REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND...

CHAPTER 111

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

u Studies on Personal and Psychological

Dimensions

u Studies on Institutional and Sociological

Dimensions

References

CHAPTER 111

Review of Related Literature and Studies

Review of related literature and studies is a pre-requisite to the actual

planning and execution of any research work. As Fox (1969) pointed out, it becomes

part of the accumulated knowledge in the field and so contributes to thinking and

research that follow. A process of investigation of past research and thinking

combined with current research, alone can push knowledge forward. "It helps the

researcher by giving him some information about the status quo of knowledge in the

area he intends to study. It should provide the researcher with ideas of the type of

design that he may eventually use in conducting his research" (Lehman and Mohrens,

1971).

The present investigation is an attempt to identify certain factors

influencing optimum utilisation of effective teaching in primary schools. Research

studies directly linked with the problem under investigation are sparse.

Therefore an attempt has been made here to review the studies related

to the scope of the present study. The studies collected are grouped into the following

categories:

3.1. Personal and Psychological Dimensions

3.1.1 Studies on Teaching Experience

3.1.2 Studies on Subject Matter Knowledge

3.1.3 Studies on Intelligence

3.1.4 Studies on Attitude Towards Profession

59 - - - Revrew of Lrterature

3.1.5 Job Satisfaction with the Profession

3.1.6 Evaluation of Performance of Teachers

3.2. Institutional and Sociological Dimensions

3.2.1 Studies on Fieldtrips

3.1. Studies on Personal and Psycholoeical Factors

The teacher plays a major role in implementing the policies and

schemes formulated to achieve a breakthrough in the quantitative expansion and

improvement of education.

The personality attributes of teachers, which are considered effective

criteria, are many and as varied as the investigators who have employed them. The

research workers have identified the personality factors of successfbl and satisfied

teachers, bur it is little known as to whether these factors had been developed by

teachers after entering the job or already possessed by them at the beginning of their

career.

Howsam (1960) and Fattu (1962) both reviewed the research on

predictor criteria and teacher effectiveness and concluded that -such researches had

failed to substantiate-links for such characteristics as intelligence, age, experience,

cultural background, socio-economic status, sex, marital status, scores on aptitude

tests, job interest, voice quality and special aptitudes. Low positive correlations

between scholarship and teaching effectiveness were observed. Professional

knowledge proved to be a more successful predictor, particularly for teaching

performance.

60 - Review of L~terature

13iddle (1 964) has given a seven variable model for teacher

effectiveness, such as:

(i) formative experiences (training socialization)

(ii) teacher properties (skills, motives, habits, knowledge, etc.)

(iii) teacher behaviour (traits, responses to environment, etc.)

(iv) immediate effects (overt and covert pupil responses etc)

(v) long term consequences (achievements or adjustment of pupils)

(vi) classroom situations (physical facilities, special incidents etc)

(vii) school and community contexts (physical facilities, characters, laws and

customs, needs and ideas of community members etc)

Hall (1965) discovered that best teachers had favourable attitude

towards subject matter, and interrelated subject matter well-communicated and well-

versed.

Kulandaivel and Rao (1968) attempted to analyse the qualities of a

good teacher, based on ratings by 2662 students. According to the findings of the

study, the good teacher is one who teaches well, inspires good qualities in the

students, researches a lesson when not understood by the students, does not have caste

prejudices while teaching students, and so on.

Ebel ( 1969) and Rosenshine (1971) state quite confidently that pupils'

outcomes, pupils' achievement, students' liking, etc., may be taken as the criteria of

teacher effectiveness.

Debnath (1971) identified that professional training, intelligence,

interest in teaching, tiiendliness, and democratic behaviour as factors having relation

61 - Review of Literature

with teacher efficiency. He also found that the academic achievement is one of the

associated factors of teachers' effectiveness.

Effective teachers would never walk into the classroom and straight-

away start a lesson without due preparation. They think a lot and plan before they

embark upon the task of teaching. It is in this context that the need for planning has

been highlighted by several educators like Hudgins (1971), Hill and Dobbyn (1979),

Gerlach and Ely (1980) and Doyle (1990 b).

In the absence of planning, Hudgins (1 971) notes, teaching can become

confused, disorganised and chaotic, resulting in negative consequences both for the

learning of the pupils and for their attitude towards the teacher and the school.

According to Hill and Dobbyn (1979) planning for teaching is a matter

of knowing what you want to do, how to do it, and how to find out you have

succeeded.

Doyle (1990 b) has discussed how curriculum content is important for

students to learn and how that curriculum can be enacted in the classroom settings

through the execution of learning activities and events.

R.A. Sharma (1971) aimed at studying the relationship between

characteristics possessed by teachers and teacher effectiveness, with a view to

predicting teacher success. The study found that five factors, namely, teaching

aptitude, academic grades, socio-economic status, teaching experience and age, in the

order of their arrangement, together formed the sound predictors of teacher

effectiveness.

62 - .- -- - Revrew of L~terature

A number of researchers like Taylor and Dale (1971), Adams,

Hutchinson and Martray (1980), and Glassberg (1980) have highlighted that the

typical problems of fresh teachers are lessened for those who have had adequate

preparation prior to entry into the career.

G.R. Sharma (1974) found intelligence to be a very significant factor

for teaching effectively and the total personality of the teacher plays an important role

in effective teaching.

Cieorge (1976) observed that there was no relationship between

creative teaching process and the behaviour of teachers.

K.C. Ciupta (1976) investigated that highly effective teachers were

significantly more intelligent and emotionally stable, and had higher self-concept and

self-control in comparison to teachers with average efficiency.

Malhotra (1976) revealed that the teachers with bachelor's degree low

teaching experience, positive attitude in addition to being well-adjusted, were more

indirect in the classroom behaviour than the teachers with master's degree, high

teaching experience, negative attitude, and poor adjustment. He also found that

teachers with indirect classroom behaviour were more liked by their students than

teachers with direct classroom behaviour.

1'. Mehta (1976) reported that effective teachers generally entered the

teaching profession due to their interest in teaching. He also identified the motives of

the teachers through the Life Goal Inventory and indicated that the general motives of

63 - - - - Review of Literature

teaching were work satisfaction, status and respect, interpersonal relations, leisure

satisfaction, and opportunity to enhance education and knowledge.

Rajalekshmi (1976) suggested that factors contributing to effective

teaching were expressiveness, scholarliness, considerateness, sense of humour, co-

operativeness, dependability, emotionality, stability, objectivity, and physical energy.

Ilasgupta (1977) observed that personal and professional

characteristics and situational factors contributed to teacher effectiveness.

1l.P. Gupta (1977) conducted an exploratory study of the factors

affecting teacher efficiency. The study involved headmasters and teachers of primary

schools. 'I'he major findings were:

i. that 24 personal characteristics of a teacher had an influence on the growth

and development of children.

ii. that the personal characteristics of the teacher were insignificant in the scheme

of primary teacher training programme.

Pankaj (1977) explained that the essential characteristics of teacher

effectiveness were knowledge of subject matter, awareness of child behaviour, and

generalized skills.

The study made by Arora (1978) revealed that some of the

determinants of teacher effectiveness were:

1 . Who makes decision for joining the profession

2. 1'he time in the life of an individual, when heishe joins the profession

3. Distance of living place from the school

4. Degree of satisfaction from the job

5 . Interest in various types of in-service education and derivation of satisfaction

from them.

Patnaik (1978) found that superior efficiency in teaching required

sound personality on the part of a teacher. He also showed that the attitude of

teachers towards the profession, teaching, child-centred practices, process of

education, and attitudes towards pupils and teacher- colleagues, constituted the major

factors of teacher effectiveness.

M.C. Shama (1978) investigated that successful teachers were highly

superior to unsuccessful teachers in relation to their self-concept. He also found

positive correlations between the variables, self-concept, intelligence and teaching

success. Further, he pointed out that teachers of government schools had proved

themselves superior to private-school teachers, in respect of both teaching success and

self-concept.

Ilranowitz and Doyle (1978) showed that the quality of interpersonal

relationships between the teacher and the students is a key factor to effective teaching.

Dubey (1 979) found that the classroom verbal behaviour of the teacher

had positive relation with the pupil characteristics and the achievement of pupils,

while it had no positive relation with the attitude of pupils.

Mutha (1980) investigated that sex, nature of schooling, professional

training and income level are significantly related with the teachers' effectiveness.

Moreover, personality factors viz., anxiety, job satisfaction, attitude, submission,

marital adjustment, extroversion significantly predict the teachers' effectiveness.

Research on teachers' personality traits and behaviour has produced a

few consistent findings. This was pointed out by researchers like Schalock (1979),

Grewal and Bansal (198 I), and D ~ v a and Anderson (1983), with the exception of

studies finding a recurring positive relationship between student learning and

teachers' 'flexibility', 'creativity', and 'adaptability' stressed by a number of

educationists like Berliner and Tikunoff (1976), and Walberg and Waxman (1983).

These findings are consistent with other research on effective teaching.

U. Srivastav (1979) tried to identify the factors that influence effective

teaching. Firm determination, dutifulness, disciplinalism, interest in the teaching job,

and foresightedness are the five areas, which have determined the sense of

responsibility. Also he found that the sense of responsibility and teacher effectiveness

are significantly and positively related. Another finding was that graduate teachers

have shown greater responsibility for effective teaching than their postgraduate

counterparts.

S. Singh (1980) has identified the qualities of successful teachers. He

is of the view that highly successful teachers possess better intellectual capacity and

efficiency, high creative potential and level of aspiration. Further, they are able to

introduce learning, develop interest, and foster desirable attitudes among their

students. He also observed that a positive attitude towards family, a sense of

~dentification with the people, place and profession, and a growing concern for the

school, students and studies. were helpful in making a teacher successful.

S.K. Srivastav (1980) conducted another study on the attitude of

primary teachers towards their profession. The study revealed that teacher

66 Rev~ew of Literature

effectiveness and attitude towards teaching are positively and significantly related

with each other.

Balachandran (1981) found that teachers' effectiveness is increased by

a number of factors such as the subject matter, communicating ability and

commitment to teaching, motivating concern for students' progress and informal

academic help.

Conard (1982) explained that effective instructors knew the student

well. The personal style, method or technique found effective with one teacher could

not be equally effective with other teachers.

Lakhanpal (1982) identified that a definite influence of many

psychological factors within the climate of the performance of both students and

teachers.

Feiman (1983) has identified three stages that teachers go through in

the process of becoming a teacher. He names them as (i) beginning survival stage, (ii)

consolidation stage, and (iii) mastery stage. In the beginning survival stage, teachers'

knowledge of teaching and schools is limited to what they have picked up over the

years as students. During the consolidation stage, they become more confident in

their ability to teach and deal with students. However, it is at the mastery stage that

teachers master the fundamentals of teaching and of classroom management.

Gutek (1983) has reported that academic freedom is the right of

teachers to teach within the area of their competence. Freedom to plan, administer

67 -- . -

Review of Literature

and innovate boosts the morale of teachers and contributes to higher levels of

efficiency.

K.D. Sharma (1984) suggested that, for success as a teacher, only

academic qualifications cannot be the sole criterion. Persons with undecided mind

and anxiety cannot be good workers, whatever profession they join.

Good teachers would go to extraordinary lengths to get to know

students and parents in order to influence learning. They put the relationship between

teacher and students at the heart of effective teaching.

Wangoo (1984) found that

(i) intelligence has positive and significant correlation with teachers'

effectiveness

(ii) teachers with outgoing attitude, as compared to teachers who are reserved,

are effective and successful

(iii) the humble teacher, as compared to teachers with assertive behaviow have

positive and significant correlation with effective teaching

(iv) tough-minded teachers, as compared to tender-minded teachers, have

positive and significant correlation with effective teaching

(v) teachers with experimental outlook as compared to teachers with

conservative outlook are successful

(vi) teachers with group dependent attitude, as compared to teachers with self-

sufficient and relaxed teachers have positive and significant correlation with

efltctive teaching.

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tie concludes that personality adjustment, quality of social interaction,

a high degree of intelligence and emotional control are the most prominent

characteristics which are associated with effective teaching.

Knowing people is a pre-requisite to effective interaction. Knowing

someone means. says Berscheid (1985), learning hisher ethics and dispositions. In

short, this implies knowing how one thinks.

Doyle (1985) suggests that effective teachers adjust their teaching to

the needs of different students and the demands of different instructional goals, topics,

and methods.

Fountana (1985) has reported about the usefulness of humour in

reducing the barriers between the teacher and the class. However, humour should not

be overdone.

Haddad (1985) observed that the educational qualification and

experience of teachers are some of the indicators for the quality of the teachers.

Although highly qualified persons need not necessarily be more efficient and

committed, still there seems to be a "bracket" of knowledge and skills that teachers

must possess for teaching different subjects at different levels below which they

cannot teach effectively.

Padmanabhaiah (1986) surveyed teaching effectiveness of school

teachers. The study indicated that among the eleven personal and demographic

variables studied only five namely, designation, age, experience, job satisfaction, and

size of the family of the teachers that could significantly influence the level of

teaching effectiveness.

Sharyani (1 986) investigated that the teachers' attitude towards pupils

did not show any significant positive relationship with teacher effectiveness in the

case of high achievers, whereas in the case of low achievers it was negative. He also

observed that intelligence and knowledge in their respective subject area were the best

predictors of effective teaching.

Emmer (1987) has suggested that classroom management is concerned

with a set of teachers' behaviour patterns and activities that are primarily intended to

foster student co-operation and involvement in classroom.

Idr~si (1987) concluded that urban teachers were more effective than

the rural ones. Rut in the case of female teachers, no variation was identified in

respect of teaching effectiveness due to change in the locality. He also reported that

no significant relation was found between the teaching effectiveness of highly

qualified and averagely qualified teachers.

Schulman (I 987) lists seven constituents of teacher knowledge.

- content knowledge

- general pedagogic knowledge

- curriculum knowledge

- knowledge of learners and their characteristics

- knowledge of educational contexts

- knowledge of educational ends

- purpose and values.

I.M. Singh (1987) found positive and significant correlation between

teaching aptitude and effective teaching among B.Ed pupil-teachers. He also

70 -- - Review of Literature

concluded that seltlconcept of pupil-teachers correlated positively and significantly

with their effectiveness in teaching.

Hill ( 1 988) highlighted the following characteristics of effective

teaching:

I . carrying and understanding relationship

2. relation with the kids and working with them at different levels

3. kind of positive interaction

4. ability to break things down to kids, and

5. flexibility and willingness to try new things.

Mohanty (1989) has reported the case of a teacher taking a language

class, reading a poem and explaining it for 40 minutes without having any dialogue

with students, without looking at them, and without making any physical movement,

and all the while standing like a statue at a place. In such a situation, obviously, the

students were not interested in the lesson and some of them had a free time. Hence all

teacher need to develop the habit of developing immediate talking of disruptive

behaviour

Susan (1989) revealed that the flexibility of the teacher influenced

richness and innovations of curriculum and acted as a powerful source influencing

teachers' classroom behaviour and instruction.

Kulkreti (1990) discovered a positive relationship between aptitude

and success in teaching. He also reported that economic and political values were

negatively related with teaching success, whereas, in the case of knowledge value, the

direction of relationship was positive. However, he found no relationship between

71 -- - - Revcew of Literature

teaching success and socio-religious values. He observed that the weakness of the

teaching profession as reported by successful teachers was non-co-operation of

students, late promotion, and unfavourable atmosphere, while those reported by

unsuccessful teachers were boring job, different kinds of duties, non-co-operative

attitude of the administration, much restriction and indiscipline.

1,inda ( 1 990) has identified the variables in teachers' effectiveness to

be ( i ) intelligence. (ii) interests, (iii) clarity of expression, (iv) attitude to education

and learning, (v) socio-economic conditions, (vi) aptitude for teaching, (vii)

knowledge of the subject matter and academic achievement. (viii) demographic

factors, (ix) creativity and (x) personality factors.

Pandey (1990) carried out a study on the effect of some curricular

strategies which involved use of teaching skills, extra reference material, and parental

involvement. This study was done on children of rural primary schools. The findings

showed a positive impact of these strategies on certain cognitive and non-cognitive

traits ofthu learners.

According to Fullan (1991), "Educational change depends upon what

teachers do and think. 11 is as simple and as complex as that". Educational change is

never a single entity. even if the analysis is kept at the simplest level of classroom

innovation. As pointed out by Rajput (1994), educational change is always

multidiinensional-such as (i) the possible use of new or revised materials (direct

instructional resources such as curriculum materials or technologies), (ii) the possible

use of new teaching approaches, i.e., new teaching strategies or activities, and (iii) the


possible alteration o l beliefs, e.g., pedagogical assumption and theories underlying

particular new policies or programmes.

Sundararajan and Williams (1991) point out that there is no significant

difference hetween teachers working in government schools and there is a significant

difference between the attitudes of pre-service and in-service teachers.

Hawa ( 1992) suggested that the required strategies of effective teachers

were gestures. movements, modulation of voice, focusing, physical pupil

participation. pausing, change in interaction pattern, stimulus variation, etc.

I'he highlights of the findings of Kemp and Hall (1992) are:

students achieve more when teachers employ systematic teaching procedures.

greater academic progress occurs when lessons begin with review

effective teachers use systematic feedback with students about their

performance

effective teachers run more orderly classrooms. Achievement has been higher

in classroom where the climate is neither harsh nor over by lavish with praise.

teachers who adjust the difficulty level of material to student ability have

higher rates ol'achievement in their classes.

classrooms in which learning occurs have higher levels of student co-

operation, student success and task involvement.

effective teachers clearly articulate rules and include children in discussions

about rules and procedures.

effective teachers provide a variety of opportunities for students to apply and

use knowledge and skills in different learning situations.

effective teachers are able to pace the amount of information presented to the

class, check student progress continually by asking questions of all students,

and relate new learning to prior learning.

The characteristics of effective teachers were studied by Murray

(1992) and the findings indicated that sense of humour, encouragement for student

participation. and sensitivity to students' feeling were major requisites of effective

teaching.

Srinivasan (1992) studied personality traits of primary school teachers.

He found that i) age. sex, experience and community did not affect the attitude of

teachers towards teaching, (ii) that government school teachers differed from aided

school teachers with regard to the attitude towards teaching, and (iii) that significant

difference existed in the same traits between men and women teachers, (lack of

empathy), and between teachers having long and short period of service (self-

confidence, need for achievement).

Kancifer's (1993) highlights the effective classroom strategies

associated with the hehaviour of effective teachers when they establish and maintain

order, promote appropriate student behaviour, and facilitate effective and efficient

instruction and learning.

Kareshide (1993) shows that humour could be an effective element of

classroom teaching scrving to reduce tension, increase motivation, and strengthen

74 - - -

Review of L~terature

teacher-student relationships. Most teachers surveyed found it an integral element in

their teaching.

Good and Brophy (1994) emphasised that teachers' abilities to

structure material, ask higher order questions, use student ideas, and probe student

comments were important variables in what students learned.

I-lanushek (1994) notes that worldwide education systems pay for two

teacher characteristics - qualification and experience - that are seldom related to

student learning achievement, while failing to pay for such highly effective inputs as

textbooks.

l,opeL (1995) found that no difference in classroom student

performance exists between teachers with bachelor's degree and teachers with

master's degree.

Emst ( 1 997) noted that significant differences in teaching effectiveness

for three of the four criteria: (i) teaching process, (ii) the learners, and (iii) the

curriculum. No significant difference was found for the fourth criterion, the

profession.

tlartlcy (1997) emphasised that teachers with high level of self-esteem

did have a positive lntluence on the achievement of their students.

Watts (1997) found that no significant relationship exists between

teacher commitment and student achievement, and that a statistically significant

relationship existed between school health and achievement. But a significant

relationship was established between the combined measures of health and

commitment, and achievement at the sixth grade level but nor at the third grade level.

75 Review of Literature

(;iovannelIi (1998) demonstrated that reflective disposition was related

to effective teaching especially in the domains of instructional behaviour, classroom

organisation and teacher expectations.

Isholsky (1998) proposed that teacher self-esteem and teacher stress

would significantly predict classroom environment characteristics.

1.owery (1998) identified that patience, flexibility and communication

were necessities tor successful teaching.

Nelson (1998) conducted a study to identify the characteristics of

exemplary teachers. He identified enthusiasm, tolerance, sense of humour, flexibility,

sincerity and responsiveness as qualities of efficient teachers.

Adornetto (1999) found that the best professional development

practices were characteristics by collaborative efforts among teachers who shared

common beliefs regarding teaching and learning, and who recognised the need for

improvement by both student outcomes and their own professional practice.

Professional development efforts in the schools studied were reflected in building

plans for continuous improvement which targeted improved student outcomes.

t3irncy (1999) investigated the importance of retention in the

educational process. He examined the innate characteristics which were of

importance in promoting quality teachers who would remain in the profession. He

concluded that the teachers were strongly influenced by the innate characteristics

which they possessed and that the combination of principal support and innate

characteristics was a significant factor in determining teacher retention.

76 -

Rev~ew of Literature . -

Hrownell (1999) found that teacher efficiency mediated the influence

of self-perceptions related to the quality of pre-service education.

lack of student engagement is a serious problem. Engagement is

important because it affects the students' psychological commitment to learning.

Frecse (1999) indicated that teacher caring and student engagement

were significantly correlated and showed that perceived teacher caring played a

significant role in perceived student engagement. It points to teacher caring as a

potentially important response to the problem of student disengagement.

Harrington (1999) in his study indicated that teachers' self-reflection

resulted in improved instruction. They felt that they had become better teachers and

were more satisfied with their work, and this had a positive effect on student

performance. That satisfaction came from a perceived increase in the quality of

student work and behaviour.

Peart (1999) noticed that influential teachers possessed good

interpersonal skills. ability to communicate, knowledge of subject matter, ability to

motivate students, and high expectations for students.

Kichards (1999) investigated the factors and qualities which enhanced

the learnlng experiences of African American students. These factors and qualities

are considered to be those which helped African American students to learn, and,

therefore should be a part of the knowledge base for teachers. The findings of this

study identified the following factors and qualities.

i ) caring. acceptance, loving, respect, patience

ii) teaching to different learning styles


i i i ) parental understanding

iv ) true understanding of teachers' personal belief systems including their

prqjudices and biases.

v) high expectations, listening to students, using specialised teaching skills and

different teaching modalities.

I'he major findings of the study conducted by Taylor, Pearson and

Walpole ( 1999) are.

( i ) effective teachers spend more time working with small groups throughout

the da?

(ii) teachers who have higher rates of communication with parents are viewed

as more effective.

In a study by Treder (1999) it was noticed that

(i) effective teachers indicated significantly fewer adaptive and appropriate

student behaviours deemed to be critical to a successful adjustment in their

classroom. and

Cawley and Zimmaro (2000) proposed eight items for measuring

compounds of teaching effectiveness. The following items were identified:

(i) well prepared, well organised

(ii) clear obiectives, requirements and expectations.

(iii) clear communication/expression

(iv) respectful and fair student-teacher interaction

(v) encouragement of student participation and asking questions

(vi) helpful. timely feedback.


('ruickshank (2000) has found that good teaching includes ideal,

analytic. effective. dutiful, competent, expert, reflective, satisfying, diversity-

responsive and respected teachers. If good teaching could be observed and measured,

the results would not indicate a one-size-fits-all model but rather demonstrate that

good teaching is linked to multiple, desirable outcomes.

Pergande (2000) indicated successful teaching as having an impact on

students, and resulting in measurable student progress in academic, social, emotional

and behavioural areas. Success in teaching was also found to be supported by specific

capabilities, efforts. attitudes and relationships.

Witcher and Onwnegbuzie (2000) identified the characteristics of

effective teachers. They are student centredness, enthusiasm for teaching, ethicalness,

classroom behaviour, management, teaching methodology and knowledge of subject.

Sudharma (2001) made a study on the need to plan for class

management, which helps efficient teaching. The findings of the study revealed that

the teacher's plans for management should encompass three elements of overall

environment: the characteristics of students, the physical environment in the

classroom and classroom rules and procedures.

Several studies have been carried out on teaching experience, subject

matter knowledge, intelligence, attitude, job satisfaction, evaluation performance of

teachers, which influence successful teaching.

Studies which arc representative of each of these are mentioned in this section.

3.1.1. Studies on Teaching Experience.

.4 number of researchers like Joyamma (1962), Saxena (1968),

Debnath (1971). R.A. Sharma (1971), V.B. Mehta (1972), Klitgaard and Hi11 (1974),

Reddy ( 1 980). Mumane (1981), Padmanabhaiah (I 986), Idrisi (1 987), Lopez (1 995),

and O'Connor (1998) have highlighted a positive relationship between teaching

experience and teacher effectiveness.

On the contrary, Arora (1978), M.C. Sharma (1978), Mann (1980),

Jogelkar (1981). Subharayan (1985), Rosenholtz (1986) and Smith (2000) have

reported that no significant relationship exists between teaching experience and

effective teaching

Hut Andrew and Schwab (1995) notice that very well-prepared

beginning teachers can be highly effective.

1,opez (1995) investigated that teachers' classroom experience is the

most important source of teacher capacity. 6 to 7 years of classroom experience are

needed to fully develop the skills and knowledge of a teacher and teacher's peak in

their classroonl effectiveness after 18 to 19 years of teaching.

Dale (2000) emphasized that early experiences influenced beliefs and

behaviour regarding teaching and learning, and that the ability to identify these key

events could provide the teacher with insight into hislher philosophical positions

about education, thc pedagogical decisions helshe makes daily in the classroom, and

his interactions \v~th others in the school environment.

Vijayalekshmi (2002) identified that the variables sex, marital status,

qualitication. status of the college, type of the college, management, experience,

80 -- - - - Review of Literature

subject 01' teaching and designation did not have any significant influence on the

teachers' effectiveness.

3.1.2. Studies on Subiect Matter Knowledee.

Subject matter knowledge is another variable that one might think

could be related to teacher effectiveness. While there is some support for this

assumption. the findings are not as strong and consistent as one might suppose. Most

studies show small, statistically insignificant relationships, both positive and negative.

This view is echoed in the works of Quirk, Witten and Weinberg (1973), Summers

and Wolfe (1975). Ayers and Qualls (1979), Andrews, Blackman and Mackey (l980),

and Haney. Madaus. and Kreitzer (1987).

Hyrne (1 983) summarized the results of thirty studies relating teachers'

subject matter knowledge to student achievement. The results of these studies were

mixed, with 17 showing a positive relationship and 14 showing no relationship.

However. many of the "no relationship" studies, Byme noted, had so little variability

in the teacher knowledge measure that insignificant findings were almost inevitable.

Denton and Lacina (1984) found positive relationships between the

extent of teachers' professional education coursework and their teaching performance,

including their students' achievement.

It may be that the positive effects of subject matter knowledge are

augmented or offset by knowledge of how to teach the subject to various types of

students. ['hat is. the degree of pedagogical skill may interact with subject matter

knowledge to bolster or- reduce teacher performance.

8 1 Review of Literature

Ashton and Crocker (1987) found that only 5 out of the 14 studies they

reviewed exhibited a positive relationship between measures of subject matter

knowledge and teacher performance.

Ciuyton and Farokhi (1987) found consistent, strong, positive

relationships between teacher education coursework performance and teacher

performance i n the classroom, while relationships between classroom performance

and subject matter test scores were positive but insignificant, and relationships

between classroom performance and basic skill scores were almost non-existent.

If the teachers are to be effective they need to have a sound grasp of

the different bases or domain.

Schulman (1987) has attempted to organize the important domains of

knowledge for teachers. They should have thorough mastery of the specific subjects

they teach. a thorough knowledge of the learners and their characteristics, a sound

pedagogical knowledge with special reference to those broad principles and strategies

of classroom management, knowledge of the contexts under which learning takes

place, knowledge of the curriculum, and knowledge of the educational goals and

objectives.

(iovinda and Varghese (1991) found that trained teachers made a

considerable difference in terms of teaching style and classroom management.

Monk ( 1 994) found that teachers' content preparation, as measured by

coursework in the subject field, was positively related to student achievement in

mathematics and science, but that the relationship was curvilinear, with diminishing

returns. to student achievement of teachers' subject matter courses above a threshold

level.

McNamara (1995) argued that teachers' failure to train pupils

adequately 111 communication skills accounted for the lack of effective group work in

primary classrooms.

<:ollinson (1996) has prepared a model of an exemplary teacher. Such

a teacher requires a triad knowledge, namely, (i) professional knowledge, (ii)

interpersonal knowledge, and (iii) intrapersonal knowledge. According to her,

becoming an effective teacher requires all these forms of knowledge. Only then do

teachers become capable of structuring the physical, social and intellectual

environment of their classroom to encourage and support student leaming.

l'.V.Nair (I 998) observes that many teachers are of the belief that most

of the classroom problems can be solved if the teacher is a scholar in his subject when

male teachers consider communication skill necessary for good teaching, female

teachers believe in pedagogical analysis of subject matter as the most important factor

in successful teaching.

Munro (1999) examined the effects of teacher knowledge about

leaming on school effectiveness, based on the experiences of 32 secondary teachers

engaged in a reflectively oriented professional-development programme.

Involvement in a systematic exploration of the leaming process, with teachers

explicating theil- knowledge about learning, directly affects display of effective

teaching bcha\.iour-5


Kahilly (1999) examined the role of teachers' knowledge in higher

education. Stepw~se multiple regression was used to determine variables that could

best predict factor scores. No difference was found between the factor scores of in

experienced, experienced and award-winning professors. The results indicated a

marked difference in the knowledge base for teaching in higher education than

accounts based on other educational milieus. The major contribution of this study to

knowledge is conceptual in nature and reflects a portion of the ground work necessary

in constructing a theory of teaching in higher education.

3.1.3. Studies on Intelligence.

Several studies had been conducted to determine the relationship

between teacher effectiveness and intelligence of teachers, but all the results are not

While studies as long ago as the 1940s have found positive correlation

between teaching performance and measures of teachers' intelligence (usually

measured by 10) or general academic ability emphasised by Hellfritzch (1945),

LaDuke (1945). and Rostker, (1945) most relationships are small and statistically

insignifica~rt

I'he reviews of two such studies conducted by Schalock (1979), Soar

Medley and C'oker (1983) maintain that there is little or no relationship between

teachers' measured intelligence and their students' achievement.

l he studies of Vernon (1965) and Mumane (1985) on the lack of

strong relationship between measures of IQ and teacher effectiveness have included

the lack o l variability among teachers in this measure and its tenuous relationship to

actual perfhrniancr.

However, other studies have suggested that teachers' verbal ability is

related to student achievement. This view is echoed in the works of Bowles and

Levin (1968). and Hanushek (1971). This relationship may be differently strong for

teachers of different types of students as stressed by Summers and Wolfe (1975).

A number of studies have examined the impact of intelligence on

effective teaching. A few representative studies in this context are those by Cloude

and Park ( 1 965), V.P.Gupta (1976), Vyas (1982), and Bhagoliwal(1988).

S.K. Nair (1974) has revealed that the intelligence of a teacher alone

cannot be a predictive criterion for his teaching ability.

From a review of 18 studies on effective teaching and intelligence of

teachers. Kundu (1981) concluded that the relationship between effective teaching

and teachers' intelligence was uncertain and inconclusive. Some studies show

significant positive relationship, whereas others show no relationship or even negative

relationship

3.1.4. Studies on Attitude towards Profession.

I-Xective functioning of a school depends to a large extent on teachers'

positive attitude towards. and understanding of the pupils. How a teacher performs

his duty as a teacher 1s dependent to a great extent on his personal interest, beliefs,

values, job satisl'dction, facilities provided, etc. Obviously efficiency is affected by

the attitude. ' I eachers having positive attitude towards their profession will have

more committed to theirjob.

I'ositive attitude towards teaching as profession and towards the task of

teaching has been recognized as an important characteristic of an effective teacher, as

stressed by several researchers like Samantaroy (1971), Koul (1972), Chhaya (1974),

S.S. Grewal (1976). I'yagi (1977), Dutta (1979), Govindaiah (1980), Mahadevappa

(1980), Masthanaiah (1980), Ramakrishnaiah (1980), Som (1984) Goyal (1985), and

Sarangi ( 1990).

Several research studies conducted in India on teachers' attitude have

focussed on hou teachers' attitude is related to other variables such as sex,

experience, training, age, interest, level of education, etc. Representative studies of

this type are as those of Mishra (1977), Nayar (1977), Raghavakumari (1978), Dutta

(1979), Mathur (1980). Som (1984), Diran (1986), Padmanabhaiah (1986) and

Sarangi (1990).

Some of these studies have reported conflicting results as regards the

influence of these variables: particularly sex, on teachers' attitude. The studies

conducted by Dutta (1979), Sam (1984), and Sarangi (1990) indicate that there is sex

difference in the teachers' attitude towards teaching profession. Whereas studies

conducted by Mathur ( 1 980) and Padmanabhaiah (1986) revealed no sex differences

in the attitude towards the teaching profession.

S. Singh (1980) has revealed that positive attitude towards teaching,

students. school and studies is helpful in making a successful teacher.

('liauhe (1985) found in his study that there was no remarkable

relationship between teachers' attitude towards teaching profession and teaching

efficiency.

86 Review of Llterature

.An attempt was made by Diran (1986) to examine the attitude of

teachers towards teaching. The findings of the study indicate that experience,

qualification. and sex were positively related with attitude towards teaching. He also

found [hat male teachers scored higher mean scores than female teachers, and that

trained teachers scored higher mean scores than untrained teachers on the attitude

scale.

3.1.5. Studies on Job satisfaction with the Profession.

leachers' job satisfaction is important for school organisation

programme. Reviews of research on the relation between satisfaction in the

profession and successful teaching have been reported by Berg (1970), Bhogle

(1970). Aaron (1972), Lavingia (1974), S.P. Gupta (1980), Goya1(1985), Dixit (1986)

and Novack ( 1 999).

Campbell and Pritchard (1976) found significant relationship between

intrinsic motivation and job satisfaction. Further, job satisfaction was found related to

job involvement and upward striving. Primary teachers were less satisfied with their

job as compared to secondary and college teachers: Significant relationship was

observed between professional as well as general environment and job satisfaction.

Satisfaction with one's work occurs when there is a close match between performance

goals and the actual performance.

Phihal (1981) identified that for most teachers, satisfaction from their

job arose from the opportunity to perform tasks that they believed to be socially

significant and that yielded intrinsic satisfaction. Of the sources of satisfaction from

teaching, dentilied by teachers in one recent study, the four highest ranked were

intrinsic reward,.

.A study was conducted by Shah (1982) regarding the socio-economic

background of- primary school teachers and their job satisfaction. The main

conclusions were

(i) most of the woman teachers were dissatisfied with theirjob.

(ii) most of the teachers reported that there were very few opportunities for

professional growth, and that facilities like pension, residence and medical

benefits were not provided.

(iii) the teachers reported problems related to job like low salary, lack of

physical facilities, poor buildings, poor teaching materials, etc.

Padmanabhiah (1986) surveyed job satisfaction and teaching

effectiveness 01' school teachers. The study indicated that there was no significant

difference between the teachers working in rural and urban areas in their level of

satisfaction/dissatisfaction with their job as a whole. But the two groups were

significantly different in their level of dissatisfaction with policy matters and

management pol~cies

(ionsalves (1989) found that more than 50% of the primary school

teachers of Vasai l'aluka of Maharashtra were dissatisfied with the profession because

of non academic tasks assigned to them, such as family planning, preparation of

electoral rolls. censub. surveys, etc.

Revtew of Literature

Brice ( 1999) found a significant relationship between school climate

and teacher Job satisfaction. In other words, the findings indicated that school climate

and job satisfaction are statistically related.

Grill (1999) analysed the study of the relationship between leadership

roles and job satisfaction among elementary teachers. He found no significant

correlation between participation in teacher leadership roles and measures of extrinsic

intrinsic or general job satisfaction. Multiple regression analyses revealed a

significant interaction of school socio-economic status and student academic

achievement with the relationship between general job satisfaction and participation

in teacher leadership roles. Significant differences in the amount of teacher

leadership were found for years of teaching experience, and significant differences in

general job satisfaction were found for gender, school size, student achievement, and

school socio-economic status.

Al-Quassem (2000) concluded that job satisfaction was associated with

length of experience. location of campus, workload and type of contract. He also

found job satisfaction to be associated with both intrinsic and extrinsic factors of

satisfaction.

3.1.6. Studies on Evaluation of Performance of Teachers.

l<valuation of performance is an integral part of every job. Recently

stress has been laid on evaluation of performance of teachers.

'l'he teacher evaluation has been useful to managers of education not

only for proper placement of teachers but also for self-evaluation of teachers for

self-initiated progress. Self-evaluation is an inherent aspect of improvement of

89 -- -- Review of Literature

quality i l l any system. In such an evaluation exercise, the honest opinions of those

who are an integral part of the system are extremely valuable. These opinions prove

helpful in trying to improve a system and overcoming any existing drawbacks. The

authorities use results of performance evaluation for selecting teachers for promotion,

confirmation, termination, award of scholarships and prizes, annual increments, etc.,

and in distributing teaching work.

(ioldschmid (1978) found that colleagues' evaluation could be useful

in rating, course materials, organisation, grading procedures and teaching techniques.

Marsh, Overall, and Kesler (1979) observed that there is positive

correlation between evaluation by students and self evaluation.

Portia ( 1 98 1) reported that a majority of teachers favoured external

evaluation. But student evaluation was not a favoured item.

As Oddi (1983) has rightly pointed out, there is recent developments

more stress is recently laid on self-directed learning and efforts to improve quality of

instruction with the help of self-evaluation and feedback received from colleagues and

students.

Singh and Lal (1984) referred to process and product evaluation as

governing teacher effectiveness. The process type consisted of evaluation by students

and peers and product type consisted of evaluation of various records.

Nisbet (1986) examined the functions of teacher appraisal in three

broad areas of maintenance, improvement of standards and accountability, and

management. The results have shown that the appraisal has to be beneficial, fair,

comprehensive. valid, open, effective in producing change and practicable.


1:lton (1987) revealed that departmental evaluation was more useful

than self-evaluation for the performance of teachers.

l'reiberg (1987) has pointed out that teacher feedback support using the

low inference self-assessment measure is a highly effective and efficient self-

assessment tool for analysing teacher-student verbal interaction in the classroom.

Dunkin and Precians (1992) observed that award winning teachers had

more flexible and complex concepts of teaching effectiveness and used a wide range

of criteria in evaluating teaching.

P.C. Sharma (1992) has rightly mentioned that supervisors' remark has

many advantages over other techniques, as a stimulus to the teacher in the real

teaching in operation.

Mishra, Pandit, and Hindolia (1993) strongly felt the usefulness of

appraisal by students, peers and supervisors for the performance of teachers.

Over (1993) conducted a study on career advancement components.

The research project was undertaken to determine the factors to be taken into

consideration for career advancement. The factors identified were demographic

variables, personality characteristics, work habits and levels of performance in

academic roles.

I'arugni and Quereshi (1994) reported that staff appraisal should

include wcightagc in teaching and publication.

I'hc lindings of a study by El-bataineh (1998) revealed that faculty

participation in self-appraisal led to improvement in student achievement, and also to

faculty instructional in~provement.

t3owcr's (1999) study to determine the use of peer observation and

feedback by teachers in an elementary school as a viable means of promoting

professional development. The results indicated that the peers perceived the

observation and feedback process as a meaningful professional develop.

Keitcr (2000) indicates that student perceptions of teaching

effectiveness are positively associated with faculty social interest as well as pedagogy,

subject matter and course contentlorganisation.

3.2. Studies on institutional and Sociological Factors

The kind and quality of overall atmosphere of a working place is an

index of the nature of work culture that prevails there. Everywhere, a congenial and

conducive climate is a sine qua non for the incidence of a worthwhile, creative and

productive activity. It ensures the maximum utilization of material equipment and

optimum effectiveness of human resources available in an establishment.

In educational institutions, a healthy environment is all the more very

important for an effective process of education to take place. It motivates teachers to

be at their best in teaching and inspires the students to be keenly interested in their

learning. POI- the desired quality of education, as a whole, it is but very essential that

an atmosphere poised with zeal and zest on the part of both the teacher and the taught

is ensured in all educational institutions.

Some of the researches have pointed out that schools bring little

influence to bear upon a child's achievement that is independent of his background

and general soc~al context (Coleman et al.; 1966). Other evidences suggest that

factors l ~ h r class size. teacher qualifications (Ferguson, 1991) and other school

variables may play an important role in effective teaching and in what students learn.

Joseph (1976) suggests that by creating proper classroom climate, by

resorting to inquiry and exploratory ways of learning, by encouraging pupil

participation. by sharing the experiences of creative people from the community, by

resorting to efi'ective teaching strategies, etc., teachers can help students foster

creative and critical thinking in the classroom.

Shashikala (1976) has indicated a definite influence of many social

factors within the climate of the performance of both students and teachers.

I'hakkar ( 1 977) established that the most important motives for joining

the teaching profession were love for public service and love for children. He also

observed that locality of the schools had no significant influence on teaching ability.

I'anncr (1978) reported that extinction approach purposeful with

holding of attention could be helpful in the case of the undesirable behaviour that was

momentary not serious. not dangerous, and found in the case of students, who are

generally well behaved. Too much of focusing of attention on descriptive behaviours

could hamper progress in teaching.

S.li. Nair (1979) conducted a study to find out the impact of certain

sociological tictors ( e . g family background, caste, religion, sex, locality and type of

organisation) on teaching ability of teachers. The results showed that private school

teachers in general had better teaching ability than government school teachers.

In a study made by V e m a (1979) it was reported that teacher trainees

having favourahle socio-economic background, urban residence, parental education,

presence o t teacher-member in the family, political affiliation and even academic

qualificat~on could not develop a positive attitude towards the teaching profession.

This reveals that devotion and liking for the profession cannot be created by external

constraints.

A few representative studies carried out specifically on the role of

television are those of Lakshmanan (1982), Chopra and Hansra (1984), Singh and

Gupta ( 1 985). and Bellurkar (1990). Studies conducted specifically on the role of the

radio arc those of' Sudarsan (1978), Knight and Somasundaram (1980),

Chandrakandan ( 1 982), and Badrinarayanan (1997).

. Ciupta (1982) found that significant difference did exist between

men and women teachers, and between rural and urban teachers, in respect of their

effectiveness.

I'eacher's workload is a significant factor that affects their teaching

quality and work efficiency.

Panda (1985) revealed that the workload of private higher secondary

school teachers was greater than that of government school teachers due to higher

teacher-pupil ratio. They were also haunted by job insecurity.

Iloyle (1986) studied and described the nature of classroom groups.

The framework and perspectives he has proposed view classroom setting as

ecological systcnis where inhabitants (teachers and students) interact within their

environment (the classroom). This ecological system, according to Doyle, has several

distinctive properties that shape behaviour, regardless of how students are organised

for learning or what approach a particular teacher may be using.

94 -- --


A case study of some schools in Delhi was done by Ashraf (1988) with

reference to innovative classroom practice. This study revealed that about 28.54 per

cent schools in the random sample had innovative practices in the classroom situation.

The degree of achievement of educational innovations was found to be higher in aided

and unaided schools as compared to the government schools.

i'hakrabarty (1988) in his study covering a number of urban and rural

schools concludes that the academic achievement of children from socio-

economically disadvantaged families is adversely affected when they are admitted to

poorly equipped schools.

"The schools tend to function effectively if all the activities such as

instruction. staff interaction, involvement, independence, school milieu, etc., work

together to achieve the goals of teaching and learning (Cuban, 1988).

Joyce and Showers (1988) suggested that peer coaching techniques

designed to be used by teachers and administrators would help other teachers learn

teaching behaviours.

Veeraraghavan and Samal (1988), studied the academic performance

of students in grades 1V and V in schools under different managements, and found

that teacher effect~veness was more important than the type of management of schools

in effecting students' performance.

According to Docking (1990), home and school need to work together

so that each understands the other's perspective and adopts practices which support

those of thc other in working towards the solution of the problem.


In an atmosphere of trust: teachers are more likely to work harder, be

optinlistic and feel a sense of professionalism. An environment of trust raises the

teachers' self-esteem, commitment and sense of belonging thereby leading to school

improvement. One of the best forums for instructional improvement is co-operative

learning anlong groups of teachers. Co-operative approaches have an excellent

chance of yielding high achievement, positive relationship and psychologically

healthy people.

(ioyal and Chopra (1990), Chopra (1998), and Arora and Chopra

(1999) found that rural primary school teachers had greater workload than their urban

counterparts. in terms of number of classes and number of teaching periods taught and

weekly time spent on non-academic work.

Chase (1991) identified the school level factors that affect teachers'

disposition toward their work, which focus on teacher satisfaction, professional

engagement. commitment and efficacy.

1'.(' Sharma (1992) stated that upper primary schools were much

better than the lower primary schools with respect to physical facilities and teaching

aids.

Arends (1994) discusses the significance of providing leadership for

building productive classroom environments. He describes a productive learning

environment as one characterised by (i) an overall climate where students feel positive

about themselves. their peers and the classroom as a group, (ii) structures and process

where students' needs are satisfied and where students persist in academic tasks and

work in co-operative ways with the teacher and other students, and (iii) a setting


where students have acquired the necessary group and interpersonal skills to

accomplish the academic and group demands of the classroom.

Kingdon (1994) observed that students in private unaided junior

schools performed significantly better on tests of reading and mathematics than

students in government and private aided schools.

Kiwia (1994) described that, to compensate for teachers' limited

subject knowledge and repertoire of teaching practices, governments have supported

the development of in-service teacher training.

1,elthwood. Paul and Coresens (1994) have highlighted the need for

developing expertise for future schools. Mc Culloch (1994) indicates that competence

is what people know and can do in ideal circumstances, while performance is what

they do in reality under existing circumstances, Competence includes the structure of

knowledge and abilities. whereas performance includes also the process of accessing

and utilising those structures and a host of affective, motivational, attentional and

stylistic factors that influence the ultimate response.

In a study by Greenwald, Hedges and Laine (1996) it was noticed that

teachers' educational ability and experience, along with smallness of schools and

lower teacher pupil ratio. contributed to increases student achievement.

Mactiilchrist, Myers and Reed (1997) are of the opinion that an

intelligent school is able to effect the needed changes in the educational system. They

have identified three essential core characteristics of an effective school. They are (i)

professional high quality leadership and management, (ii) a concentration on teaching

and (pupil) learning. ( i i i ) a learning organisation, i.e. a school with staff who are

97 -- -- Revrew of Literature

willing to he learners and to participate in staff development programmes. They

believe that an intelligence school is able to bring these core and related

characteristics together to provide a coherent experience for pupils in each classroom,

department and the school as a whole.

Rratcher (1998) reported that a teaching portfolio could enhance a

teacher's instructional practice while, in turn, improving the achievement of the

students. The teaching portfolio supports school renewal initiatives.

Bray ( 1 998) indicated that teachers' interactions with their colleagues

mirrored the constructivist goals they established for their students.

According to Edwards and Kelley (1998), the training of teachers (both

initial and in-service) must again become the education of teachers, and must regain

its former focus on the development of an understanding of young people, a

recognition of the importance of caring them, and the recognition of appropriate

powers of professional judgement.

The school, according to Garden (1998), is a learning community, and

an integrated organisational strategy can have the desired effects.

Bedell (1999) in a study reported that class size reduction could

improve student learning and teacher morale from the teachers' perspectives.

Kamirez (1999) conducted a study on teachers' attitude towards

parents. The study highlights that increasing parental involvement would benefit the

school.

98 -- Review of Literature

('alne (1999) reveals that principals have a direct influence on the

collegiality o t the staff. 'Through collegial relationships, teachers create their own

insights about their teaching and potential growth areas.

tlarris (1999) examined the relationship between principal leadership

styles and teacher stress as perceived by teachers in three selected low-SES urban

elementary schools in Virginia. The results of this study indicated that the leadership

style [hat balances task and relationship orientation showed lower levels of teacher

stress.

Johnson (1 999) using school level environment questionnaire found a

statistically s~gnificant, positive relationship between school mean teachers'

perception of school climate and school mean student achievement. He also revealed

the need for better measures of the effectiveness of schools, particularly regarding

teacher characteristics and teacher effectiveness.

Re~d (1999) argues that an application-led curriculum can be

constructed uslng application-led learning experiences.

Sh~ppy (1999) showed that there was no significant relationship found

between teachers' pup11 control behaviour and student achievement between teachers'

pupil control ideology and students' self-regulating behaviour.

stet an!^ ( 1999) examines parental attitudes toward one specific area of

educational proyrarnmlng. namely, school-sponsored parenting activities. Mothers of

elementaq children in a rural country were asked to respond to an attitude

questionnaire. N o s~ynificant differences were found based upon educational

placement of the children of respondents. An unexpected finding was that mothers of


lower sociu-economic status had significantly more positive attitudes toward

innovative practices in school-sponsored parenting activities than mothers of higher

socio-economic status. Mothers of higher socio-economic status relied upon spouses

and written materials as parenting resources significantly more frequently than

mothers of lower socio-economic status.

'l'ai ( 1 999) analysed the understanding of the nature of power in the

teacher-student relationship. He suggests that the lack of mutual identification

between teacher and student can create perceptions of authenticity that impede a

student's ability to entrust hisher learning in the teacher's hands, and impede a

teacher's ability to display faith in a student's diligence and native ability. Mutual

identification can involve the students' and teachers' relationship to the institution, the

subject matter, and to other group identities. Mutual identification and trust can

bolster a teacher's efforts to foster resilient relationships with students and respecthl

classrooms in which teacher and classrooms in which teacher and students can

demonstrate both strengths and vulnerabilities in their efforts to teach and learn.

In a study conducted by Spain (1999) it was revealed that positive

teacher parent contact has a positive effect on student attitudes towards reading,

student attendance. and reading achievement.

I'evcn ( 1 999) reported that students' perceptions of their teachers'

caring was found to be positively related to their perceptions of their teachers'

tolerance for disagreement. responsiveness and assertiveness while negatively related

to teacher verbal aggressiveness. Teacher responsiveness, assertiveness, tolerance for

disagreement and vcrbal aggressiveness all contributed a significant amount of

100 - --


variance to teacher ccaluation, student learning, and students' perceptions of teacher

caring.

Rashmi (2000) suggests that the headmaster's behaviour and his style

of dealing with his staff determine the tone of the school. His behaviour reflects on

certain reactions among staff members and these ultimately are reflected in the

teaching learning situations in the classrooms.

Smith (2000) indicated that the Principal's leadership style is a key

factor in teacher motivation. Principals who practise a democratic leadership style are

more likely to have staff with higher motivational levels. Teachers' gender had no

effect on their motivational level, job satisfaction, or perception of the leadership

style.

Speny (2000) noticed that coaching teachers was an effective method

for increasing teacher use of classroom management strategies with pre-school

children.

3.2.1 Studies on Fieldtrias.

Fieldtrip plays a very important role in the teaching-learning process.

One basic reason for conducting a trip is to provide additional information and

experience that cannot be had within the classroom. Moreover, students get to know

their comn~unity and surroundings better.

A fieldtrip is a process-oriented approach which focuses on an active

interaction process between the students and the environment. In this process,

students activei) construct information from teachers.

101 ~- Review of Literature

Out of classroom activities as learning experiences have been the

subject ol'study for many researchers like Ebel (1969), Joseph (1976), Myer and Lee

(1980), C'rompton and Sellar (1981), Meyer and Rao (1984), Swafford (1995), and

f'oole (I 999)

Washton (1977) gives importance to the role of community resources,

research centres. science clubs, museums, fieldtrips to forests, lakes, etc., in the

learning experience. Dighal (1988) tried to establish the fact that charts, models,

excursions. science exhibitions, film shows and orientation programmes brought

better results and helped remove dmdgely in teaching.

Orion and Hopstein (1994) tried to identify the factors that influenced

learning during a scientific fieldtrip in a natural environment. They found that the

'novelty space' 0 1 the field setting consists of at least three novelty factors. The

cognitive novelty. the geographical novelty and the psychological novelty.

The findings of a study by Oloke (1994) revealed that indoor-outdoor

laboratory method of teaching was more effective than the traditional method of

teaching and was also effective in promoting a positive ecological attitude.

I'he investigator does not claim that the survey of studies attempted in

this chapter is complete. Although the review of related literature presented above

enabled the investigator to get an idea of what has already been covered in the area

under investigation and realise the magnitude of the problem. It is hoped that the

general trend shown by these studies can be considered as a conclusion with nature of

the influence or factors under the present study. The above review concludes that the

different researches had reported a mix of various dimensions as influencing effective

teaching. The present work is an attempt to suggest some paramount factors

influencing optimum utilisation of teacher effectiveness.


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