Reviwer.docx

7/21/2019 Reviwer.docx

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Intodcution to CPI & Renwable EnergyChemical Processing Industry- encompasses abroad range of products, including petrochemical andinorganic chemicals, plastics, detergents, paints andpigments, and moreChemical process - is a method intended to be usedin manufacturing or on an industrial scaleUnit operationis a basic step in a process. Unit

operations involve a physical change or chemicaltransformation such as separation, crystallization,evaporation, ltration, polymerization, isomerization,and other reactionsArthur Dehon Littlepropounded the concept of"unit operations" to explain industrial chemistryprocesses in !"In !#$, %illiam '%al(er) %arren *' Lewis and%illiam ' +cAdamswrote the book he !rinciplesof hemical #ngineering and explained that the

variety of chemical industries have processes whichfollow the same physical lawsUnit processis one or more grouped operation in amanufacturing system that can be dened andseparated from others.Unit processesare alsoreferred to as chemical con,ersions. $n simpleterms, the process which involves chemicalchanges are known as Unit Processes'Chemical processingis the basic processing in

chemical engineering.A process ow diagram%!&'( is a diagramcommonly used in chemical and process engineeringto indicate the general )ow of plant processes ande*uipment. .he P/Ddisplays the relationshipbetween ma+or e*uipment of a plant facility and doesnot show minor details such as piping details anddesignations. nother commonly used term for a !&'is a owsheet'Renewable energyis generally dened as energy

that comes from resources which are naturallyreplenished on a human timescale such as sunlight,wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.

A photo,oltaic systemconverts light into electricaldirect current %'( by taking advantage of thephotoelectric eect.Concentrated solar power 0C1P2systems uselenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus alarge area of sunlight into a small beam. ommercialconcentrated solar power plants were rst developedin the /01s.

3iomassis biological material derived from living, orrecently living organisms. $t most often refers toplants or plant-derived materials which arespecically called lignocellulosic biomass%ood remains the largest biomass energy sourcetoday3iomass- organic resources that are used to produceenergy using these processes are collectively.4eothermal energyis from thermal energygenerated and stored in the #arth. .hermal energy

is the energy that determines the temperature ofmattergeothermaloriginates from the 2reek roots geo,meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.Petrochem & Pulp & PaperPetrochemicals3 pure, identiable substancesderived from petroleum and used in chemical tradedistillationand selecti,e adsorptionthe mostimportant.

4ul5 o5 +e6ico-he ma+or production plantsdeveloped along the coast1ul5ur3 by-product that has become dominant in themarket, in addition to the usual organicsisopropyl alcohol%isopropanol(he rst organic chemical made on a large scale froma petroleum base. &irst produced by 1tandard 7il o58ew 9ersey in /415ome oil companies, for example, 1hell and1tandard 7il o5 8ew 9ersey %now E66on(, became

involved in chemical production much earlier thanothers.


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he lower members of the para:n and ole;nserieshave been the preferred and most economicalsources of organic raw material for conversionU8I. 7PERA.I781 %or !hysical 5eparation6ethods(7ew understanding of the parametersaecting separative processes and the application ofmathematics to such work enables better separationswith lower energy consumption.

.RA81P7R.A.I78$t is not generally recognized, butthere are many miles of pipelines carrying suchmaterials as ammonia and ethylene over considerabledistances at low cost. he other low-costtransportation methods are ships, barges, and ofcourse railways and trucks are used for smaller*uantities..

PE.R7LEU+- is oil that is found underground.- can be as thick and black as tar or as thin as water.- a complex, naturally occurring li*uid mixturecontaining mostly hydrocarbon but containing somecompound oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur.PE.R7LEU+ I1 A /711IL /UEL!etroleum is also called /ossil /uel because it ismade from animals and plants. s the animals andplants died, they sank to ocean )oor where petroleum

gotten. o reach the gas or oil, drilled deeper than8911m.Residue -components of the petroleum that are notvolatile enough to be distilled.-include asphalt, residual fuel oil, coke and petrolatum7ctane 8umber-the measure of suitability of a fuel for high-compression engines, is the: of iso-octane whenadded to n-heptane knocks a special test engine to

same degree as fuel being tested.Re;nery

-he function in the renery is to distilled thepetroleum to produce a new and usable product, witha minimum of waste, from the thousands of dierenthydrocarbons in this li*uid mixture.CELLUL71E

-6a+or component of woody plants

-onstantly replaceable

-$ts conversion to paper products is the function of the

pulp and paper industries

PULP A8D PAPER I8DU1.R


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black li*uor.Clack li*uor is concentrated to about =9:

solids

1UL/I.E PULPI84-he production of acid sulte pulp

proceeds similarly to kraft pulping, except that

dierent chemicals are used in the cooking li*uor. $n

place of the caustic solution used to dissolve the

lignin in the wood, sulfurous acid is employed. o

buer the cooking solution, a bisulte of sodium,magnesium, calcium, or ammonium is used

Food Flavors and Food Additives;Fermentation,

Vegetable oil and Biofuel Industries;Sugar and

Starch Industries

/77D /LA=7R1-&lavorings are intense preparations which are addedto foods in order to impart taste andDor smell.' /la,orantsare engineered and composed in ways

similar to those for industrial fragrances and neperfumes/77D ADDI.I=E1-he term food additiveapplies broadly to chemicalsthat are added to food, either intentionally orindirectly, to facilitate processing, maintain productconsistency, extend shelf life, ensure microbiologicalsafety, improve or maintain nutritional value, orenhance the organoleptic *ualities %)avor, color andtexture( of the nished products.

-his report covers six ma+or food additive productcategories, including thic(eners and stabili?ers)alternati,e sweeteners) colors) emulsi;ers)en?ymes) and shel5 li5e e6tenders 0includingantio6idants and preser,ati,es2'/ER+E8.A.I78-&ermentation can be dened as the alteration orproduction of products with the help of microorganisms.

-$t was the method of choice to convert freshagricultural products into durable food items for manythousand years.

-he word ferment is derived from the ;atin verb5er,ere, which means Eto boilE. he science offermentation is known as zymology.=E4E.A3LE 7IL1-he vegetable oil processing industry involves theextraction and processing of oils and fats fromvegetable sources.-he oils and fats are extracted from a variety of

fruits, seeds, and nuts. he preparation of rawmaterials includes husking, cleaning, crushing, andconditioning.-rude oil rening includes degumming,neutralization, bleaching, deodorization, and furtherrening3I7/UELCiofuel is a renewable form of fuel that can be usedas a solid fuel, li*uid fuel or gaseous fuel. Ciofuelsinclude@ 3) 3iodiesel) 3iogas) 3iomethane)

E Ethanol) 1ynthesis 4as 01yngas2E Ethanol can be produced from sugar cane,sugar beets or corn.3 3iodieselcan be produced from practically anyvegetable oil or animal fat.3iogas - which needs to be cleaned up tobiomethane before it can be used - can be producedfrom animal manure or other organic sources, whichis converted to biogas by placing the organicmaterials into "anaerobic digesters."1ynthesis 4ascan be produced from recently deadorganic matter that is processed through "biomassgasi;cation'"1U4AR I8DU1.R


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Fhile cane sugar does not strictly need rening,sugar from beet is almost always rened to removethe strong, almost always unwanted, taste of beetsfrom it. he rened sugar produced is more than //percent pure sucrose1.ARC I8DU1.R


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of trichloro-ethylenea cleaning agent in theautomobile service industry and acetone in the caseof glassware in a chemical process industries followthis unit operations.>'Drying n operation in which volatile li*uids%usually water( are removed from solid material.9.Distillationn operation where a components ofthe li*uid mixture are separated by boiling because of

their dierence in vapor pressure.8.Absorption H process whereby a component isremoved from gas mixture by treatment with li*uid.I.Li-Li E6tractionH process in which a solute ina li*uid solution is removed by contact with anotherli*uid solvent that is relatively irreversible withsolution.0.Li-1olid Leaching$t involves treating a nelydivided solid with a li*uid that dissolves and removesa solute contain in the solid.

/.Crystalli?ation H he removal of a solute such as asalt from solution by precipitation in the industries forlarge scale operations, electrostatic precipitation isoperated for this concept.1.+echanical physical separationhis involvesseparation of solids, li*uids or gases by mechanicalmeans such as ltration, settling, size reduction whichare classied as separate unit operations.+ost chemical processes consist o5 acombination o5 ,arious unit operations and unitprocesses' Al(ylationddition of alkyl radical %@=( with side chain nalproduct. his alkylation process is widely used inorganic chemicals and petroleum industries.4. Amination by AmmonolysisHhis reaction is used in manufacture of dye stus,organic chemicals and synthetic bres.=. Amination by ReductionH

his unit process is also used in the manufacture ofdye stus and organic chemicals.>. Amino 76idationH

his reaction is used in the manufacture of plasticsand synthetic bres.9. CalcinationH

his reaction is used in the cement industry.8. CarbonylationH

his is used in the manufacture of organicchemicals.I. Carbo6ylationH

his reaction is used in the organic chemicalindustry.0. Combustion/. Condensation1. Crac(ing or PyrolysisH his reaction is used in petroleum destruction anddistillation of coal.Role o5 Chemical Engineers

' Chemical Process Economics#' +aterial 3alance

$' Plant Location.' Construction o5 PlantF' Research and De,elopment

Important /undamental Chemical ProcessesareH1.NITRATION7itration involves the introduction of one or morenitro groups into reacting molecules using variousnitrating agents like fuming, concentrated, a*ueousnitric acid mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid inbatch or continuous process. 7itration products ndwide application in chemical industry as sol,ent)dyestuG) pharmaceuticals) e6plosi,e) chemicalintermediates.4. AL74E8A.I78@alogens involve introduction of one or more halogengroups into a organic compound for making variouschlorine, bromine, iodine, )uorine organic derivatives.$n iodination iodine, hydroiodic acid and alkali

hypoiodites=.1ULP78A.I78 A8D 1ULPA.I78


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5ulphonation involves the introduction of sulphonicacid group or corresponding salt like sulphonyl halideinto a organic compound while sulphationinvolvesintroduction of -A5A4A@ or -5A>-..'7HIDA.I78Axidation used extensively in the organic chemicalindustry for the manufacture of a large number ofchemicals. Axidation using oxygen, are combinations

of various reactions like oxidation viadehydrogenation using oxygen, dehydrogenation andthe introduction of oxygen and destruction of carbon,partial oxidation, peroxidation, oxidation in presenceof strong oxidizing agent like J6nA>, chlorate,dichromate, peroxides @4A4, !bA4, 6nA4K nitric acidand nitrogen tertra oxide, oleum, ozone.9.


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=.he rotor blades can swivel on the hub at the frontso they meet the wind at the best angle forharvesting energy.>.$nside the nacelle %the main body of the turbinesitting on top of the tower and behind the blades(, thegearbox converts the low-speed rotation of the driveshaft %about 8 revolutions per minute, rpm( intohigh-speed %811 rpm( rotation fast enough to drive

the generator eMciently.9.he generator, immediately behind the gearbox,takes kinetic energy from the spinning drive shaft andturns it into electrical energy.8.nemometers %wind-speed monitors( and windvanes on the back of the nacelle providemeasurements about the wind speed and direction.I.Using these measurements, the entire top part ofthe turbine %the rotors and nacelle( can be rotated bya yaw motor, mounted between the nacelle and the

tower, so it faces directly into the oncoming wind andcaptures the maximum amount of energy. $f the windspeed rises too much, brakes are applied to stop therotors from turning %for safety reasons(.0.he electric current produced by the generator)ows through a cable running down through theinside of the turbine tower./. substation transforms the voltage of theelectricity so it can be transmitted eMciently tonearby communities.1.@omes en+oy clean, green energy..Find carries on blowing past the turbine, but withlower speed and lower energy %for reasons explainedbelow( and more turbulence %since the turbine hasdisrupted its )ow(.5orms o5 water energyLydroelectric energyis a term usually reservedfor large-scale hydroelectric dams. he largest ofwhich is the hree 2orges 'am in hina and a smaller

example is the kosombo 'am in 2hana.L+icro hydro systemsare hydroelectric powerinstallations that typically produce up to 11 kF of

power. hey are often used in water rich areas as aremote-area power supply %G!5(.KRun-o5-the-ri,er hydroelectricity systemsderive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans withoutthe creation of a large reservoir.@ydropower is produced in 91 countries, with thesia-!acic region generating =4 percent of globalhydropower in 411. hina is the largest

hydroelectricity producer, with I4 terawatt-hours ofproduction in 411, representing around I percent ofdomestic electricity use. here are now threehydroelectricity stations larger than 1 2FH the hree2orges 'am in hina, $taipu 'am across theCrazilD!araguay border, and 2uri 'am in Nenezuela.ow 1olar Panels %or(.5olar panels or photovoltaic systems are made upof dozens of solar cells. #ach solar cell within thesolar panel layers is made up of electrons that +ump

back and forth producing direct power for the solarsystem when the 5unEs rays ignite with the solarpanel.4.he 'irect urrent or %'( power is then sent to aninverter which converts it to alternating currentknown as power.=.he power travels from the inverter to yourbreaker box. he power from the electrical panel isthen distributed to any electrical items used in yourhome.>.he computerized controller regulates and controlsthe system and directs any unused power back to theutility grid.9.he grid-connected system automatically providesadditional electricity from the utility company anytime you need it or when solar power is not produced.n example of when a grid would automaticallyproduce additional electricity would be at night, badweather or during the day when your homeOs demand

for energy has exceeded the amount of solar poweryour system has produced.


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8.he )ow of electricity in and out of the utility grid ismeasured by a utility meter.I.Fhen your solar system generates more electricitythan your home uses %the meter on the utility meterspins left(, your extra electricity is automatically sentto the utility company. he extra power that yoursystem produced is sold back to the utility companyat the same rate that it is sold to other customers. $f

this happens, this is when you will receive credits forthe excess solar energy from your local utilitycompany.Con,ersion o5 biomass to bio5uel can beachie,ed by diGerent methods which arebroadly classi;ed intoHThermalChemicalBiochemicalmethods.ow does biomass produce electricityJ

$n a process called photosynthesis, plants capturesunlight and transform it into chemical energy. hisenergy may then be converted into electricity, heat,or li*uid fuels using a number of dierent energyconversion processes. wo of these processes are asfollowsH 5olid biomass fuels are burned in a boiler. heheat produced turns water to steam which is thenused to turn a turbine generator to produce electricity.he second method involves gasifying the biomassand then burning it.ow does 4eothermal Energy %or(. fter geothermal exploration is completed and asuitable area is found to tap the reservoir, large-scalepower plants pump hot water through an in+ectionwell with high pressure.4. Fhen water from the reservoir returns to thesurface through the production well, it gets convertedinto steam, facilitating the movement of turbines.=. hese turbines are connected to a generator, which

produces electricity. he steam later cools o andcondensation takes place, forming water.

>. he water that has cooled o is again pumpeddown through the in+ection well, and the processcontinues.Petrochem & Pulp and paper+ost basic raw materials supplied by petroleumre;neries or natural gas companiesH;!27atural gas

2as from cracking operations;i*uid distillate %>to 8('istillate from special cracking processes5elected or isomerizes cyclic fractions for aromatics+A8U/AC.URE 7/ PE.R7CE+ICAL1'Al(ylation) Deal(ylation) andydrodeal(ylationA'the largest volume chemical alkylations areHbenene b! eth!leneto form ethylbenzeneon theway to becoming styreneK and the benene"

#ro#!lene al$!lation to form cumenefrom whichphenoland acetone are derived3'Cumene %isopropyl benzene(- made by reactingbenzene with propylene over a catalyst such as aphosphoric acid derivative at 411o and I11 k!aC'Ethylben?ene 3 made from ben?ene andethylene using several modications of the oldermixed li*uid-gas reaction system using aluminumchloride as a catalystD'Deal(ylation and ydrodeal(ylation3 practiced*uite extensively to convert available molecules intoothers more desired.E'.etraethyl lead 3 prepared commercially by twoprocesses. he rst and older process involves thereaction between ethyl chloride and a sodium-leadalloy#'Crac(ing or Pyrolysis-racking has been used to produce carbon black-Alens and diolens are made, mainly by catalytic

cracking of various hydrocarbons'ethylene- most important product, produced at arate of 4.I P 1/kgDyear with by-product propylene


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produced at a rate of 9./ P 1/ kgDyear. 6ade bycracking at I81 to 081o wD very short residence timeAcetylene 3 made by crackingK used in substantial*uantities

- 7le;ns 3 used in manufacturing

detergents. 6ade by cracking heavy paraMns, butmany are made by oglimeriation of lighterhydrocarbons %ethylene(, and others by the Alfol#rocess or the%iegler #rocess'$'Dehydration- commonly used in the production of ethers bydehydration of alcohols- much diethyl ether is made by dehydrating ethanolwD sulfuric acid as dehydrating agent- vapor phase dehydration over catalyst such as

alumina is also practiced-hydration of olens to produce alcohols over anacidic catalyst produces substantial *uantities ofethers as by-products-the reverse reaction, ethers to alcohols, can beaccomplished by recycling the ethers over a catalyst>.Esteri;cation with Inorganic Acids- variety of solvents, monomers, medicines,perfumes, and explosives are made from esters ofnitric acid.9.Esteri;cation o5 7rganic Alcohols and Acids- ethyl acetate has been an important solvent,particularly for lac*uers, for many years. #stersynthesis is relatively simpleH- unsaturated ,inyl esters for use inpolymerization is made by esterication of olens- =inyl acetate3 manufactured by reacting ethylenewith acetic acid in the vapor phase over a supportedpalladium catalyst

- Chloroprene 3 the monomer used in makingneoprene

- Esters o5 allyl alcohol %e.g. diallyl phthalate( 3used as bifunctional polymerization monomers"' alogenation and ydrohalogenation- Ethane Chlorination3 ethane can be chlorinatedunder conditions very similar to those for methane toyield mixed chlorinated ethanes. Ethyl chloride hasbeen used mainly 5or ma(ing .EL) and can bemade by any on o5 the three methods

%(raditional chlorination%4( &riedel-rafts olen saturation to use up @l fromreaction %=( oxychlorination- Ethylene Dichloride- when chlorine is added toolens such as ethylene, many and mixed derivativesare formedH ethylene dichloride, dichloroethylene,trichloroethylene, tetrachloroethane, chloromethanes,and higher chloromethanes all form- Perchloroethylene3 used for textile cleaning and

vapor degreasing- Chlorinolysis 3 used to dispose of unwantedchlorinated hydrocarbons with one to three carbonatoms' ydration and hydrolysisydration-combination of water and anothersubstance to produce a single product.- $t is the opposite of dehydration.# ways o5 producing ethanol- by fermentation- by hydration of ethyleneydration o5 synthetic ethyl alcohol may be-indirect-directIsopropanol 0Misopropyl alcoholN2-the rst industrial chemical synthesized from apetroleum-derived olen %/41(- he rst petrochemicalmanufactured from hydration of propylene

Processes o5 Isopropanol Production.sulfuric acid process


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4.gas-phase hydration using a xed-bed-supportedphosphoric acid catalyst=.mixed-phase reaction using a cation exchange resincatalyst>.li*uid-phase hydration in the presence of a dissolvetungsten catalystO'ydrogenation) dehydrogenationydrogenation -chemical reaction between

molecular hydrogen and an element or compound,ordinarily in the presence of a catalystDehyrogenation -a chemical reaction that involvesthe removal of hydrogen from a molecule-reverse process of hydrogenation-under lower pressures and higher temeratures butsame catalyst as hydrogenationUses o5 ydrogenation.Qields many useful chemicals4.Used to eliminate other elements from a molecule

%oxygen, nitrogen, halogens R sulfur=.racking in the presence of hydrogen is particularlyeective in desulfuring heavy petroleum fractions,thus producing high-*uality products+ethanol-manufactured by procedures very similarto those used for ammonia, using A and @4 fromsynthesis gas raw materials and copper-basedcatalyst1tyrene-is a li*uid %b.p. >9.4S( that polymerizeseasily when initiated by a free radical or whenexposed to light-is produced from ethylbenzene by dehydrogenation-'ehydrogenation of ethylbenzene to styrene occursover a wide variety of metal oxide catalysts %&e, r,5i, o, Tn, or their mixtures(-ypical reaction conditions for the vapor-phaseprocess are 8113I11S, at or below atmosphericpressure.

Aliphatic *etones-cetone, methyl ethyl ketone, cyclohexanone

Acetone-oday, most acetone is obtained via acumene hydro peroxide process where it iscoproduced with phenol.-cetone is produced from isopropanol by adehydrogenation, oxidation, or a combined oxidationdehydrogenation route./.8itration- a general class of chemical process for the

introduction of a nitro group into an organic chemicalcompound- 6akes unreactive paraMns into reactive substanceswithout cracking- $s always accompanied by oxidation8itroben?ene-most important nitration product8itropara:ns-can be brought about by uncatalyzedcontact between a large excess of hydrocarbon andnitric acid vapor at around >11S, followed by*uenching

1.Amination-process by which an amine group is introduced intoan organic molecule-ammonia or substituted ammonias %amines( reactdirectly to form aminesEthanolamine mixture of mono-, di-, and triethanolamines isobtained by the reaction between ethylene oxide %#A(and a*ueous ammonia. he reaction conditions areapproximately =13>1S and atmospheric pressureH+ethylamine6ade by reacting gaseous methanol with a catalyst at91 to >11S and 4 6pa, then distilling the reactionmixtureDimethylamineis the most widely used of thethreeamines. he main use of dimethylamine is thesynthesis of dimethylformamide anddimethylacetamide, which are solvents for acrylic andpolyurethane bers.

+onoethylamine is used in the synthesis of 5evin,an important insecticide. rimethylamine has only one


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ma+or use, the synthesis of choline, a high-energyadditive for poultry feed.

'76idation- reactions in which an element combines with oxygen- ll oxidation reactions are extremely exothermic.Air3 most readily available oxidant=#7F 3 commonest catalyst which is eective at

about >11SPhenol-Axidation of cumene to cumene hydroperoxide,followed by decompostion to phenol and acetone- Axidation of toluene to benzoic acid, followed bydecomposition to phenol3en?oic acid-;i*uid-phase toluene oxidation over a cobaltnaphthenate catalyst with air as the oxidizing agent@alogenation of toluene to benzotrichloride and its

decomposition into benzoic acid+aleic acidAxidation of xylenes and naphthalenes to formphthalic acids!artial oxidation of benzene over N4A9 catalyst/ormic acidAxidation of formamideCy-product of the li*uid-phase oxidation of n-butaneto acetic acidAcetaldehyde-has a brisk sale as a precursor of acetic acid, ,=-butylene glycol,glyoxal, pentaerythritol, peraceticacid and pyridines-@ydration of acetylene-Facker process developed by @oechst-!assing ethyl alcohol over a copper or silver gauzecatalyst-;ower molecular weight paraMn hydrocarbon areoxidized noncatalytically to produce mixed

compounds.Acetic acid 3 is widely used and is converted toacetic anhydride

Ethylene gycol-used in antifreeze-ma+or petrochemical-6ade by reacting chlorine and water with ethylene toform the chlorohydrin, which was then thenhydrolyzed to yield glycol-!urication of ethylene oxide, then convert it toglycol by hydration

Aromatic products by o6idation-!hthalic acid from xylenes or naphthalene-Nanillin from eugenol-oluene to benzaldehyde and benzoic acid-umene to cumene hydroperoxide-Cenzene to maleic acid and anhydride4.ydro5ormylation-also known as o6o synthesis or o6o process-important homogeneously catalyzed industrialprocess for the production of aldehydes from alkenes

-converts alpha-olens to aldehydes andDor alcoholscontaining an additional carbon atom=.Polymeri?ation-any process in which relatively small molecules,called monomers, combine chemically to produce avery large chainlike or network molecule, called apolymer. he monomer molecules may be all alike, orthey may represent two, three, or more dierentcompounds.

'+iscellaneous-+.3E produced by the reaction of methanol andisobuteneH-Cy reacting a mixed butene-butane fraction with@=A@ in the li*uid phase on a xed bed of ion-exchange resin catalyst and the reaction areHCarbon disul;de- used for the manufacture of rayo+anu5acture o5 Petroleum to Polyethylene

.!etroleum is drilled, extracted and then transportedto reneries.


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4.rude oil and natural gas are rened into ethane,propane, or hundreds of other petrochemicalproducts.=.hrough cracking, with the help of high-temperaturefurnaces, ethane and propane turns into ethylene andpropylene.=. catalyst is combined to the resulting monomerfrom cracking long chain hydrocarbons into a reactor

resulting to a )u %powdered material polymer(.>.&lu is combined with additives in a continuesblender.9.!olymer is fed to an extruder where it is melted andcooled then it is fed to a pelletizer.8,.uts would result to small pellets called nurdles.I.Using processes like extrusion,in+ection molding,and blow molding, plastic is shaped into products.C7+P78E8.1 7/ PE.R7LEU+'Aliphatic or 7pen Chain ydrocarbons

lkanes or n-!araMn 5eries, $so-alkane, Alens orlkene 5eries#'Ring Compounds-ycloalkenes, romatic or Cenzenoid 5eries$'1ul5ur) 8itrogen) and AsphaltsComponent o5 ResidueAsphalt- black, tarry residue used as a road-paving material,for water proong structures and in roong material.@ard asphalt is used as bri*uetting binder.

Petroleum Co(e-used commercially in making electrodes, inmanufacture of calcium carbide and ceramics and inpaints.Early Re;neries used the 5ollowing in distillingPetroleum.3atch 1tills- produces gases, gasoline then seriesof oil increasing until a heavy lubricating oil or asphaltremained.

4.1mall ori?ontal Cylinder=.CondenserPR7CE11E1 U1ED I8 RE/I8ERIE1

. Crac(ing or Pyrolysis- decomposition of a large hydrocarbon moleculesinto smaller molecules by the action of heat alone.#' Polymeri?ation- +oining together of many small molecules to formvery large molecule.$' Al(ylation- the union of an olen with an aromatic or paraMnic

hydrocarbon to produce high octane synthetic fuels.- the product contains no olen but has a higheroctane number by the use of an acid %catalyst(.' ydrogenation- addition of hydrogen in an olen.F' ydrocrac(ing- carried out in the presence of a catalyst andhydrogen at high pressure and much lowertemperature."' Isomeri?ation

-changes straight chain alkenes with branched-chainone without changing the number of atoms.' Re5orming-forming new molecule of a size similar to the originalones.-conversion of napthas, gasoline, and natural gasolineto obtain products of higher octane number bysub+ecting them to a high-temperature catalytictreatment, in the presence of hydrogen.O' Co(ing

-used on low value residuals, avoiding catalyst foulingby asphalts which would otherwisemake )uid catalytic cracking diMcult.

!' 76idation-increase in oxygen, decrease in hydrogen or both.Products o5 re;ning. cetylene 4.#thylene =.!ropylene >.Cutene9.Cenzene8. oluene I.Pylenes 0.7apthalene

Chemical .reatment-$mprovement of color and odor


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-Gemoval of sulfur compounds, gums, resins, andasphaltic materials-$mprovement of stability to light and air-$mproved susceptibility to additives+A97R PR7CE11E1 o5 paper

.5ulfate or kraft process

- $mpregnation 3 ooking - Gecovery process- Clowing

3 5creening 3Fashing 3 Cleaching - !rocess chemicals

4.2roundwood and thermochemical process

=.5emichemical process

>.5ulte process

.ypes o5 1ul;te Pulping

.alcium-based4.mmonia-based=.6agnesium-based>.5odium-based.ypes o5 pulping

'8eutral 1ul;te 1emichemical 0811C2 Pulping

$n this method, wood chips are cooked in a neutral

solution of sodium sulte and sodium carbonate.

5ulte ions react with the lignin in wood, and the

sodium bicarbonate acts as a buer to maintain a

neutral solution.

4..hermomechanical Pulp

hermomechanical pulp is pulp produced by

processing wood chips using heat %thus


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step in order to improve ber purity. ;arger motors on

the reners are sometimes used to sift out foreign

ob+ects from the process.

'uring and #ressing

()Gesin is added before the rening step to control

the formaldehyde tolerances in the mixture, and after

rening, a catalyst is added. he bers are then blown

into a )ash tube dryer, which is heated by either oil orgas. he ratio of solid resin to ber is carefully

controlled by weighing each ingredient. 7ext, the

ber is pushed through scalping rolls to produce a

mat of uniform thickness. his mat goes through

several pressing steps to produce a more usable size

and then is trimmed to the desired width before the

nal pressing step. continuous press e*uipped with

a large drum compresses the mat at a uniform rate by

monitoring the mat height. !resses are e*uipped with

electronic controls to provide accurate density and

strength. he resulting board is cut to the appropriate

length using saws before cooling.

!resses have counterbalanced, simultaneous closing

systems that use hydraulic cylinders to eect platen

leveling, which when operating in con+unction with a

four-point position control gives greater individual

panel thickness control. hehydraulics system canclose the press at speeds and pressures that reduce

board precure problems while shortening overall

pressing cycles.

*anel sanding

'o achieve a smooth nish, the panels are sanded

using belts coated with abrasives.5ilicon carbide has

typically been used, but with the re*uirement for ner

surfaces, otherceramic abrasives are utilized,

including zirconia alumina and aluminum oxide.

#ighthead sanding e*uipment and double-sided

grading improves surface smoothness consistency.

nti-static technology is used to remove the static

electricity that contributes to rapid loading and

excessive sanding dust, thereby increasing belt life.

Finishing

F'!anels can undergo a variety of nishing steps

depending on the nal product. wide variety of

lac*uer colors can be applied, as well as variouswood-grain patterns.2uillotine cutting is used to cut

the berboard into large sheets %for example 11

inches wide(. &or smaller sheet sizes such as >4 by >/

in %1I by 49 cm(, die cutting is used. 5pecialty

machines are used for cutting berboard into narrow

strips of -4> in %4.9 -8 cm( widths.

"';aminating machines are used to apply vinyl, foil,

and other materials to the surface. his process

involves unwinding a roll of berboard material,

sending it between two rolls where the adhesive is

applied, combining the adhesive-coated berboard

with the laminating material between another set of

rolls, and sending the combined materials into the

laminator.

Process o5 Particleboards

he process of making this material begins with real

wood. 6ost manufacturers use waste wood productscollected from commercial woodworking factories,

although some virgin wood may be used as well. ll of

this recycled wood ber and sawdust is stored in large

containers before being processed into boards.

he wood bits are usually dried, then sorted to

eliminate overly large or small pieces. Ance this

mechanical sorting has been completed, the

acceptable wood bers move byconveyorbelt to a

blending hopper. long the way, several overhead

l h d b i h li id C h d i d d l
http://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Hydraulics.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Silicon_carbide.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Ceramic.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Guillotine.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Adhesive.htmlhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-conveyor.htmhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-conveyor.htmhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Hydraulics.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Silicon_carbide.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Ceramic.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Guillotine.htmlhttp://www.madehow.com/knowledge/Adhesive.htmlhttp://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-conveyor.htm


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nozzles spray the wood bers with a strong li*uid

resin or glue. 5everal dierent forms of resin may be

used, depending on the specic *uality of particle

board desired.

he resin-soaked wood is then blended to form a

consistent paste. his combination is piped into a

forming machine, which presses out a sheet of

uncured particle board. he formed panels are thenpressed down for easier transportation to the nal

curing ovens. $ndividual sheets are held under

pressure as the air around them is superheated. his

allows the resin to harden and form a very strong

bond with the wood bers.

5ome forms of particle board are left in this rough

state for use in )ooring and other pro+ects in which

the panels will not be visible. $n situations in which

the appearance of the product is a concern, thin strips

of real wood, called veneers, may be added to the

surface of the board. &urniture manufacturers often

use veneer-covered particle board as a cheaper

alternative to natural hardwoods. 6any assemble-it-

yourself desks and other home furnishings may also

be made from veneered particle board

Process o5 Paper-based laminates

a'Raw +aterials he laminate production processbegins in the receiving area. 'ecorative paper, kraft

paper, overlay, and other raw materials arrive and are

inventoried and distributed to the appropriate holding

area.

b'Decorati,e Paper 'ecorative paper provides the

pattern, wood grain or solid color for a sheet of

laminate. Averlay paper gives laminate its surface

strength and scratch-resistance. Averlay paper is

taken to the melamine treater area where it is

saturated with melamine resin, cured and rerolled.

Coth decorative paper and treated overlay paper may

be stored in rolls or cut to sheet size and stored until

needed. Fhen the production schedule arrives in the

assembly area, sheets of decorative paper and

overlay are pulled from the rack system and

assembled in sets based on the dayOs production run.

c'Core Paper ust as decorative papers are readied

for press, the kraft paper, which makes up the core oflaminate, undergoes a similar process. Jraft paper

arrives in the facility by rail and is placed in the kraft

paper storage area. &rom this staging area, the kraft

paper is taken to the phenolic treater where it is

saturated with phenolic resin, cured and rolled or cut

to size. reated kraft paper is taken to the corestock

area where it is assembled based on the sheet

makeup re*uired by the production schedule. #ach

type of laminate %general purpose, postforming,

vertical grade( re*uires a slightly dierent core lay up.

d'AssemblyPressinghe collated material from the

corestock area is taken to the pressing department to

be collated with the decorative papers from the

assembly area. he two processes come together as

the decorative paper and core paper are assembled

at the press, and cooked for about an hour under high

heat and pressure. he decorative and kraft papersare sandwiched between two stainless steel textured

plates which impart the tactile nish %gloss, matte,

textured( on the completed laminate sheet. 5anding

Ance the press cycle is complete, the laminate is

taken to the sander. he edges of each sheet are

trimmed, and the back is sanded to provide better

adhesion in fabrication. t this stage the pattern

identication number is printed on the back of each

sheet.

C t . 1i 5 i l d h t t t t th d t i d ti i l ) i


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e'Cut .o 1i?e5ome special order sheets are cut to

size for the customer. his takes place in the cut to

size area after the laminate leaves the sander.

5'/inished 4oods Ance the laminate clears the

sander and cut to size areas, it is sent to the nished

goods staging area where it is stored temporarily

prior to being shipped to our market service centers,

distributors or direct accounts.1hipping ;aminate sheets are pulled from nished

goods inventory, packed on skids and loaded aboard

Filsonart $nternational trucks for shipment to regional

market centers.

Food Flavors and Food Additives;Fermentation,

Vegetable oil and Biofuel Industries;Sugar and

Starch Industries

.ypes o5 /ood /la,oring'8atural a,oring substances&lavoringsubstances that are obtained from plant or animalraw materials, by physical, microbiological orenzymatic processes are classied as natural)avoring substances. hese natural )avorings can beeither used in their natural form or processed form forconsumption by human beings. substances @owever,they cannot contain any nature-identical or articial

)avoring.4.8ature-identical a,oring substances7ature-identical substances are the )avoring substances thatare obtained by synthesis or are isolated throughchemical processes, which are chemically identical to)avoring substances naturally present in productsintended for consumption by human beings. hese)avorings cannot contain any articial )avouringsubstances.=.Arti;cial a,oring substances&lavoring

substances that are not identied in a natural productintended for consumption by human being- whether

or not the product is processed- are articial )avoringsubstances. hese food )avorings are typicallyproduced by fractional distillation and additionalchemical manipulation naturally sourced chemicals orfrom crude oil or coal tar.

Chemicals Associated %ith Particular /la,oursChemical /la,our

llylpyrazine Goasted nut6ethoxypyrazines #arthy vegetables4-$sobutyl-= 6ethoxypyrazine 2reen peppercetyl-;-!yrazines !opcorn4-cetoxy !yrazine oasted )avoursldehydes &ruity, greenlcohols Citter, medicinal#sters &ruityJetones Cutter, caramel!yrazines Crown, burnt, caramel,

!henolics 6edicinal, smokeyerpenoids itrus, piney

'1mo(e a,oring substances lthough it is notone of the basic )avorings, smoke )avoring has comeup as a signicant food )avoring substance in theworld of food additives. 5moke )avoring is a natural)avouring concentrate obtained by sub+ectinguntreated and uncontaminated hardwood, includingsawdust and woody plants, to one or more of these

listed processes for obtaining fractions which havethe desired )avour potential.3asic /ood /la,ors'/la,oring 1mell' 6aking of )avoring smells orodors are similar to the making process of industrialfragrances and perfumes. .o ma(e natural a,orswith desired smell, the )avorant is extracted from thesource substance through various methods likesolvent extraction, distillation, or using force tos*ueeze it out. hese extracts are then furtherpuried and added to food products in order to givethem a particular )avor. .o ma(e arti;cial a,ors,

the individual naturally occurring aroma chemicals maintain constant vacuum levels under varying


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the individual naturally occurring aroma chemicalsare identied and then mixed to produce a desired)avor. hese mixtures are formulated by )avorchemist or )avorist to give a food product a uni*ue)avor and to maintain )avor consistency betweendierent product batches or after recipe changes.#'/la,oring .astes'here are four basic tastesknown to human beings- sweet, sour, salty, and bitter.

he substances that enhance umami and othersecondary )avors are considered to be taste)avorants. he dictionary denes umamias- "a tastethat is characteristic of monosodium glutamate and isassociated with meats and other high-protein foods. $tis sometimes considered to be a fth basic tastealong with sweet, sour, salty, and bitter." herefore)avoring tastes can be identied with )avorenhancers that are largely based on amino acids andnucleotides and are typically used as sodium or

calcium salts.$'/la,oring Colors' he color of food also aect its)avor. herefore, food )avor suppliers have all kindsof )avoring colors with them. &ood colorings arederived from natural sources as well as fromchemicals. he )avoring color additive regulationsaround the world are dierent from each other.ertain food colors that are permitted to be used in#urope or sia may not be acceptable in the United5tates and vice versa.

5ew o5 the common processes o5 5ragrances'Citrus - old pressed citrus oils have a highcontent of terpene hydrocarbons, which do notcontribute much to the )avor and are detrimental tothe oilOs stability and solubility. erpene hydrocarbonsare usually removed by vacuum distillation, thin lmevaporation or solvent extraction %a process that usesdistillation to remove the solvent before use(. hehigher the vacuum of a still, the lower the boilingpoint of the oil. his principle, when extended to ashort path still, results in a falling lm evaporator.7ash pumps are tolerant of process upsets and can

maintain constant vacuum levels under varyingconditions, making sure that the desired productcomposition is achieved and downtime is not anissue.#'=anilla- is used in a broad range of )avors andfragrances. Nanilla extract contains more than 491chemical components, and is generally extractedthrough percolation method or the oleoresin method.

$t is the second most expensive spice in the worldmarket, and one of the most widely used)avorsDfragrances.

!ercolation methodH an ethanolDwater solution in therange of 49-91H89-91 %vDv( is used as a solvent andcirculated over and through the beans under vacuum.his process creates a four-fold strength vanilla.

Aleoresin methodH whole beans are pulverized and

then ethanol is circulated over the beans, undervacuum, at >9S. he excess alcohol is removed byevaporation and the process yields a ten-fold strengthvanilla.

$'Cocoa and other beans- hese )avorsDfragrancesare also extracted through the use of solvents. $naddition to evaporation, the process can also involvea vacuum lter, which also employs 7ash vacuumpumps. $n every ltration application, a 7ash li*uid

ring vacuum pump or compressor can reduceoperating costs and minimize downtime.Categories o5 5ood additi,es.Acids' &oodacidsare added to make )avors"sharper", and also act as preservatives andantioxidants. ommon food acidsinclude vinegar,citric acid,tartaric acid,malicacid,fumaric acid,andlactic acid.Acidity regulators'cidity regulatorsare used tochange or otherwise control the acidityandalkalinityof foods.

Antica(ing agents nticaking agents keep powders 1tabili?ers 5tabilizers thickeners and gelling
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidity_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidity_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidity_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tartaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumaric_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acidity_regulatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkalinityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)


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Antica(ing agents'nticaking agentskeep powderssuch as milk powder from caking or sticking.Anti5oaming agents'ntifoaming agentsreduce orprevent foaming in foods.Antio6idants' ntioxidantssuch asvitamin act aspreservatives by inhibiting the eects ofoxygenonfood, and can be benecial to health.3ul(ing agents' Culking agents such asstarchare

additives that increase the bulk of a food withoutaecting its taste./ood coloring' oloringsare added to food toreplace colors lost during preparation, or to makefood look more attractive.Color retention agents' $n contrast tocolorings,color retention agentsare used to preservea foodEs existing color.Emulsi;ers'#mulsiersallow water and oils toremain mixed together in anemulsion, as

inmayonnaise,ice cream,and homogenizedmilk./la,ors'&lavorsare additives that give food aparticular taste or smell, and may be derived fromnatural ingredients or created articially./la,or enhancers'&lavor enhancersenhance afoodEs existing )avors. hey may be extracted fromnatural sources %throughdistillation,solventextraction, maceration, among other methods( orcreated articially./lour treatment agents'&lour treatment

agentsare added to)ourto improve its color or itsuse inbaking.4la?ing agents' 2lazing agentsprovide a shinyappearance or protective coating to foods.umectants'@umectantsprevent foods from dryingout..racer gas' racer gasallow for package integritytesting to prevent foods from being exposed toatmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life.Preser,ati,es'!reservativesprevent or inhibitspoilage of food due to fungi,bacteriaandothermicroorganisms.

1tabili?ers'5tabilizers, thickeners and gellingagents, likeagaror pectin%used in+amfor example(give foods a rmer texture. Fhile they are not trueemulsiers, they help to stabilizeemulsions.1weeteners'5weetenersare added to foods for)avoring. 5weeteners other thansugarare added tokeep thefood energy%calories( low, or because theyhave benecial eects for diabetes mellitusandtooth

decayand diarrhea..hic(eners' hickening agentsare substanceswhich, when added to the mixture, increaseitsviscositywithout substantially modifying its otherproperties.Process o5 Chewing gumPreparing the chicle' $f natural latex is to be used,it must rst be harvested and processed. he tall=4.I/ yard %=1-meter( chicle tree is scored with aseries of shallow Ps, enabling the chicle to )ow down

into a bucket. fter a signicant.hewing gum baseconsists either of natural latex or a syntheticsubstitute. 7atural latex such as chicle is harvestedby making large P-marks on rubber trees and thencollecting the substance as it runs down the tree.fter grinding the base to form a coarse meal, themixture is dryed for a day or two. 7ext, the mixture isheated in large kettles while the other ingredients areadded. ;arge machines then pummel, or "knead," themass until it is properly smooth and rubbery, and it is

put on a rolling slab and reduced to the properthickness. mount of chicle has accumulated, it isstrained and placed in large kettles. 5tirredconstantly, it is boiled until it reduces to two-thirds ofits original volume. $t is then poured into greasedwooden molds and shipped.4rinding) mi6ing) and drying the late6' henatural andDor articial gum bases are rst groundinto a coarse meal and mixed to ensure uniformconsistency. he blend is then placed in a warm roomto dry for a day or two. 'uring drying, hot aircontinually passes over the mixture.

Coo(ing and puri5ying the base 7ext the gum +illing he sorghum corn or wheat rst passes
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defoamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defoamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defoamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_coloringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_coloringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_coloringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_retention_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_retention_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_retention_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion#Emulsifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion#Emulsifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion#Emulsifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayonnaisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayonnaisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayonnaisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_creamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_creamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_creamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent_extractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent_extractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent_extractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour_treatment_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour_treatment_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour_treatment_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour_treatment_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazing_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazing_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazing_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humectanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humectanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humectanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracer-gas_leak_testing_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracer-gas_leak_testing_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracer-gas_leak_testing_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_preserveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_preserveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_preserveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_substitutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_substitutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_substitutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloriehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloriehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_carieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_carieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_carieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_carieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticaking_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defoamerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antioxidanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_Chttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_coloringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour_retention_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsion#Emulsifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayonnaisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_creamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent_extractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent_extractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour_treatment_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flour_treatment_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flourhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazing_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humectanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracer-gas_leak_testing_methodhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preservativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stabilizer_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pectinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_preserveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emulsionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_substitutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caloriehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes_mellitushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_carieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_carieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrheahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thickening_agenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity


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Coo(ing and puri5ying the base' 7ext, the gumbase is cooked in kettles at 4>= degrees &ahrenheit%8 degrees elsius( until it has melted into a thicksyrup. o purify it, workers pass it through screensand place it in a high speed centrifuge beforereltering it, this time through ner screens.3lending additional ingredients'he gum base isnow ready for additives. $t is placed in kettles to be

cooked, and additional ingredients are stirred in bylarge steel blades. &irst, extremely ne powderedsugar and corn syrup are added. &lavorings are addednext, followed by softeners. Fhen the mixture issmooth enough, it is rolled out onto belts and cooledby being exposed to cold air.*neading and rolling the gum' he next step iskneading. &or several hours machines gently pummelthe mass. fter being dusted with powdered sugar,the gum is scored into a pattern of rectangles,

seasoned, and broken into sticks. he gum is nowready to be packaged and shipped to retail outlets.;arge chunks are then chopped o the mass, to be)attened by rollers until they reach the properthickness of nearly .I inches %about .>= cm(. 'uringthis process, the sheet of chewing gum is dusted withpowdered sugar to prepare it for cutting.Cutting and seasoning the gum' cuttingmachine rst scores the sheet in a pattern ofrectangles, each .= inches %=.= centimeters( long

and .>>/ of an inch %.> centimeters( wide. hesheet is then put aside at the proper temperature andhumidity to "season."Pac(aging the gum' Ance seasoned, the gumsheets are broken into sticks, wrapped in aluminumfoil or wax paper, wrapped in paper, and put intoplastic packs that are then sealed. !ut into boxes orplastic bags, the gum is ready to be shipped to retailoutlets.1teps in the 4rain Ethanol +anu5acturingProcess

+illing' he sorghum, corn or wheat rst passesthrough hammer mills, that grind it into a ne powdercalled meal.Liue5action'he meal is then mixed with water andalpha-amylase, goes through cookers, and starch isli*ueed at higher temperatures. hese hightemperatures reduce bacteria levels in the mash.1acchari;cation'he mash is then cooled and the

secondary enzyme %gluco-amylase( added to convertthe li*ueed starch to fermentable sugars./ermentation'Qeast is added to ferment the sugarsto ethanol in a batch fermentation process which lastsfor up to >0 hours.Distillation'he fermented mash, %->: alcohol(,the non-fermentable solids from the grain, and theyeast cells are pumped to the distillation systemwhere the alcohol is distilled o. he alcohol leaves at/8: stength, and the residue mash, exits as a co-

product.Dehydration'he alcohol then passes through amolecular sieve to remove the remaining water fromthe ethanol. he alcohol product at this stage isapproximately //.0: purity.Denaturation' #thanol that is used for fuel is thendenatured with a small amount %4-9:( of petrol, tomake it unt for human consumption.Process o5 ,egetable oil'1torage'6any steps in industrial processing nd

their origin in the traditional processes. $n large-scaleoperations, oilseeds are dried to less than 1 percentmoisture. hey may be stored for prolonged timeperiods under suitable conditions of aeration withprecautions against insect and rodent infestation.5uch storage reduces mould infection and mycotoxincontamination and minimizes biological degradativeprocesses which lead to the development of free fattyacids and colour in the oil. Ail-bearing fruits such asolive and palm are treated as *uickly as possible.!alm is sterilized as a rst step in processing. diposetissues and sh-based raw materials %that is, the body

or liver( are rendered within a few hours by boiling to detection by taste or smell. 'eodorisation is


20/29

or liver( are rendered within a few hours by boiling todestroy enzymes and prevent oil deterioration.4.Processing' Ailseeds are generally cleaned offoreign matter before dehulling. he kernels areground to reduce size and cooked with steam, and theoil is extracted in a screw or hydraulic press. hepressed cake is )aked for later extraction of residualfat with solvents such as "food grade" hexane. Ail can

be directly extracted with solvent from productswhich are low in oil content, that is, soybean, ricebranand corn germ. fter sterilization, oil-bearing fruits arepulped %digested( before mechanical pressing often ina screw press. !alm kernels are removed frompressed cakes and further processed for oil. nimaltissues are reduced in size before rendering by wet ordry processes. fter autoclaving, tissues of sh arepressed and the oilDwater suspension is passedthrough centrifuges to separate the oil.

$'7il Re;ning'Gening produces an edible oil withcharacteristics that consumers desire such as bland)avour and odour, clear appearance, light colour,stability to oxidation and suitability for frying. womain rening routes are alkaline rening and physicalrening %steam stripping, distillativeneutralisation(which are used for removing the free fatty acids.he classical alkaline rening method usuallycomprises the following stepsH.'egumming with water to remove the easily

hydratable phospholipids and metals.4.Af a small amount of phosphoric or citric acid toconvert the remaining non-hydralable phospholipids%a, 6g salts( into hydratable phospholipids.=.7eutralising of the free fatty acids with a slightexcess of sodium hydroxide solution, followed by thewashing out of soaps and hydrated phospholipids.>.Cleaching with natural or acid-activated clayminerals to adsorb colouring components and todecompose hydroperoxides.9.'eodorizing to remove volatile components, mainlyaldehydes and ketones, with low threshold values for

detection by taste or smell. 'eodorisation isessentially a steam distillation process carried out atlow pressures %4-8 mbar( and elevated temperatures%01-441S(..he technologies present in 3io5uel IndustriesAnaerobic Digesters - anaerobic digester is asystem that takes an organic waste stream andthrough the process of anaerobic digestion %meaning

without oxygen(, microorganisms break-down thewaste stream which generates biogas in the process.he biogas cannot be used due to the large amount ofimpurities it contains, so the biogas must cleanedthrough a biogas to biomethane process after which,the clean biomethane, often referred to as "renewablenatural gas" is used +ust as natural gas, methane or@>.

3iogas Plants- biogas plant is a renewable energy

system typically comprised of one or more anaerobicdigesters that "upgrade" organic waste streams tobiogas. Ciogas is the "crude methane" that isgenerated from landlls %landll gas( or from ananaerobic digester. $n both landlls and anaerobicdigesters, the biogas is generated without oxygen,hence the name, "anaerobic." "biogas plant" refersto having one or more "anaerobic digesters" at afacility that is treatingDprocessing organic wastestreams such as agricultural waste, brewery waste,

food processing waste, etc.3iomass 4asi;cation - is the process in which5ynthesis 2as is produced in the Ciomass 2asicationprocess using organic wastes such as agriculturalwaste and urban wood waste. he 5ynthesis 2as isthen used like any other fuel, such as natural gas,which is not a renewable fuel.Plasma 4asi;cation - is the thermal disintegrationof carbonaceous materials into their elementalcompounds in an oxygen-starved environment using a"plasma."

Using the technologies stated above, the following .ransportation and .reatment o5 %aste


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g g , grenewable fuels will be generatedH3 3iodiesel- is 11: Ciodiesel that is producedfrom oilseeds, crude vegetable oil, rened vegetableoil and waste vegetable oil. hese fuels are over /1:less polluting than the "dirty diesel" produced fromfossil fuels and the 1: %nitrogen oxides( is easilycaptured with selective catalytic reduction.

3iomethane- is the "renewable natural gas" madefrom organic sources - which starts out as "biogas"but then is cleaned up in a process called "Ciogas toCiomethane" which removes the impurities in biogassuch as carbon dioxide, siloxanes and hydrogensuldes %@45(.E Ethanol - is 11: ethanol that can beproduced from a wide variety of biomass feedstock,including, sugar cane, sugar beets, and other biomassmaterials and waste-streams including cellulosic

biomass feedstock that is commonly referred to as"cellulosic ethanol."

1ynthetic Diesel- provides numerous economic andenvironmental benets over typical petroleum diesel.&irst of all, 5ynthetic 'iesel is sulfur-free and free ofother petroleum by-products that are found inpetroleum diesel that has been rened from crude oil.his means that 5ynthetic 'iesel is signicantlycleaner, cleaner-burning, and can be formulated for

superior cold weather performance and fuel systemlubricity.1ynthesis 4as - also referred to as "5yngas," is agreen renewable fuel in a gas that contains hydrogen%h4( and carbon monoxide %A(.1ynthetic 4as- also referred to as 5ynthesis 2as or"5yngas" are the names given to gas comprised ofhydrogen and carbon monoxide, generated throughCiomass 2asication plants - also known as waste tofuel or waste-to-energy facilities.Process o5 the Production o5 3iodiesel 5rom%aste =egetable 7il

p=egetable 7il' he co-op produces biodiesel mainlyfrom waste vegetable oil %FNA(. his is the used oilleft over from restaurant fryers. he co-op collectsFNA in 411 to 491 gallon batches in large plasticcontainers. he used oil is run through a screen tolter out pieces of food, breading, or other largeparticles. he used oil needs to be dried rst to

remove as much of the water from the oil as possible.Fater in the oil, in the worse case, will prevent thetrans esterication process and yield a brown gel thatis unusable. 'ewatering is done by putting I9 gallons%one batch in this case( of the FNA in an insulatedvessel with a +acket heat exchanger. @ot water,heated using solar thermal panels, is circulatedthrough the +acket heat exchanger. !reviously, gaswas used to heat the water, but later the solar hotwater system was built from scratch to increase the

eMciency of the process. he heat helps the oil andwater to separate. fter the water has settled on thebottom, the watery oil at the bottom is drained out aspigot leaving the dry oil in the vessel.

.itration' Fhile the oil is drying a titration should bedone on a sample of the oil to determine how muchfree fatty acid is in it, and thus how much additionalpotassium hydroxide %JA@( catalyst to add to themethanol. &ree fatty acids %&&s( are present in FNA

and will combine with JA@ to produce soap. $f extraJA@ isnOt added to compensate for this reaction,there would not be enough JA@ available as catalyst,and the biodiesel would not be fully converted. oomuch JA@ and an unusable glop can result. $t isimportant that the titration be done carefully so anaccurate amount of JA@ can be added. itration is asimple process and involves keeping track of howmuch JA@Dwater mixture it takes to neutralize the &&in an oil sample. p@ indicator is used to tell whenthe solution reaches about p@ 0.9. he results oftitration are used to determine the amount of catalyst

to add to the methanol. t piedmont biofuels, .I>IIoz vessel. he !iedmont Ciofuels batch process will yield


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pof JA@ is added per gallon of oil plus the extraamount determined by titration. t this point, a literbatch is usually made to test how the reaction willproceed.

+i6ing +ethanol and Potassium ydro6ide'fterthe amount of catalyst has been determined, thecatalyst needs to be mixed with methanol. 6ethanolis )ammable and dangerous. he safest way tohandle methanol is in a closed system which reducesthe possibility of contacting the methanol orbreathing its fumes. he methanol %44: by volume ofoil- about 8.9 gallons for the I9 gallon batch( ispiped from its storage tank directly into carboys%sturdy @'!# plastic +ugs(. he amount of JA@determined in the titration is then measured andadded to the methanol in the carboy. he carboy is

immediately re-sealed, picked up, and gently swirledto begin dissolving the catalyst. he carboy should setfor 9-=1 minutes, and then be swirled and let setagain. his process should continue until visualinspection shows that all the catalyst has dissolved.

.ransesteri;cation'he methanolDJA@ solution andFNA are then ready to be reacted. he still hot FNAis pumped from the drying vessel into the reactionvessel. he reaction vessel is a 11 gallon vessel with

a circulating pump which circulates the mixturethrough an external mixer that provides intimatecontact between the reactants. he lid on themethanol carboy is replaced with a lid with a hosebarb attached. he methanol is piped to the reactionvessel and the circulating pump agitates the mixturefor about two hours to insure a complete reaction.hemixture is allowed to set unheated for 0-=8 hours tolet the darker byproduct %mainly glycerol( settle to thebottom. he remainder is biodiesel and somecontaminants. he glycerol and byproducts aredrained o the bottom through a spigot in the reactor

p yabout I9 gallons of biodiesel %about the same as thebeginning amount of FNA used( and about 8.9gallons of glycerol %about the same as the beginningamount of methanol used(. he glycerol at !iedmontCiofuels is either composted or fed to goats on thefarm %apparently they love the stu and prefer thefeed mixed with glycerin over the straight feed(.

%ashing the 3iodiesel' Cubble washing with waterwill remove most of the impurities from the biodiesel.he biodiesel is pumped into a large bubblewashingtub. his is a large )at-bottomed, open tub with ana*uarium air stone in the bottom attached to ana*uarium air pump. Fater %about >1 gallons for theI9 gallon batch of biodiesel( is gently added to thebiodiesel so the two li*uids donOt mix. he water willsettle to the bottom of the biodiesel. urn on the

a*uarium air pump, and let it bubble for a few hours.he rising air bubbles carry with them a layer of watersurrounding them. his moisture will take in soap andwater soluble contaminants. Fhen the air bubble getsto the surface, it pops, and the water turns into awater droplet and falls back down to the bottom ofthe tub, picking up more contaminants on the way.hus, the contaminants will remain in the water in thebottom of the tub. he wash water should be drainedand changed to remove the accumulating

contaminants. he biodiesel should be washed thisway two or three more times for about 8 to 0 hourseach bubbling. Fhen the wash water is clear and hasthe same p@ as tap water and the biodiesel is clear,the washing if nished.he biodiesel should be left inthe open tub so the water can settle and evaporateout of the fuel. his can take a few hours to a fewweeks depending on the *uality of the fuel. he betterthe fuel is washed, the shorter the drying time.henal step is to lter the biodiesel to 9 microns toremove any abrasive particulates. he fuel is now

ready for use in any diesel engine with no E,aporation' Cefore crystal growth can take place


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modications.+anu5actiring Process o5 sugarCane preparation' uice can be removed from caneeither by repeated crushing and washing %milling( orby washing alone, with a nal s*ueezing simply to drythe spent bre %diusion(. Cetter sucrose extractioncan be obtained by crushing nely shredded canerather than intact stalks and

sent either to the boilers or to by-product processes.Puri;cation o5 Buice' uice from a milling tandemcontains a large amount of cane bre that falls outwith the +uice between the rollers of the mills. oremove the bre, +uice is poured over a wire-meshscreen, or cascaded over an inclined wedge-wirescreen(. 'iuser +uice, because of the screeningeect of the cane bed itself, is generally notscreened.he +uice is heated and lime is added toneutralise the natural acidity. $t is then placed in a

large settling tank called a clarier.

the clear +uice must be concentrated to syrup by theremoval of water by evaporation. o improve theeMciency of the water removal step a process knownas multiple eect evaporation is used. 6ultiple eectevaporation is the scheme where +uice is boiled inseries in several vessels, with steam fed to vessel only. Napour from vessel boils the +uice in vessel 4,vapour from 4 boils the +uice in =, and so on untilvapour from the nal vessel goes to waste.1ugar boiling' he syrup produced by theevaporators is concentrated further in speciallydesigned vessels known as pans. s theconcentration rises the dissolved sugar crystallisesand the work of the pans is to grow sugar crystals%from the sucrose in syrup( in several steps tomaximise the amount of sucrose recovered in rawsugar.

1eparation o5 crystals 5rom molasses' 6assecuiteleaving the crystallisers has now to be separated intocrystals and molasses. he more eMcient thisseparation, the more sucrose will be recovered assugar and the less sucrose will be lost in molasses. centrifugal is a machine that separates crystals frommolasses. entrifugation involves spinningmassecuite in a perforated basketK centrifugal forceacts on the molasses, forcing it through theperforations while the sugar remains on the basket

wall. Fater and steam may then be sprayed onto thecrystals to wash o the remaining molasses.1ugar drying' 5ugar leaving the centrifugals hasexcess moisture which has an extremely detrimentaleect on the keeping *uality of the raw sugar anddrying is therefore important. $n a drier, the moistureis driven o from the surface of the li*uor layercovering the crystal by passing heated air around thesugar crystals. he product from the processdescribed so far is a raw sugar %Crown sugar( that can

be used as is, or sent to a renery to be converted toa white %rened( sugar.

1ugar re;ning' he purpose of the renery is toi i i f l h

pressure is preferred or 5A4is replaced by sodiumh d bi l hi h l l l i


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remove impurities from sugar crystals. he reneryaccepts raw sugar as its feed material. he sugar isdissolved %melted( and the colour is removed byvarious clarication processes..he +anu5actiring Process o5 starchCLEA8I84.he raw material for wet milling is shelleddent corn delivered in bulk. he corn is inspected andcob, dust, cha and foreign material are removed.he cleaning is normally done twice before wetprocessing. fter cleaning the corn is transported tothe steeps.1.EEPI84. proper steeping is essential for highyields and high starch *uality. he steeping is carriedout in a continuous counter-current process. hecleaned corn is lled into a battery of large steepingtanks %steeps(, where the corn is soaked in hot water=1 to >0 hours to begin breaking the starch and

protein bonds . he gluten bonds within the cornbegin to loosen and release the starch. he steepingis actually a controlled fermentation. 5ulphur dioxideimproves the fermentation by enhancing growth offavourable micro-organisms, preferably lactobacillus,while suppressing detrimental bacteria, moulds, fungiand yeast. 5olubles are extracted and the kernelsoftens. he kernel swells to more than double sizeand increases its moisture content from about 9: to>9:.

1.EEP%A.ER E=AP7RA.I78. he steepwatercontaining approximately 1: dry substance isdrained from the kernels and condensed on a multi-stage evaporator. 6ost organic acids formed duringthe fermentation are volatile and evaporate with thewater. he condensate from the rst evaporator stagewill therefore be discharged after the heat isrecovered by preheating the entering steepwater.17#'he sulphur dioxide may be prepared by burningsulphur and absorbing the gas in water. Cecause

modern processes call for more strict and narrowdosage, a supply of sulphur dioxide gas under

hydrogen bisulphite where no local gas supply isavailable.

4ER+ 1EPARA.I78.he soften kernels are brokenup in attrition mills to loosen the hull and break thebonds between germ and endosperm. Fater is added

to assist the wet milling. good steeping ensures thatthe germ will be freely released intact from the kernelby a gentle milling operation with no free oil. Ailconstitutes half the weight of the germ at this stage,and the germ is easy to separate by centrifugal force.he lightweight germs are separated from the groundslurry by hydrocyclones in a two step separation withregrinding in between. he germs are washedrepeatedly counter-currently on a three-stage screen

to remove starch. !rocess wash water is added at thelast stage.4ER+ DR


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separation the mill )ow is nely ground in impact orattrition mills to release starch and gluten from theendosperm cell walls %bres(. he degerminated millstarch leaving the ne mill is pumped to the rststage of a bre washing system, where starch andgluten is screened o. he overs, hull and largerbres, are washed free from adhering starch andgluten %insoluble protein( on screens in counter-current with process wash water added at the laststage. he last bre washing stage has a slightlycourser screen for pre-dewatering the bre prior to atapered screw press./I3RE DR


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1teps in the4rainEthanol +anu5acturingProcess


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Chewing

gum


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gum

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