Available at http://planet.uwc.ac.za/nisl

Review of the evolution of humans:

How science and reason need to work together

http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/australo_1.htm

BCB 703:Scientific Methodology

Where did we evolve from? Hominids have been around for 8 Million years At least a dozen forms have evolved More discoveries are still to be made Coexisting hominids have occurred and

interacted with each other The last to co-exist with human lived up to 12

000 years Debate still reigns as to the existence of ape-

like men

Homo floresiensis is remarkable for its small body, small brain, and survival until

relatively recent times

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Please make sure you have viewed the film Ape to Man before going further with this Lecture. Viewable at Google Video

Search words “Ape to Man”

About Human Evolution Is a Process of Change and Development And had lead to the emergence of the species Homo sapiens It describes the development of Human morphology, culture and

technology It is multi-disciplinary (physical anthropology, archaeology, genetics

and molecular biology)

Paleoanthropology Began with the

discovery of “Neanderthal Man”

Humans and Apes are related

Idea became legitimized with Charles Darwin publication “On the Origin of Species”

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“light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history” (Darwin 1859)

Ardipithecus ramidus &A. kadabba

Proto-human since its teeth are similar to Australopithecus.

Shares several traits with the African great apes (genus Pan and genus Gorilla)

Lived from 5.4 to 4.2 million for A. ramidus and 5.2 to 5.8 million years ago for A. kadabba

They are Chimpanzee-sized Debate on its bipedalism - toe

structure suggests that it walked upright but it is believed to have lived in shady forests

Theory of bipedalism is based on the need to move out from forests onto the savanna

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Australopithecus anamensis Fossils are 4 million years – discovered

in 1965 Complete lower jaw found resembles

that of a Common Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes),

Teeth are definitely closer to those of Human – they had thick enamel but the canines were relatively large

The tibia implies that anamensis was larger than ramidus and afarensis

Mass was between 46 to 55 kilograms -larger than other apes at the time

Was bipedal in posture and locomotion but could still climb trees.

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A. bahrelghazali found in 1993 by Michel Brunet in Chad 2,500 kilometers West from the East African Great Rift Valley. A few teeth and a partial jaw are aged to between 3.0 to 3.5 million years old. Material found in 1995 had similar dentition to A. afarensis. This is the only australopithecine fossil found in Central Africa.

Australophitecus afarensis

Lived 3 to 3.9 million years ago Found in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia by

Donald Johanson, Yves Coppens and Tim White in 1974.

40% of the skeleton is complete Nicknamed Lucy, after the Beatles song "Lucy

in the Sky with Diamonds". Lucy was only 1.2 m (3 feet 8 inches) tall and

weighed 29 kilograms (65 lbs) She resembled a chimpanzee except for her

pelvis which established that she could walk upright

This fossil puts doubt on who was the last ancestor of humans and chimpanzees

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Australophitecus afarensis - bipedalism

Savanna Theory – dwindling forests and climate change – forced a living on the plains

They could still possible have walked on all fours – since the bones in the hands were curved rather than the joints bending.

Pelvis differs and the legs stuck out to the side.

Walk would be a rocking gait (how chimps walk) rather than front-back movement of humans

Aquatic theory evolved from wading in coastal/swamp forests to collect coconuts, turtles, bird eggs, shellfish etcht

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Lucy’s chimpanzee-sized brain, bidealism and human-like teeth challenged the big brain hypothesis

Lived between 3.3 and 2.4 million Slender build - 1.2 m tall and 36 kg mass Significantly more human than A. afarensis:

teeth, eye orbits and possession of a formen magnum but the brain was 400-500 cc

Fossil from Taung (Kimberley) described by Raymond Dart in 1924

Dart’s claims of intermediate status between ape and man at the time were largely rejected by most of the scientific community

More fossil finds including Mrs. Ples (originally Plesianthropus transvaalensis) at Sterkfontein (re-classed as a young male)

Australopithecusafricanus

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The two most important fossils were Taung Child and Mrs Ples from Sterkfontein. The fossilized brain cast established a volume of 485cc

It is generally considered that these early hominids would have been peaceful plant eaters but there is now evidence that the taste for meat was an early feature of their evolution!

Australopithecusafricanus

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Long arms and curved fingers still ape-like features and would assist in climbing trees

Bipedalism better developed than in A. afarnensis

No stone tools (except for the 2.6 million year old Australopithecus garhi)

Australopithecus established an African origin for human evolution.

Australopithecus was a prey item – one skull had clear tooth marks indicating a leopard was responsible and their bones have been found in nest material of eagles.

Australopithecus garhi A. garhi is now considered the first tool maker

Paranthropus aethiopicus

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Fossils between 2.5~2.7 million years – discovered in Ethiopia 1968

Possible descendent of A. afarensis Is a “robust” form with large bony ridge

on top of the skull for attachment of jaw muscles – an adaptation for chewing vegetation, nuts and tubers (as in Gorillas)

No agreement on whether P. boisei and P. robustus were its descendents

Lived in mixed savanna and woodland The bizarre, primitive skull suggests

that Paranthropus was an on its own evolutionary branch of the hominid family tree

Black Skull found in 1985, West Turkana, Kenya

Paranthropus robustus

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Fossils 1.2~2.0 million years – discovered in South Africa by Robert Broom in 1938

Cranial modifications suggest “heavy chewing” adaptation (nuts and tubers found in the woodland/savanna)

This robust line of australopithecine lead to them being put into the genus Paranthropus

Based on dentition P. robustus rarely lived beyond 17 years

This specimen clearly showed that evolution of Homo sapiens was not on a straight path and co-existing hominids existed

Height 1~1.2m, mass 40-54 kg, brain size 410-530 cc

Paranthropus boisei

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s Fossils 1.4~2.6 million years – discovered in Olduvai, Tanzania by Mary Leakey in 1959

Classified originally as Zinjanthropus boisei

Originally found with stone tools and proposed direct human ancestry – it is now known that it co-existed with Homo habilis who was a tool maker, and is not a ancestor to Homo.

Even more specialized for “heavy chewing” adaptation (nuts and tubers found in the woodland/savanna*)

Height 1.1~1.3m, mass 45-68 kg, brain size 500-550 cc

The average adult males were almost twice the weight and height as the females. This is the largest sexual dimorphism recorded for any hominid

* High Carbon-4 signatures in the bones has suggested that they specialized on C-4 savanna grasses

Kenyanthropus platyops

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Fossils 3.2~3.5 million years – discovered at Lake Turkana, Kenya 1999 by Meave Leakey

Broad, flat face but the toe anatomy suggest that it walked fully upright

A very controversial fossil with Tim White suggesting it is not a valid taxon

Due to the skull fragmentation there is considerable distortion and views vary from it being Australopithecus afarensis (same age and close to Ethiopia) while others indicate the cranium is similar to Homo rudolfensisIs

Meave Leakey interprets this fossil as adaptive radiation of bipedalism since it is contemporary with other bipedals such as Australopithecus afarensis

Homo habilis

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Fossils are 1.8~2.5 million years old – discovered Oduvai, Tanzania between 1962 and 1964 by Mary and Louis Leakey

Oldest member of genus Homo – very short, with disproportionately long arms

A possible descendent of Australopithecus they were similar in size (> 1.3 m) and even slightly lighter in mass (34 kg).

Their skull was more human than ape-like but half the capacity of modern man (590-650 cc)

One of the earliest tool-makers Were they a stable food item for predatory

animals. There is little evidence to suggest that they were a master hunter since large numbers of them appear to fall prey to predators. Were they scavengers?

Homo rudolfensis(Skull 1470)

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tm Fossils are 1.9 million years old – discovered Lake Turkana in 1972 by Bernanrd Ngeneo (on team dig with Richard Leakey)

Co-existed with Homo habilis and indeed originally was thought to belong to this species – it has a distinct and larger cranial capacity (752cc)

Some researchers still consider it to be more ape-like than human-like, but was a tool-maker

Uncertain as to whether it is ancestral to Homo erectus Homo rudolfensis made and used tools

Do Homo habilis & rudolfensis justify inclusion in the genus Homo?

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tm They appeared to have lacked slim hips for walking long distances, a sophisticated sweating system (inferred), narrow birth canal and legs longer than arms – all considered to mark Homo-sapien evolution

Consequently it is argued that these two species are more similar to Australopithecus than Homo

Many of the features used to put them into the genus Homo are inferred characters that cannot be known for certain.

Tool-making was considered but Australopithecus gahri had them.

Homo ergasterht

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Fossils found in East and South Africa. Fossil found in Lake Turkana, Kenya in 1984 was called Turkana Boy”

They appeared 1.9 to 1.4 million years. Tool use belongs to the Acheulean

industry Distinguished from H. erectus by its

thinner skull bones Reduced sexual dimorphism, a smaller

face but a larger (700 and 850cc) brain and was up to 1.9m in height

Made hand axes and cleavers

Homo georgicus (below) found in Dmanisi, Georgia in 1999 and 2001 seems to be intermediate between Homo habilis and H. erectus and is 1.8 million years old. Discovered by David Lordkipanidzeis and represents the oldest hominoid in Europe and were found in association of implements and animal bones.

Homo erectus

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Fossil discovered by Eugène Dubois in Indonesia in 1891. Despite Darwin’s prediction that human’s ancestors were probably African most people at the time believed in Asian origins

Homo erectus originally migrated out during the Pleistocene glacial period in Africa roughly 2.0 million years ago

Relatively tall at 1.79 m, had a brain capacity of 950 to 1100cc and fairly modern appearance.

Was once considered the first maker of tools: Oldowan style (chipped from one side) and Acheulean style (chipped on both sides to form the cutting edge)

Hunter/gatherer community Homo erectus near the Solo River in Java

existed up to 50,000 years ago

The oldest representation of early human migration

Found in India, China and Indonesia but some researchers suggest that they were an Asian H. neanderthalensis

Homo antecessorht

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One of the earliest known hominins in Europe with the oldest being 780 000 years found in Spain (oldest fossil is H. Georgicus)

Average brain was 1000 - 1150cc. Fossils have numerous cuts of the bones that indicated cannibalism

Are either a descendent or a form of early Homo heidelbergensis. Gran Dolina and Sima de los Huesos are famous fossil sites

Earliest hominins found in England found between 478,000 and 524,000 years old together with signs of cannibalism.

Up to 1.83 m and 91 kg H. antecessors was relatively large

Facial features were a protruding post-cranium, absence of forehead and lack of a chinHomo antecessor were probably

the first Europeans

Homo heidelbergensis In the fossil record from 600,000 to 250,000 years ago

throughout Europe. Descended from African H. ergaster but is similar to

Homo rhodesiensis found in Zambia Tall at 1.8 plus height and with a mass

of up to 91 kg – bigger and more muscular than modern humans. Brains were from 1100 – 1400cc. Serious hunters and killed and ate

animals the size of mammoths May be the first species to bury

their dead, and might have had a language, but no art exists Made considerable quantities

of stone tools – far more than needed – first species to have possessions?

Homo cepranensis is a homind some 800,000 to 900,000 years. Found in Italy it may be a cross between H. erectus and H. heidelbergensisht

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Homo neanderthalensis

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Discovered in Forbes' Quarry, Gibraltar in 1848, eight years prior to the "original" discovery in a limestone quarry of the Neander Valley by Johann Karl Fuhlrott.

Inhabited Europe and parts of western Asia from about 230,000 to 29,000 years ago, during the Middle Paleolithic period.

Considered to be cold adapted – short, robust bodies, large noses and the largest Homo brains (1200 - 1700cc). Height is 1.53-1.65m and mass is 76 kg

Mousterian tool case consisted of sophisticated stone-flakes, task-specific hand axes, and spears. Either invented the Chatelperronian themselves or "borrowed" elements from the incoming modern humans

Ritual burials include grave goods (bison bones). Pollen found at the sites are from known medicinal plants

Homo neanderthalensis & H. sapiens A Neanderthal hyoid bone (responsible

for voice) and a shorter and stouter larynx suggest that Neanderthals had a high pitched and sharp voice but did they have a language?

They constructed complex shelters, controlled fire, and skinned animals. A hollowed-out bear femur with four strategically placed holes plays the Do, Re, Mi scale – the first musical instrument?

Mitochondrial DNA suggest that Neanderthals were not a sub-species of H. sapiens. Nevertheless other researcher argue that that they interbred with H. sapiens, and are the same species as us.

A Neanderthal artifact, but is it a bird?

A Neanderthal flute?

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Homo sapiens idaltuht

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Lived almost 160,000 years ago the fossil first found in Ethiopia in 1997 by Tim White

Three well preserved skulls with the adult having a brain of 1450cc

Has more archaic features than Cro Magnon and represents the oldest H. sapiens – they are slightly larger, longer and have more pronounced brow ridges

Name idaltu is an Amharic word for "elder". Direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens but

evolved in East AfricaAll the skulls had cut marks indicating they had been de-fleshed in some kind of mortuary practice. The polishing on the skulls, however, suggests this was not simple cannibalism but more probably some kind of ritualistic behaviour.

Cro Magnon

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Lived 35 000 to 10 000 years ago

Anatomically modern Physiologically more

robust with slightly larger brains than modern humans

Fossils first found in 1868 in France

Surviving Cro-Magnon artifacts include huts, cave paintings, carvings and antler-tipped spears.

The remains of tools suggest that they knew how to make woven clothing.

They had huts, constructed of rocks, clay, bones, branches, and animal hide/fur.

Used manganese and iron oxides to paint pictures

Created the first calendar around 15,000 years

Homo floresiensis Remarkable for its small body < 1m and about 25 kg

mass, small brained (380 cc), but survived until 12 000 years ago

Contemporary with modern humans (Homo sapiens) on the Indonesian island of Flores

Fossils found in 2003 with suitably small-sized stone artifacts providing evidence that hunted animals such as dwarf elephants (Stegodon) and the giant lizards

Used fire for cooking. Can be considered a species of diminutive

human. Nicknamed the "hobbit" Is it the small furry man called Ebu Gogo

described living up to the 19th century?

Who is its closest relative? Some researchers have argued that they represents an extreme form of Island Dwarfism of Homo erectus, but others argue its derived from Australopithecus that got to Asia.

Source of the legends of the little People?

Modern man The human brain is capable of thought, reason,

speech, language and introspection As a result modern humans have developed art,

culture, religion, philosophy and technology to a higher level than any other species

While appearing diverse in form and structure from light-skinned to dark-skinned and from >1.4m height (Zaire Pygmies) to >1.83m the Tutsi of Burundi and Rwanda – genetically humans are incredibly similar (Chimps have more diversity)

Eoanthropus dawsoni (Piltdown)

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This fake fossil cranium and lower jaw was presented to the world in 1912 by Charles Dawson and Arthur Smith Woodward and accepted as the missing link

Having a large brain but ape-like jaw it was dated at 500 000 years based on sediments and other genuine fossils introduced to the site.

Exposed in 1953 as a forgery – Radio carbon dating showed the cranium was less than 1,000 years old. Its unusual thickness suggests Paget's disease, a hereditary thickening of bone

The lower jaw was some 500 years old orang-utan and the teeth had been filed down.

The bones had been chemically hardened, stained and burnt to appear older.

Chapter 1 Review of Human EvolutionChapter 2 History and CivilizationChapter 3 Philosophy of ScienceChapter 4 Weblogs

Chapter 7 Spreadsheets

Chapter 5 Scientific Writing & CSE Style

Chapter 8 Presentations (posters and talks)Chapter 9 Information Society

Chapter 6 Library Methods

I hope that you found chapter 1 informative, and that you enjoy chapter 2.

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