REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Aquatlc an~mals have become lmponant as surrogate specles for tox~colog~cal testing

matenal that may have adverse b~ologlcal effect In man The fish mortal~ty IS largely

due to the penetration of pollutants Into the fi sh body affecting vanous organ systems

acutely or chronically causlng permanent damage and resulting In degraded growth

and lor populat~on deplet~on Pestlcldes vary In thelr chemlcal formulat~ons as well as

toxlc~ty, env~ronmental persistence and pathways of actlon The presence of

pestlcldes In the aquatlc system can obv~ously lead to mult~fold lnteractlon w ~ t h other

forms of pollut~on In Ind~a, scores of stud~es have been undertaken to estlmate the

acute toxlc~ty level of vanous pestlcldes on aquatlc fauna (Arora el aL,1971; Basak

and Konar 1977, Shorrna el aL,1979) Vanous b~opestlclde compounds affect almost

every physlolog~cal system They may act on the skln, In the d~ges t~ve system, on the

blood, on the var~ous parts of the nervous system, on the metabolism, In the

nutntional value of food, and the hormonal and reproductive system of an~mals

Presence of these toxlc chemicals (pestlc~des, fung~cldes and fert~l~zers) In fresh

water med~a, may cause death or sublethal effects on the non-target oryanlsms 11ke

fish, rats etc (Bhanacharp,i985 ; Desai and Joshi,1985; Sashy and MaIik,1979;

Bergeri el aL,1984; Patole and Mahajan ,2006). In vlew of t h ~ s there 1s a great

mntenslty for testlng the toxic~ty effects of commonly used pest~c~des on the

commerc~ally Important fishes to comprehens~vely w~thstand the effect of pestlclde

on fishes Hence ~t IS proposed to study the toxlc effects of Calotropis gigantea

(L )R Br latex , plant extract and ~ t s recovery w~th add~tlve nutnents

2.1 CaloIropis giganlea :

The specles of Calotroprs such as Calofroprs gigantea(L)R Br and Calotropts

procera belong to family Asclep~adaceae A genus of glabrous or hoary, latlc~ferous

shrubs or small trees, commonly known as the swallow wort or milkweed.The plant

is poisonous.(Azariah el a1,.1988 ;The Wealth of India,1992) .

Classical and Common names:

Sanskrit - Arka; Alarka; Mandara; Surya pattra; Eng - Gigantic; Swallowwort;

Mudar; H~nd.- Madar; Ak. Ben.BrBom. - Akanda. Pers. - Khok; Kark. Guj.-Akado.

Mab - Ruvi; Akda; Akra. Te1.-Mandaramu; Ekke; Jilledu; Arkamu. Tam - Badabada;

Erukku; Yercum. Mal-Erikka. Can. Ekkemale. Sind. - Byclospa. F r -Arbre-a - Soie.

Geographical distribution

Calotropis is distributed in tropical and sub-tropical Asia and Africa ,such as Sri

Lanka, India, tropical Himalaya east to west and central China, Malaysia, Nepal. In

dry, sandy parts of Africa extending into Mediterranean belt, Jordan, Arabia,

Palestine, Abu Dhabi, the west Indies and tropical South and Central Arnenca.

Found in all plains in waste places and on roadsides, often on black cotton so~ls.

Description

There are two common species of Calofropis snch as Cgiganfea(L.)R.Br. and

C,procera. Both the species easily grow from seeds; even root and shoot-cutting is

recommended. They do not required specific cultivation practices or imgation they

are good soil-binders, and are recommended for desserts. They have a life span of 12

years. The plants flower during December-July and fruit during February-June; in

some regions such as in the cotton belt of Vidarbha and in many parts of South India,

they flower and fruit throughout the year. Both species are used as substitutes for one

another and are said to have similar effects. Although in South India Calotroprs

giganlea(L.)R.Br. is most common and both the species are known by the same

vernacular name.

Calotropis gigan~ea(L.)R.Br.(Plate:A) A tall shrub reaching 2.4-3 m. high; bark

yellowish white, furrowed; branches stout; more or less covered (especially the

younger ones) with fine appressed cottony pubescence. Leaves 10 -20 by 3.8-10

cm., sessile or nearly so, elliptic-oblong or obovate-oblong, acute, thick, glaucous-

green, clothed beneath and more or less above with fine cottony tomentum; base

narrow, cordate, sometimes amplexicaul. Flowers inodourous. purplish or white, 3.8-

5 cm. diam., in umbellate lateral cymes; peduncles from between the petioles, 5-9

cm. Long, dilated at the base; pedicels much longer that the flowers, covered with

cottony wool; buds ovoid. Calyx divided to the base: sepals 6 by 4mm., ovate, acute,

cottony. Corolla 2 cm. Long or more; lobes 1.3.1.6 by 4 mm ., long, deltoid -ovate.

sub acute, revolute and twisted in age; lobes of the corona 1.3cm. Long by 5mm.

Broad in the middle, shorter than the column, the back much curved towards the

column above the obtuse spur, pubescent on the slightly thickened margin, the apex

rounded 9not bifid) with 2 obtuse auricles just below it. Follicles 9-10 cm., long,

broad, thick, fleshy, ventricose, and green. Seeds numerous, 6 by 5 mrn., broadly

ovate, flattened, narrowly margined, minutely tomentose, brown; coma 2.5-3.2 cm.

long (Nadkarni,l991 ;The Wealth ofIndia,l992).

Medicinal Importance:

Calotropis plants are used as medicinal source since vedic times. All parts of the

plant dried and taken with milk act as a good tonic, expzctorant, and

anthelmintic.The levels are applied to paralysed parts, painful joints, swellings,

healing wounds.The milk is caustic, acrid; expectorant, depilatory; useful ill leprosy,

scabies, ringworm , piles, eruptions on the body, asthma, enlargement of spleen and

liver, dropsy.The tribal and rural people of Gujarat used to treat directly as and when

required for ailments such as to painful joints, swellings ,boils , on wounds, cuts,

eczema, ring worm, corn and orally for mouth ulcers, sore throat, tooth ache,

pyorrhea, tonsilitis. The flowers are good for the liver (Yunnani).Oil, in which the

leaves have been boiled, is applied to paralysed parts, a powder of the dried leaves is

dusted upon wounds to destroy excessive granulation and promote healthy action.

The root bark and juice of this plant are used in mediclne for their emetic, diaphoretic

and purgative properties. In the treatment of dysentery, the dried bark of the root is

stated to be an excellent substitute for Ipecacusnha. The bark, root, and dried milky

sap may be used in small doses in certain cutaneous infections, such as leprosy and

secondary syphilis; the root-bark, in large doses, is an emetic. It is administered to

promote secretions, and is stated to be useful in enlargements of the abdominal

viscera, intestinal worms, cough, ascities, anasarca, etc. The flowers are considered

digestive, useful in asthma, catarrh, and loss of appetite. The powder of the root in 3

to 5 grains promotes gastric secretion and acts as a mild stimulant and may be given

with carminatives in dyspepsia. It is also given as a febrifuge. The tincture from the

leaves was tried in cases of intermittent fever. The powdered root bark in doses of

five grains was given to several cases of dysentery and was generally found to give

relief. The plant is a popular remedy for snake bite and scorpion sting (The Wealth of

lndia,1992).

The milk is bitter, heating, oleagenous, violent purgative and abortifacient, cures

leucoderama, tumours, ascities, diseases of the abdomen, posses antiseptic

properties-antibacterial, anti fungal, antlprotozoal and astringent activity(Jagid and

Bhan,2005). In La1 Eela, the warmed leaves are used as a poultice. In Cianibla, the

plant is said to be a good cure for sprains, headaches, and other pains; the leaves are

applied warm to the affected part. The Hausas and Northern Territories people use

this plant greatly in medicine. The leaves are used to cure headache, eye troubles.

The leaves and fruits are boiled together and are used in the extraction of guinea

w o n infection. It is used as for enema. In the Gold Coast, the leaves cure swollen

legs and also wounds caused by rusty nails. The leaves are said to cure catarrh, being

warmed first of all and then the juice is dropped into the nose (Nadkarni,l991).The

flower extract exhibited anti bacterial activity namely Bacillus

subtilis,Staphylococcus aureus,Pseudornonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli

(Akhtar et a1,1992;lorhsini et ~1,2002) antiulcer activity. The plant extract shows

cytotoxic activity (Smith et aL.1995) anti plasmodial and larvicidal (Sharma and

Sharma,2001;Moursy.199 7)

Prolonged high doses cause headache, burning in micturition and leucorrhoea, wide

spread testicular necrosis and damage to liver when admin~stered orally to desert

gerbil. The drug is highly toxic. Higher doses cause vomiting diarrhea, bradycardia

and convulsions These medicinal plants produce toxic effect s o n the animal system,

if they are not used carefully or in regulated amount (Khare,2004).

Other Uses

Cgigantea (L.)R.Br.and Cprocera is similarly used. The leaves are used as green

manure for betelnut, paddy and wheat; they are reported to correct alkalinity in soil.

Compost can also be made out of it. The Chinese prepare a sweetmeat from the

flowers by boiling them in sugar solution after removing the latex. Akund floss ( 3 5 -

40mm long) is mostly used as substitute for or as an adulterant of the Indian kapok

since it has visual resemblances to it, although it is much inferior. The stem bark

yields resins and wax (The Wealth of India, 1992).

2.2 Latex:

The term latex refers to the fluid that can be extracted from laticifers(P1ate A) which

varies in appearance and in composition. It is milky (clear or colorless or Brown 1

Orange).Components found commonly are terpenoids, polyterpenes which occur as

particulars in cytoplasm are in vesicles. Others are alkaloids, sugar, waxes, proteins ,

enzymes crystals, tannins , starch. The cells appeat like enlarged parenchyma cells

and or known to occur in vascular and ground tissues of stem and leaf. Latex is a

fluid of complex composition .All parts of the plants of both the species of

Calotropts yields latex. It is also a source of hydrocarbons and can be used as a

renewable source of energy. Both the species can be mixed with other organic refuse

for producing biogas.

2.3 ACTIVE PRINCIPLES

Both [he Calolropis species contains the physiologically active components

namely cardiac glycosides (Cardenolides) - calotropin, uscharin, voruscharin

(dihydrousacharin), calotoxin, calactin, uscharidin, gigantin, triterpenes, pentacyclic

triterpenoids and flavonoid triglycosides (VonBrusehweiler et aL,1969;Martin et

aL,1979) These compounds are highly toxic (Kiuchi ef al,l998;Havagiray et

~1,2004). They have direct effect on heart and central nervous system.

Calotropagenin is the common aglycone of all the glycosides calotropin, gigantin and

uscharin show digitalis-like action on the heart. Many members of Asclepiadacea

family are toxic and cardiac glycosides are often the culprit, cause gastro-intestinal

toxicosis, inhibit cellular membrane ATPase enzyme system activity .During early

course of poisoning, animals exhibit rapid breathing ,convulsions, irregular hean

activity. Cattle and Horses consuming cardiac glycoside-containing plants are often

found dead, postmortem findings include hemorrhages, congestion, edema and cell

degeneration of the organs including multifocal myocardial degeneration and

necrosls (Knight and Walter, 2OO2).A bacterioytic principle, capable of lysing

Micrococus lysodeikticus was also found in the latex, anti inflammatory (Singh ef

a1,2000)analgesic effect (Dewan et 01,2000) and Cardiotoxic (Ahmed et 01,2001). A

non-toxic proteolytic enzyme, calotropain isolated from the latex, it is more

proteolytic than papain, ficin and bromelain, coagulates milk and digests meat,

gelatin and casein. (Kartikrr and Basu, 1984; The Wealth of India, 1992).The fresh

milk is employed in the Punjab for the purposes of infanticide. In a drachm dose the

fresh juice will kill a large dog in 15 minutes; its action, though slower, resembles

that of hydrocyanic acid, but commences with foaming at the mouth. The latex is

used as a poison by the Danoa or Haddad in the South-Eastern portion of the Kanem

(Nadkarni, 1991).

Latex of C.gigantea(L.)R.Br. and the extracts of aerial parts of the plant are used as

arrow poison, infanticide,slows anti implantation activity.homicida1 poison. Toxic to

rabbit, dog,donkey which showed increased hean beat and respiration leading to

distress and death. And also effective fish poison, ~nsecticidal, good ovicidal and

larvictdal in naturefThe Wealth of India,1992 ;Khare,ZOOQ).

2.4 Acute Toxicity Tests:

Acute toxicity tests are useful in screening large number of chemicals and in

evaluating the relative sensitivity of different organisms to the same chemical. Thus

they have been highly related in their present utility use in assessing the hazard to

aquattc env~ronments (Macek et aL, 1976). The lrterature coocemtng toxtcrty test

with pesticides was reviewed by Holden (1973). It was found that the 96hr.LCro to

monocrotophos for Nile tilapia fish was 4.9 mg! I (Thanginipon et a1 1995) and 6.5

ppm for edible mudskipper (Patilet aL, 1990). Pickering et aL, (1962) conducted a

variety of acute tox~ctty test with 13 organophosphate pesticides. Dutta et al.,

(19921) reported the 24hr. LCso value of Malathion of Anabas lestudineus was

28mgi I . LCro value to parathion for fish Oreochromis hornomm.was 0.147 mg i I

( h u r a Martinez-Tabche el a:, 1992) LCso value of the pesttcides malathion and

sevlll for Cyprinus carpio- was 0.0020 mg/ land 3.7 mgil (Dhanapakiam and Ju!ief

Premalatha, 1994). 966hr LCso Value for fish Herreropneustes foss111Ls exposed to

malathion was 12mg I htre (Durn et al., 1992a)The variat~on in toxicity depends

upon number of factors such as size, age, sex, physiological state, ecological

peculiarities (temperature, pH, C02, hardness of water) and pesticide specialities

(rate of absorption, rate of degeneration, techntcal grade or commercial

grade).Tolerance to pesticide increase with size. Various repons are available on the

combined toxic effects of chemicals. It was found out that out of twelve

combinations of chlordane, malathion and furdane were synergistic, two were

antagonistic and one was additive in nature.96hr LCso Value for fish Herteropneustes

fossil~s exposed to malathion was 12mg ! I (Dutta et al., 199211.) in most acute

toxicity studies it is found that most compounds are increasingly toxic at high

temperature. Endrin was several hundred times as toxic to Cyprinus carpio at 27@ C

'age. 17. 96 hours LC 50: It defines the Lethal coneentr~tion at which 50 % of fish

'ORaliQ for 96 hours duntion.

than at 7 ' ~ (Iyatomiet aL, 1958~) expression of dosage is less if the body weight or

surface area is high reported that dosage profoundly influences the pattern of

distribution of some chemical elements. According to Roy and Munshi (1987),

technical grade malathion is less toxic than commercial grade. Young fish as

compared to older ones have larger respiratory area per unit body we~ght and a higher

metabolic rate. Therefore pollutants are more toxic to younger fish than to older ones

(Duffa et al., 1992a) Fate head minnows fry 2-30days old were 10 times more

sensitive to dioxthion than adults (Piekering et aL, 1962).

2.5 Bebavioural Toxicity:

Aquatic organisms exhibit a broad range of responses to insectic~des depending on

the compound, exposure time, water conditions and specles; coppage and Mathews,

1974). Behavioural modification is one of the most sensitive indicators of

environmental stress (Olla et al., 1980) and may affect survival rate. Many

pesticides affect both instincitive and learned behaviour in aquatic organisms .The

concern of neurotoxicity in human population has motivated a large number of

psychophysiological studies on the effect of toxic substance on animals (Duna el aL,

1934).It is believed that behavioural changes are the most sensitive measures of

neurotoxicity A single behavioural parameter IS more comprehensive than a

physiological or biochemical parameter (Warner er al., 1966). by their experiments

on the effects of sublethal doses of Hydrazine on the behaviour of blue gills

supported the concept that toxicant caused stress upon organisms can be quantified

by methods other than mortality.Changes in behaviour have been suggested for use

as a sensitive indicator of chronic sublethal toxicant exposure. Some fish behaviours

(locomotor activity and avoidance)are extremely sensitive to pollutant chemicals,

whereas others (aggression) seem to be rather refractory(Richmondo and Duffa

1992; Duffa et a l , 1992b).Conditioned learning is a sensitive identification of

chemically induced stress in aquatic organisms.Warner et al., (1966) trained gold

fish in a conditioned avoidance response apparatus and showed 96hr.exposure of 1 -

Bmgllitre of toxaphene produced changes in its conditioned behaviour.The locomotor

behavior of fish has been altered by sublethal concentration of pesticides.

Heath(l987)showed that some fish behav~ours as locomotion actlv~ty and avoidance

response are extremely sensitive to pollutants. Swimming perfonnance(or endurance)

was also altered in Juvenile Coho Salmon exposed to sumithlon (Bull and MC

Inerney, 1974).Rand (19770, b) found out a decline in the activity in blue gills and

large-mouth bass exposed to sublethal concentration of parathion. The optomotor

response is considered to be essential for maintenance of position wlthin the habit

and for schooling in fish (Duna et a/., 19926). This response is defined as a

movement of the animal in the direction moving reference polnts In the field of

vision (Scherer and Harrision, 1979). Macmillan (1987) recorded the changes in the

optomotor responses of fat head minnows exposed to herbicide alachlor and atrazine.

Change in the optomotor behaviour was observed Indian carp, h b e o rohita exposed

to malathion (Dutta et al., 1992b).Pesticides have an alteration effect on the

temperature selection of fishes. Fish living in the suitable temperature after treated

with a specific concentration changes its temperature range. Atlantic salmon when

treated with DDT and methoxychlor changed its temperature rang' A fish treated

with pesticide may fail to feed.Fishes have different mechanism or countering their

predators. Exposure for 24 hr.to l.0ppm of sumithion, Atlantic Salmon purr were

more vulnerable to predation by large brook trout than unexposed fish (Hatfeld land

Anderson,l972).Numerous study was reported on avoidance response and

behavioural changes in fishes exposed to paper mill, kmft mill and sulphite mill

efluent. It was observed the avoidance by both susceptible and resistant populations

of mosquito fish of sublethal level of endrin, toxaphene and parathion.

2.6 Haematology:

When an animal system is toxicated, its blood oAen manifests pathological changes

before external signs of poisoning are noticed.Haematological observations are also

perhaps the simplest and quickest of diagnostic tool in physiological studies (Dewraj

et aL, 1990). Previous research on the blood of fish has shown that haematological

parameters are influenced by toxic substances (Bakthavathasalam 1991; Dufta et al.,

1992c; Gill er al., 1991a, b;Singh and Srivastava,l993).Numerous Laboratory

studies have reported changes in red blood cells (RBC), haemoglobin (Hbj and PCV

of fish exposed to pesticides Some reporting sign~ficant increase Rao and Murthy

1983) and some reporting significant decrease (Reddy et al., 1992; Ahamad Figar et

al., 1995; Narh Rabindra and Banerjee 1996; Ibrahim el al., 1995). Haemolysis of

red blood cells provides a simple and rapid way of studying the effects of pollutants

on b~ological membranes (Harington et a1.,1971). Numerous investigations have

considered membrane models for a measure of a pollutant have considered

membrane model for a measure of pollutants's cytotox~city (Allision et al., 1966).

The haemolysis of red blood cell membrane has proved to be a simple and rapid way

of attempting to find the possible correlation between cytotoxicity and haemolytic

activity (Macnab and Hnrringion, 1967). Abbasi and Sujata Krishnan (1993)

reported haemolysis of RBC in fish Tilopra mossarnbim~exposed to pesticide cartap.

The WBCs help in protecting the body against microbes. The WBC counts may rise

abnormally in acute infections and in some other cases Heterouneusres Jossllir

exposed to malathion similar increase in WBCs was noted when fish Tilapia exposed

to cartap (Abbasi and Sujatha Krishnan,1993). Mukhopadhyay and Dehadrai

(1979) reported hematological abnormalities in catfish Clarias bcrrachus exposed to

malathion.Gil1 et al., (1991a) observed change's in leukocyte subpopulation and

erythrocytes in fish (Puntius containr, Hamilton) exposed to aldicarb. Pesticide

exposures were known to cause lymphopenia in Cyprinur carpio), Clarias barrachus

(Dalela et a[., 1980, Srivastava and Mishra, 1985) reported thrombocytopenia in

different species exposed to organophosphate pesticides.

2.7 Biochemical Studies

Pesticides modify the general metabol~c stage of the organisms by influencing

different metabolic segments (Swamy et al., 1992b).lt is known that tissue protein,

O. Me&lic me Mummobules Pmtein, C u l a h ~ b t e . ~ i ~ i d Nucleic aids

KNA ) Metabolism are the metabolic segments.

carbohydrate and lipids play a major role as energy precursors for fishes exposed to

stress conditions (Mortata et al., 1982; Puviani et al., 1990) .Proteins constitute a

large part of tbe structure of cells and are present in all tissues. Many proteins have

also special physiological functions such as structural components of cell

membranes, enzymes, hormone, bloodproteins and nucleoproteins.

Organophosphates cause changes in protein metabolism (Sandhu and Malik 1988~;

Sandhu el al., 1991). Very meager information is available about changes in protein

patterns as an indicator of contamination or the nature of pollutants. Monocrotophos

has significant effect on the brain protein and phosphatases of fish (Joshi and Desai,

1983). Sandhu and Malik (19886) reported change in protein level was also reported

by Patil et a!., (1990)in Boloeopthalmus dussurneri exposed to monocrotophos.

Heterpneustes fossilis when subjected to BHC contamination showed a remarkable

variat~on in serum protein fraction (Reeta Pandey et al., 1991)) found a similar

variation in the blood protein fractions in Channapunctuatus treated with Malathion.

It was reported reduction in protein fractions in Channa punctatus treated exposed to

5 ppm, of BHC. In Anabar testudineus(B1och) protein level in muscle and liver was

reduced on exposure to disystron (Bhaktavathasalam 1987). In rainbow trout

exposed to sublethal concentration of dietary endrin of 165 days, significant changes

occurred in total protein Changes in protein level and glycogen were also reported in

various tissues of fish exposed to pesticides. Ihrahim et al, (1995);: Ahamad Figar

el aL, 11995); Ikhatair- Ud- Din et al., (1996); Tazeem Arasta et al., (1996)

Anusha el al., (1996).Studies on the effect of pesticides on phosphatases activity are

very much limited in fishes.Alkaline and acid phosphatases are known as "inducible

enzymes" whose activity in animal tissues goes up where there is a toxic impact and

the enzymes begin to counter act.Subsequently the enzyme activity may begin to

drop either as a result of having partly or fully countered the toxin or as a result of

cell damage (Abassi and Sujata Krishnan,l993).Changes in the acid and alkaline

phosphatase activity were also reported in fishes exposed to pesticides Ahamadfigar

et al., (1995); Abassi and Sujota Krishnan (1993); Satheesh Kumar Reddy,

(1994).The brain Acetyl cholinesterase (AchE) activity is inversely proportional to

ACh content in toxicant treated fishes. The measurement of AchE activity is taken as

a good indicator of the extent of aquatic pollution by toxicants Accumulation of Ach

and inhibition of AchE activity in brain and other tissues have been reported in fishes

.The parameter appear to be reliable ~ndicator of induced toxicity to Ash and decrease

in activity is found to be dose dependent.ATPase activity in general transport speaks

about transport of sodium and potassium ions and as well synthesis of ATP.The

active transport involves magnesium ion dependent ,sodium and potassium ion

activated ATPase which provides the largest contribution to the maintenance of ionic

trans membrane gradients .Inhibition of enzyme activity was reported by many, for

the exposure to pesticides and their by interfering with membrane ionic conductance.

2.8 Histopathology:

Histopathology studies along with physiological and biochemical data provide to

unravel the mode of action of the toxicants(Satheesh Kumar Reddy, 1994).1n aquatic

environment th:: pesticides are diluted to sublethal levels producing chronic

histopathological effects on organs.Kumar and Pant (1994)have stated that

histopathological studics are useful to evaluate the pollution potential of pesticides

since trace levels of pesticides, which do not cause animals mortelity over a given

period, are capable of producing considerable organ damage. lnsecticides have been

shown to induce many pathological changes in the organs of variotls species of fishes

(El-Elaimy et al., 1990; Desai er aL, 1984).

Gills:

Gills become more vulnerable because of their location, and constant intimate contact

with the water.Gills are liable to damage by any irritant material, whether dissolved

or suspended in water(Lemke and Mount,l963).Anabas testudineuc (Bloch) exposed

to sublethal dose of Saponin 50ppm showed swelling of gill filaments and

]amellae,increased mucous production, inflammatory alterations in epithelium, loss

of microridges,shrinkage of blood capillaries and reduction of interlamellar

spaces(Roy el a1.,1986).Epithelial desquamation, epithelial separation from basement

membrane, necrosis, telangiectasia, epithelial hypertrophy and epithelial hyperplasia

with lamellar fusion have occurred following exposure to toxicants-Malathion

(Areechon and Plumbe, 1990); endosulfan (Sateesh Kumar Reddy, 1994) ; lindane

(Zayapragassarazan, 1993);Chloradane (Jyofsna Shrivatava and Srinivastava,

1984);Sewage (Arun shanker Narain,l990)monocrotophos (Vijayalakshmi and

Tilak 1996) ;heptachlor (Moses Cirija and Jayantha Rao, 1995) and carbofuran

(Karpagaganapafhy and Sukumar, 1988).

Liver:

Hepatotoxic les~ons of fatty ~nfiltration, nuclear or general hypertrophy of

hepatocytes, other degenerative changes in parenchyma (cytoplasmic vacuolation,

cellular pleomorphism, deposition of bile or ceroid pigments, hydropic degeneration),

loss of hepatic glycogen,coagulative hepatocyte necrosis, sinusoidal and vascular

congestion, degeneration or necrosis of biliary epithelium have been reported

following exposure to several pesticide-malathion(Areechcn and Plumb,

199O);carbofuran (Karapagaganapafhy and Sukumar, 1988; endosulfan (Sateesh

Kumar Reddy, 1994); lindane (Zayapragassarazan, 1993); aldrin (Mathur er al.,

1981). Kulshresrha and Lakhmi Jauhar (1984) found that thiodon exposure

produced rapid degeneration, hypertrophy, necros~s of hepatocytes in Channa

slriatus.

Brain:

Reports of hyperanemia, hemorrhage, vascular congestion and dilation, fraction,

cerebral oedema, nuclear pyknosis, rupture and haemorrhage of meninu primitive and

swelling of myelin sheaths around nerve fibers have occurred with the exposure of

pesticides like malathion(Wa1sh and Ribelin, 1975); 2,4-D(Cope el al., 1970);

methoxychlor (Kennedy et a[., 1970), endosulfan (Sajitha Bhaskar, 1994).

2.9 Scope of the present work

Residual pesticides in soil or on crops are transported from fields to surface and

ground waters. The leaves and stems of Calotropis giganiea (L.)R.Br. are used In

agriculture for soil fertil~ty. If they are released in environment In adequate before

degradation ,they kill non-target and other aquatic species ,some toxic substances b ~ o

accumulate in tissues of fish and other species thus poslng health risks to human

beings and others, who consume the fish and contaminated water. The nutntive

value of fishes gets reduced; fish population gradually diminishes because of the

toxicants. It is been known in medicinal importance in Shrimps (SEMBV viral

infection) and prevents viral white spot disease (Raman, 1997).So far, no body has

made an attempt to study the latex and plant extract of Calotropis gigantea(L.)R.Br.

on fish as it is known for medicinal importance, However, the supplements such as

Glucose,Fnrctose,Vitamin C, Vitamin E including egg albumin and glycine are

considered as nutrients, which enhances the metabolic activity and provide resistance

also, protection against the fish mortality. Addition of Glucose and Fructose will

enhance energy source and the metabolic activity thereby protected from stress

condition. The addition of Albumin, Glycine, Vitamin C and Vltamin E appears to be

the first of the defecce agalnst peroxidation of cellular and sub cellular membrane

phospholipids., prevention of peroxidative damage to cellular and sub-cellular

elements and provides tensile strength thereby preserve the organs or organelles

potential savlor against degenerative diseases, necessary to cope with the disease,

physical and chemical environmental insults and other stress, The findings may be

helpful to the farmers in their day-today profession with special reference to

aquaculture industry and to counsel the farmers and thereby, the bio-toxicity will be

aware of the mortally which shrunk the industry as a whole.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TOXIC BIOACTIVE COMPOUNDS OF

C.gigantea(L.)R.Br.

GIGANTICINE

CHAPMAN&HALL NO: DYCI 5-1

CAS NO: 199665-81-1

COMPOUND CODE: VVOIOOVV9999

MOLECULAR FORMULA: CllHlaN:O~

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 280

USE: INSECT ANTIFEEDENT

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLINE (MeOH)

MELTlNG POIKT: 159-162

GOMPHOSIDE

CHAPMAN&HALL NO: HGL38-G

CAS NO: 36597-51-0

COMPOUND CODE: VT0750XA2'60

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C?oKI:08

MOLECULAR WEIGIIT: 518.287

BIOLOGICAL SOURCE: CARDIAC GLYCOSlDE

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLWE(Mc0H)

MELTING POINT: 268-271

GAMPHOSIDE DERIVATII'ES

CALACTIN CHAPMAN&HALL NO: BZK24

CAS NO: 2030447-6

COMPOUND CODE: AJ0750\T0750XA2760

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C3&@

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 532.63

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLINE (MeOH)

MELTING POINT: 270-272

GOMPHOTOXIN (or) CALOTROPIN

CHAPMAN&BALL NO: HDG2-E

CAS NO: 1986-70-5

COMPOUND CODE: AJ0750VT0750AJ5000

MOLECULAR FORMULA: Cx&Oq

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 532.63

USE: AFRICAN ARROW POISON

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLME

TOXICITY(CAT): O.lm&Kg

CALOTOXIN

CHAPMAN&HALL SO: HDD88-M

CAS NO: 2030449-8

COhZPOUHD CODE: AJ0750VT0750

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C? .bOlo

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 548.629

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLINE (McOH)

MELTING POINT: 270-272

USCHARIDIN CHAPMAN&HALL NO: HDR40-K

CAS NO: 2030447-7

COMPOUND CODE: VT0750AJ0750

MOLECULAR FORMULA: CtpHlaOp

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 530.614

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLINE (MeOH)

MELTING POINT: 290

ASCLEPZN

CHAPMAN&HALL NO: .WR-38-P

CAS NO: 36573-634

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C,,&zO,,

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 574.667

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLINE (McOH)

MELTING POINT: 308-309

(Abel, 2000;Abdcl azim ,1998).

C ALOTROPAGENIN

HO

do HO..

CHAPMAN&HALL NO: HGP48-D

CASNO: 24211-64-1

COMPOUND CODE: AJ0750UT0750

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C23H320a

hlOLECULAR WEIGHT: 404.502

BlOLOGlCAL SOURCE: AGLYCONE

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLINE

MELTING POINT: 248-252

(Sing., 1972;Lardon , I 969;Lardon,1970).

USCHARIN

CHAPMAN&HALL NO: HGK16-T

CASNO: 24211-81-2

COMPOUND CODE: AF77M)AJ0750VX6790W7700VT0750

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C,,It,NOaS

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 587 733

BlOLOGlCAL SOURCE: LATEX-ALKAIOID

MELTING POINT: 270-271

TOXICITY: CARDIAC POISON

VORUSCHARIN (dihydrouscharin) (DERIVATIVE OF USHARIN)

CHAPMAN&HALL KO: BSK97-K

CAS NO: 27892-03-1

COMPOUND CODE: VX679OAJO750W0750

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C,,%INO~S

MOLECULAR WEIGHT: 589 749

BIOLOGICAL SOURCE: LATEX-ALKALOLD

PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION: CRYSTALLINE

MELTING POINT: 165.166

(Abe,ZOOO;Abdel- Azim. ,1998: Ware Sinha ,1994;Komissarenko ,1997).