors and groundwater was not potable while the municipal tap water was found to

be safe for drinking.

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Jiban Singh et al (2009) studied ground water in the newlydeveloped and old parts of Bangalore city, where municipal, domestic andindustrial effluents are channelized in to an open sewerage system. Most of thewells situated within 2km radius of this open sewerage networks were found tobe loaded with total and faecal coliforms. The average counts of total and faecalcoliforms were 82 and 14 CFU/100ml from the open wells and 63 and 34CFU/100ml from the bore wells, respectively. They conclude that proximity ofcontaminating surfaces and interaction with surface water are some of thefactors controlling the presence and transport of coliform bacteria in groundwater.AlOtaibi 2009 analyzed 95 water samples of bottled, desalinated, surface and

well waters randomly. The bacteriological examination of water samples showed that

the total coliform count (MPN/100ml) was not detected in any samples taken from

bottled water, while it was detected in desalinated, surface and well waters with

12.9%, 80.0% and 100% respectively. Fecal coliforms were detected in desalinated,

surface and well waters with 3.23%, 60% 87.88% respectively. About 6.45% of

desalinated water, 53.33% of surface water and 57.58% of well water was found

positive for fecal streptococci.

Zeenat et al 2009 carried out a study to determine the bacteriological quality

of different bottled waters. 75 samples of bottled mineral water belonging to three

domestic brands and 25 samples of one imported brand were analyzed for HPC

bacteria and fecal coliforms. Among the domestic brands 7% of the samples were

positive for fecal coliforms. All imported bottled mineral water samples were within

WHO standards. While the overall quality of the product was generally good, there is

a need to enforce stringent quality standards for the domestic bottlers to ensure the

safety of consumers.

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Vijaychandran and Byragi Reddy (2010) studied the microbialquality of borewell and stream water in Visakhapatnam city, Andhra Pradesh,India and reported that the contamination level was higher in monsoon andpost-monsoon seasons. Sixteen bacteriological genera were identified. Heavymetal resistant bacteria were identified and studied.Nagapal et al., (2011) reported thatmicrobiological health risks are of

major concern during construction of Dam reservoir. Therefore, drinking water was

examined for the presence/absence of Salmonella, Citrobactor, Escherichia and

Vibrio species in the Indira Sagar/ Omkareshwar Project (ISP/OSP) affected areas and

Rehabilitation/Resettlement (RR) colonies of Sardar Sarover Project (SSP) in Madhya

Pradesh. V. cholerae and V. parahaemolytica were positive in 24 and 6 water samples

respectively. Salmonella and Citrobactor species were found in 21water samples.

Drinking water samples of most of the villages located at bank of Narmada River

were positive with Vibrio species. While Salmonella and Citrobactor species were

present in the drinking water of the nearby villages, Rehabilitation/Resettlement

colonies and command areas of the river/ canal. Seasonal variation was also observed

in the presence/absence of tested microbes in different survey. Thus, there may be the

role of reservoir water in the groundwater microflora change in the nearby areas.

Hiremath, et al, (2011) analyzed seasonally the physico-chemical parameters

of 36 samples from different sources in Karnataka. Parameters like pH, conductivity,

TDS, total hardness, sulfate and chloride were studied and compared with WHO

standards. The present investigation revealed that the water quality of sources and

some of the water samples are unfit for drinking.

Mohan Krishna Reddy et al (2012) assessed the status of urban drinking

water quality of Lucknow city in India. Samples were collected from the piped

supplies as well as groundwater sources from different localities of residential,

commercial and industrial areas during pre-monsoon for estimation of coliform and

fecal coliform bacteria, organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and heavy metals. Bacterial

contamination was found to be more in the samples from commercial areas than

residential and industrial areas. OCPs were found to be present in most of the samples

from study area. The total organochlorine pesticide levels were found to be within the

European Union limit in most of the samples. Most of the heavy metals estimated in

74

the samples were also found to be within the permissible limits as prescribed by

World Health Organization for drinking water. Thus these observations show that

contamination of drinking water in urban areas may be mainly due to municipal,

industrial and agricultural activities along with improper disposal of solid waste. This

is an alarm to safety of public health and aquatic environment in tropics.

Palit et al., (2012), investigated the potentiality of different water sources

in urban slums in Kolkata. Out of 517 water samples collected from different sources,

stored water (washing) showed higher prevalence of fecal coliform (58%) when

compared with stored water (drinking) samples (28%) and tap water (8%)

respectively. Among different sources, stored water (washing) samples had the

highest non-permissible range of physico-chemical parameters. Fecal coliform levels

in household water containers (washing) were comparatively high 7% stored water

(washing) samples were found to be harboring Vibrio Cholera. This attempt

highlights the transmission of diseases via fecal-oral route.

Neha Bhatnagar et al, 2012 evaluated the levels of fecal coliform in

water distribution network in Jaipur. They found that residual chlorine was present in

permissible limits in all areas, however, showing the presence of microbes &

coliform. Out of 12 sites showed, 8 sites were found to have coliform bacteria

showing the possibility of contamination of water supply by sewage discharges due to

leakage in pipes. It is possible that microbes may enter through damaged pipes. So

water should be protected from contamination.

Koul Nishitha et al., (2012) determined the physico-chemical and

bacteriological characteristics of tap water samples collected from selected sites of

Gurgaon, Haryana. It was found that the pH, DO, TDS, total hardness, nitrate and

sulfate levels of the water samples seemed to be within the permissible limits of WHO

standards. However, 30.7% of Total coliforms were detected in the water samples.

While the fecal bacteria were not found in any of the samples. Thus, due to presence

of total coliforms, the water is unfit for consumption.

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Water Quality IndexThe Water Quality Index (WQI) for the ground waters of K.R

Puram industrial area in Bangalore was studied by Sankar2000 . The WQI for

these 30 samples ranged from 20.20 to 309.75 with an average value of

104.67 . The high value of WQI at these stations has been found to be mainly

from the higher values of Iron ,Nitrate ,TDS ,Total hardness and fluorides in

the ground water .

Ground water quality in two well-developed cities of Haryana, viz.

Hisar and Panipat was assessed by Kaushik (2002).for drinking purpose based

on water quality parameters, with respect to different land-use areas viz.

residential, industrial, commercial and agricultural. Water quality index based

on 9 parameters showed that at Panipat, underground water in all the land-use

zones was fit for consumption (WQI < 50), whereas at Hisar, water in

agricultural areas was good in quality, but that in other areas varied in

magnitude of pollution (WQI > 50 to 100).

Murali (2002) concluded that the ground water quality of different wards

of Coimbatore east zone was suitable after examining various physico-chemical

parameters. The water quality index (WQI), calculated for five parameters of these

samples, ranged between 75 and 100. The results show that the water is suitable

for domestic purposes.

Physico-chemical characteristics of bore wells of industrial areas of

Visakhapatnam were monitored by Ramakrishna Rao (2004). Water Quality

Index calculated from ten physicochemical parameters taken together varied

from 50.0 - 97.41. The water was not confirming to drinking standards and

hence it is suggested to take all the necessary precautions before the waters are

sent into public distribution system.

Yogendra (2007) calculated Water Quality Index (WQI) of an urban

water body ,Gopishettykere ,in Shimoga town Karnataka in order to ascertain

the quality of water for public consumption. In this study , Water Quality Index

was determined on the basis of various Physico – Chemical parameters and was

categorized based on water quality rating scale .

Prachi Thambe (2008) studied the bacteriological quality of rural water

supplies and improved water management through increased community

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participation. 313 water samples from different sources, such as well, tank,

community stand post, hand pumps, percolation lakes, and streams and from

households were collected from 6 villages in Maharashtra, India over a one year

period. Overall, 49.8% of the 313 samples were polluted whereas 45.9% of the

samples from piped water supply were polluted. The quality of groundwater was

generally good compared to open wells. No major diarrheal epidemics were

recorded. As a result of a continuous feedback of bacteriological findings to the

community, perceptions of the people changed with time. An increased awareness

was observed through active participation of the people.

The water quality index (WQI) for the ground water of Tumkur taluk was

determined by Ramakrishnaiah (2009). For calculating the WQI, 12 parameters have

been considered. The WQI for these samples ranges from 89.21 to 660.56. The high

value of WQI has been found to be mainly from the higher values of iron, nitrate, total

dissolved solids, hardness, fluorides, bicarbonate and manganese in the groundwater.

The analysis reveals that the groundwater of the area needs some degree of treatment

before consumption.

Rajankar (2009) calculated Water quality index (WQI) for different

ground water sources i.e. dug wells bore wells and tube wells at Khaperkheda region,

Maharashtra (India). Twenty two different sites were selected in post monsoon, winter

and summer season. The calculated WQI showed fair water quality rating in post

monsoon season which then changed to medium in summer and winter seasons for

dug wells, but the bore wells and hand pumps showed medium water quality rating in

all seasons where the quality was slightly differs in summer and winter season than

post monsoon season.

Rizwan (2009) assesed the water quality index (WQI) for the river water of

Angul district of Orissa. The samples (n=12) were collected from various location of

river Brahmani and their tributaries. The highest value of WQI of the samples was 89

in monsoon season while the lowest value was 50 in summer season. The lower value

of WQI has been found mainly due to the higher values of BOD, Coli form and

slightly lower value of DO in the river water during summer.

Charmaine Jerome and Anita Pius (2010) concluded that Groundwater

is an essential and vital component of our life support system. Groundwater samples

from selected bore wells were analyzed for important physico-chemical attributes and

from the data obtained, the water quality index (WQI) was calculated. The WQI

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values ranged from 49.2 to 409.94. The Pearson correlation was performed to find the

relationship between WQI and quality of life. It was observed that the correlation

coefficient ‘r’ was -0.499(p<0.001).

The water quality index (WQI) was calculated by Gunvant (2010) for the

assessment of ground water quality near to the dye user industry. Various

physicochemical parameters have been calculated in all the samples. In some of the

parameters the concentration observed were found to be above the permissible limits

of WHO, BIS and ICMR. Drinking water was found to be severely contaminated at

all the sites of study.

In his work Sundar kumar (2010) has estimated the ground water quality

of Rajam Mandal, which is located on the east coast of Srikakulam district of

Andhrapradesh, India. More than 170 samples of the ground water were collected

manually from the bore wells which were approximately equally distributed all over

31 villages of Rajam Mandal. The data base obtained from water quality testing was

used as attribute data base for preparation of thematic maps showing distribution of

various water quality parameters and Water Quality Index.

A study was conducted to assess the spatio-temporal variation in water of

Sabarmati River and Kharikat canal at Ahmadabad by Rita Kumar (2010). An

assessment of various physico-chemical characteristics of water was carried for a

period of 12 months. Statistical analysis among various physicochemical parameters

and WQI has been carried out. Spatial and temporal variation was observed in river

with increasing value of various parameters from upstream to downstream and

relatively high pollution load at two sites of Kharicut canal.

Physico – Chemical analysis of well and bore well water samples was

carried out from eight sampling sites of Guntur rural area for the month of

February 2010. The analysis of different parameters were carried out as per

standard methods by Chandaluri Subba Rao . The results obtained on WQI

from different sampling stations were found to be varied from 38.3 to 42.6.

A study conducted by Yadav (2010) deals with the statistical analysis and

study of water quality index to assess hardness of groundwater in derailing tensile of

Tonk district of Rajasthan state. The study has been carried out to examine its

suitability for drinking, irrigation and industrial purpose. The presence of problematic

salts contains in groundwater due to local pollutants and affected the groundwater