Revision of the course

Revision of the course

Dr Ayaz Afsar1Topics of the courseWe have covered the following topics in this course:The Nature of ResearchManaging Time in Research Getting StartedThe Ethics of Educational and Social ResearchFinding Information and Dealing with itLiterature ReviewResearch Methodology Paradigms of Research Sampling (1)Sampling (2)Sampling (3)What is Plagiarism and how to avoid it?213. Validity in Research14. Reliability in Research 15. Historical and Documentary Research16. Case Studies17. Action Research18. Accounts Narrative19. Using Questionnaire (1)20. Using Questionnaire (2)21. Using Interviews (1)

322. Using Interviews (2)23. Using Observation24. Using Test (1)25. Using Test (2)26. Qualitative Data Analysis27. Quantitative Data Analysis28. Content Analysis and Grounded Theory29. Narrative Analysis30. Structuralism and analysis of literary tests31. Using Corpus Linguistics in Research

4Developing research questions or hypotheses

Hypothesis It means to suppose, or suggest, something that can then be tested or tried out. Suggested explanation for a phenomenon or a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between multiple phenomena. Testing of a scientific hypothesis which will have been based on extensions of scientific theories.Research questionthe type of research you are undertakingresearch processes questions and hypotheseskinds of research Ensuring that research ethics are followed

5The research process

(a)problem/ experience/ observation/ interestin a more scientific or social hypothesis, does this happen? What if this was tried? It is expected that if this happens then this will happen, let us see .investigation and experimentation to test the hypothesis(b)asking a research question looks at effect of, interactions, interpretations, how and why things happen and work (or not), how they might . and so onconstructing knowledge and believing that knowledge is constructed rather than trying to prove it and believing it is provable, the world knowable and fixablesearching literature and engaging your own ideas and work in dialogue with theorists and expertsdevelopment of research design, choice of methodology/ies and the methods, vehicles that help you ask and address your question.

6Both forms of research therefore involvedata gatheringdata analysis and interpretation of the findingsconfirmation or disapproval of the hypothesisoraddressing or answering the questionproducing conclusionsadvancing our understanding and our awareness of the interpretations of meaning in the field, as well as our knowledge

7Stating your title

It is important that the title makes a statement or outlines an area of study that can be explored, opened up, questioned. Suggest an area, an idea, a part of a field of study that can be questioned; make a suggestion or propose an innovation; and suggest that you will check for its viability and success. Say all you can find out about, kind of title, excite, suggest scope for enquiry and reflection, and indicate that it is complex and meaty or sufficiently extensive for your exploration.

8Research questionsResearch focus and question promptsKey stages developing a hypothesis or research questionsState the research problem or issue or question: introduction nature of problem, why it is important, how research will contribute to its solutionState the research question or hypothesis, in the form of an interrogative question asking the relationship between variables, phenomena, events, and definitions of termsAsking research questions setting out to solve problem9Operationalising a concept

Asking questions about a concept or an idea moving furtherData, categories, theme, patterns, difference between elements explored and discovered in relation to asking your question, elements of knowledge, your findings, interpret your data, time frame, field by finding out about numbers of students, study habits, developed work-related skills, hypotheses (to be tested) or questions, relationship between the variables of gender and subject choice, location of universities and numbers of students.10Boundaries and gaps

11From topic to titleKeep it tight and properly boundaries your slice of the cake: others can ask other questions and explore other areas and issuesDo not set up a purely descriptive dissertation/thesisSet yourselfa problem, ora set of critical questions, ora set of contrasts (for example, contrasting arguments about or approaches to ..)You are contributing to ongoing debates and entering a dialogue in the academic community

12Stages of asking the research question

Topic fascination work directive or development

Research question asking a question problematises and focuses your interestsGaps:What has already been asked and discovered in relation to this area?How?Where can my work fit in and add new knowledge and meaning?

Ensure it addresses a gap in knowledge.Ensure it is significant sufficiently important for the level (MA, MPhil, PhD etc.) of the research.

Boundaries:Decide on which elements to focus and what to leave for later (either for yourself or others).

13SummaryTurning fascinations, directives, topics, broad areas of interest into research questionsIdentifying suitable and appropriate, important and significant gaps in knowledge, so the research to address these is worth carrying outIdentifying what kind of research this will beIdentifying what the research cannot or will not cover, that is, the boundaries (for someone else to address, or the researcher to look at later)Examples of moving forward, through focus on area of interest, to a workable research question and design of study.

14Research MethodologiesChoosing research methodologies MethodologyMethodsMethodologyOntologyEpistemologyMethodology affects:the research questions you askthe kinds of research you carry outthe methods usedthe modes of analysis used on your datawhat you can argue as findings from your data15Positivistic paradigm Concerned with hypotheses testingUses large samplesData are highly specific and preciseProduces quantitative dataHigh reliability Low validityGeneralises from sample to population

Postpositivistic paradigmConcerned with generating theoriesUses small samplesData are rich and subjective

Produces qualitative dataReliability is lowValidity is highGeneralises from one setting to another

16PositivismInterpretivismConstructivismStructuralismPoststructuralismPostmodernism

17Research approachesResearch approaches which are yours? Theoretical explorationReflection on experienceEmpirical researchEthnographicExperimentalDescriptiveExploratoryPredictiveExplanatoryPractitioner and/ or action relatedCreative

18Ethics and Confidentiality

Typical procedures and their historyEthics in researchExampleIf the research involves contact with, observation of, or collection and storage of confidential information about human subjects, then you may need ethics approval. Complete the following questionnaire and then follow the accompanying flow-chart to help you decide.Does the study involve participants who are unable to give informed consent (e.g. children, people with learning disabilities, unconscious patients)?19Will participants be presented with painful stimuli or high intensities of auditory, visual, electrical or other stimuli?Is there any foreseeable risk of physical, social or psychological harm to a participant arising from the procedure?Will deception of participants be necessary during the study?Will the study involve more than a minimal invasion of privacy, or accessing confidential information about people without their permission?

20Revising ethics in practice

Before you fill out an ethics form consider:Will participants agree to take part? How are you asking them?Can you share information and results with them?How can you protect their interests?How can you protect yourself?Are there or could be any personal issues of access, interpretation, etc?How can you manage these? Give and take advice.How are you managing the information and data? Storing dataAnalysing data drawing conclusions how are ethics issues involved here?What happens to your research afterwards? Are there any ethics issues here?

21Using qualitative and quantitative research methods togetherThis course has considered research methodologies based on worldviews, and looked at the ways in which you might approach your research, the methods you might use, in relation to the methodology you are using.

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23The Quantitative TraditionThe quantitative tradition is based on a belief that the study of society is no different than the scientific study of any other element of our world.

It premises scientific method, hypothesis testing, deductive logic, objectivity and quantification.

24Hypothetico-deductive MethodInvolves hypothesis testing through collection and analysis of quantitative data gathered through experimental design or survey research. 25ExperimentationExperiments explore cause and effect by manipulating independent variables to see if there is a corresponding effect on a dependent variable. Pure experimentation requires controlled environments and randomly assigned control groups (not always possible in social science experiments often conducted in the field rather than a lab).

26Studying A PopulationExploring a population involves building an understanding of knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) related to a particular topic or issue. Two broad methodological strategies are to: explore existing data generate primary data primarily through survey research. 27The Qualitative TraditionThe qualitative tradition critiques quantitative assumptions and premises inductive logic, subjectivity, multiple truths, the political nature of research, and the value of depth over quantity. Qualitative research strategies for achieving credibility include thoroughness, i.e. saturation, crystallization, prolonged engagement, persistent observation, broad representation and peer review, and confirmation, i.e. triangulation, member checking, and full explication of method.28Ethnography Exploring a cultural group by:discovering understandingdescribingand interpreting a way of life from the point of view of its participants. Ethnography is reliant on prolonged engagement, persistent observation and analysis that demands a high level of reflexivity.29Ethnography Because ethnographic studies involve immersion ethnographers need to carefully manage their own subjectivities and thoughtfully negotiate their relationship with the researched.30Phenomenology Exploring phenomena involves generating descriptions of lived phenomena as they present themselves in direct experience.

Descriptions emerge through a dialogic process, and are synthesized to offer a range of distinct possibilities for the experience of a particular phenomenon.While phenomenology offers a way to study phenomena, something often neglected in the social science literature on phenomenology is that it can be thick, divergent, and not methods-oriented.

31Ethnomethodology Ethnomethodology explores the methods individuals use to make sense of their social world and accomplish their daily actions. Ethnomethodologists search for the collaborative and constantly emerging nature of interaction through exploration of breaching experiments, building of shared interpretations and interpretative miscues.32Ethnomethodology: recognizes the interpretative work of the individualoffers a method for exploring how questionsallows comparisons of divergent cultural norms and allows exploration of specific forms of interaction. However, it can be critiqued for not addressing significant questions, and being too focused on verbal aspects of communication.33Feminist Approaches While not a distinct methodology, feminist research is premised on the belief that traditional rules of research are imbued with unacknowledged and unaddressed male bias.

Feminist researchers argue that research should be committed to: the empowerment of womenovercoming inequitydiverse representation of humanityempowerment of marginalized voiceslessening the distinction between researcher and researchedsearching for multiple, subjective and partial truths.34Mixed MethodologyMixed studies traverse traditional divides and can help you capitalize on the best of both traditions while overcoming their shortcomings. Mixedapproaches can be premised in the quantitative tradition with acceptance of qualitative data; the qualitative tradition with acceptance of quantitative data; or be driven by the questions themselves.35Mixed Methodology Challenges associated with mixed approaches include:needing to be familiar with and skilled in two traditionsbeing mindful of overambitious designand not having the necessary time, resources, or supervisory support for a multi-mixed method approach.36Writing a Research Proposal

What do you want to research? How you can draw up a good proposalAbstractIntroductionTheoretical perspectives/literature surveyMethodology and methodsDesign of the study including what research is carried out when and how; what analysis is carried out when and howTimeline of work to be completedSome sense of the outline of the draft chaptersJustification for the level of the awardBiography of major sources

37Drawing up your proposal

AbstractIntroductionResearch questionGaps in the current knowledgeBoundariesTheoretical perspectives/literature surveyConceptual frameworkMethodologies and methodsResearch design design of studyDecide on methods and vehiclesDecide on timelineDecide on population/primary sourcesDecide on data collection and analysisEthical considerationsOutline plan of studyJustification for the level of the awardBibliography primary references

38Draft proposal

Indicative titleIntroduction aim and focus of the studyQuestionsSub-questionsContext for the researchTheoretical perspectives and interpretationsResearch methodology and methods designResearch methodsResearch design (stages of your work over time)Ethical considerationsOutline plan of studyTimeline for activities in the researchfrom . to ..from . to .from . to ..from . to ..from . to ..Draft chapters and areasJustification for level of awardBibliography primary texts

39We have considered how you go about putting together a research proposal. At all levels, such proposals are needed, sometimes in a formal (PhD, MPhil) and sometimes a shorter or less formal shape (MA). Writing them helps you to be clear about how your research questions and conceptual framework (of ideas, arguments, theories and methods) run throughout your proposed research. For MPhil/PhD most universities demand a lengthy proposal (about four pages), and this could take up to six months to refine and perfect. 40You will be researching alongside this writing, but probably will have your proposal agreed (and probably changed a little or a lot) by a research degrees committee before your are formally and finally registered. Sometimes you might have to resubmit the proposal. This is perfectly normal. You need to get it right, as it informs all you do so dont be too upset if it is sent back for rewriting it will encourage you to clearer, more coherent, and more likely to produce a successful piece of research which matters.

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The Challenge of Writing Up

42The Challenge Because your write-up will be a considerable piece of academic work with major consequences attached to its quality, the writing process can be intimidating.

There are, however, practical strategies that can improve the quality of your work and make the task less daunting.

43Writing as Conversation The goal of your write-up is to share your research with others.

Think of your write-up as a communication process or a conversation that demands the consideration of your readers.

44Knowing Your Audience To write effectively you need to know your audience, including:

who they arewhat they knowwhat they are likely to find usefulwhat their expectations areand what reactions they may have to your work.

45The Standard Structure Your write-up can follow a standard structure that generally includes:

introduction literature review methodsfindingsconclusion46Alternate Structures Your write-up can also follow an alternate structure that may better suit a particular projects aims and objectives.

While alternate structures can allow for more creative expression, the standard format gives readers what they tend to expect.

47Write As You Go Preparing research accounts and deliverables often involves a relatively unpractised form of writing.

So its well worth writing as you go. In fact writing is now commonly recommended as a practice that should be incorporated throughout the research process. 48Writing as Analysis Writing itself can be a form of analysis and can be central to the construction and interpretation of meaning.

It can also be instrumental in the development of significant, relevant, logical, and coherent storylines.

49Your Story Your research write-up should unfold as an interesting story.

As the author of that story you need to:

think of writing as a conversationbecome familiar with the craftfind a voicedevelop a structurecreate a story linemake convincing argumentsget down to the business of writing and rewriting.50Writing Purposively Because each section of your write-up serves a different purpose, the writing required within each section varies.

Overall, however, you will need to write purposively and convincingly.

51Seeking Feedback Incorporation of relevant feedback requires both specific and appropriate requests and a willingness to accept, if not welcome, criticality. 52Drafting and Redrafting Moving from first to final draft is a multistage process that sees you working systematically through the development of:

logic and argumentcoherence and consistencyfluency and readabilityand finally copy editing.

53Dissemination The ultimate goal of any research project is to add to a body of knowledge.

Once your project is complete, its worth thinking about broader dissemination, including:

attending conferencesgiving presentationsand writing/submitting papers. 54Core BookCohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. 6th ed. , New York: Routledge55The End

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