RFIDTAGSFORTHEEXPEDITIONOFBODYPARTPROCESSINGIN
LARGESCALEDISASTERVICTIMIDENTIFICATIONINCIDENTS
ACOSTANDFEASIBILITYPILOTSTUDY
By
TianaDEALMEIDA
Athesissubmittedinfulfilmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof
MasterofForensicScience(ProfessionalPractice)
in
TheSchoolofVeterinaryandLifeSciences
MurdochUniversity
MrBrendanChapman(MurdochUniversity)
Semester2,2018
2
DECLARATIONIdeclarethatthismanuscriptdoesnotcontainanymaterialsubmittedpreviouslyforthe
award of any other degree or diploma at any university or other tertiary institution.
Furthermore, to the best ofmy knowledge, it does not contain anymaterial previously
publishedorwrittenbyanotherindividual,exceptwhereduereferenceshasbeenmadein
the text. Finally, I declare that all reported experimentations performed in this research
were carried out by myself, except that any contribution by others, with whom I have
workedisexplicitlyacknowledged.
Signed:TianaDeAlmeida
Dated:27thNovember2018
3
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor, Mr Brendan
Chapman, for his guidance and support throughout my Master of Forensic Science
degree.Hispatienceandknowledgehaveassistedme in completingmycoursework,
project,andthesis.
IwouldalsoliketothankMrTomBianchiandMrChristopherdeGuzman,from
MicrochipTechnology,forsupplyingmewiththeRFIDequipment.Iappreciatedtheir
patienceandtechnicalsupportwhilstcompletingtheproceduresoftheproject.
Manythankstoallofmyextendedfamilymembersandfriends,forencouraging
metodomybest throughoutmydegree.Yoursupporthashelpedmethroughmany
sleeplessnightsandstressfuldays,andIappreciatethatgreatly.
Lastly, I express my sincere gratitude to my parents, for assisting me
throughoutmycourse,alwaysencouragingme,andforallowingmetodothedegreeof
mychoice.
4
TableofContents
TitlePage..............................................................................................................................1
Declaration...........................................................................................................................2
Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................3
PartOneLiteratureReview.....................................................................................................6-33
PartTwoManuscript.............................................................................................................35-60
5
Thispagehasbeenleftintentionallyblank.
6
PartOne
LITERATUREREVIEW
RFIDTAGSFORTHEEXPEDITIONOFBODYPARTPROCESSINGIN
LARGESCALEDISASTERVICTIMIDENTIFICATIONINCIDENTS
ACOSTANDFEASIBILITYPILOTSTUDY
7
Abstract
In2001,over2,000 liveswere lostat theWorldTradeCenter.Approximately
280,000deceasedvictimswerearesultoftheAsiantsunamiof2004,and168fatalities
aftertheOklahomabombingin1995.Whetherthedisaster incident is largeorsmall,
thelegalresponsibilityfallsonforensicinvestigatorstopositivelyidentifyeveryvictim,
forthepurposeofreturningtheremainstotheirrespectivefamilies.Inforensicscience
andmorespecifically,disastervictimidentification(DVI),anunforeseen incidentcan
result in the demise of a mass of lives. Identifying the fallen victims is of vital
importance. Highly skilled specialists and investigators are involved in the DVI
processesinordertoexpeditetheprocessingofbodyparts.However,aresearchgap
remains inregardtothetimelinessofhumanremainexaminationsat largescaleDVI
incidents.TheexpeditionofDVI investigations is crucial as it impacts thenumberof
positive identifications that are made, whilst issues such as decomposition may
challenge forensic investigators. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology is
anadvancedsystemthattransmitsaradiosignal,inordertotrackandidentifyobjects.
ThisreviewaimstodemonstratehowRFIDtechnologyhastheabilitytosignificantly
decrease forensicexaminationand identification timeofvictims, throughsub-dermal
implantation ofmicrochips into human remains. Although the cost of implementing
RFIDisalimitation,thetechnologyhasproventobesuccessfulinseveralorganisations
on an international scale andhas been effective through sub-dermal implantation in
humans as well as animals. Through utilising RFID, forensic investigators and legal
authorities will be equipped to conduct an expeditious DVI process and hence,
determineagreateramountofpositivedeceasedvictimidentifications.
8
TableofContents
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................7
TABLEOFCONTENTS....................................................................................................................8
LISTOFFIGURES...........................................................................................................................9
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS...............................................................................................................9
1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................10
2. DISCUSSION........................................................................................................................162.1 MASSDISASTERS......................................................................................................................162.1.1 DVIPROCESSES.....................................................................................................................162.1.2 MANAGINGTHETIMELINESSOFIDENTIFYINGDISASTERVICTIMS.....................................................212.1.3 THEDECOMPOSITIONOFHUMANREMAINS.................................................................................212.1.4 THESTORAGEOFHUMANREMAINS...........................................................................................222.1.5 THECHALLENGESFACEDATDVIINCIDENTS.................................................................................232.1.6 THEIMPORTANCEOFCHAINOFCUSTODY...................................................................................242.2 RFIDTECHNOLOGY...................................................................................................................242.2.1 RFIDCHALLENGES..................................................................................................................262.2.2 RFIDAPPLICATIONS................................................................................................................262.3 FORENSICSANDRFID................................................................................................................28
3. EXPERIMENTALDESIGN.......................................................................................................293.1 METHOD1:DRYTRIALOFEQUIPMENT........................................................................................293.2 METHOD2:MOCKDVISCENE....................................................................................................30
4. PROJECTAIMS,OBJECTIVESANDNULLHYPOTHESIS............................................................304.1 RESEARCHAIMSANDOBJECTIVES...............................................................................................304.2 HYPOTHESIS............................................................................................................................31
5. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................31
6. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................33
9
ListofFigures
Figure1. TheRFIDTrovantag,encapsulatedinaglassvialthatisapproximately1cm
inlength
ListofAbbreviations
AM Ante-Mortem
DNA DeoxyribonucleicAcid
DVI DisasterVictimIdentification
GPS GlobalPositioningSystem
PM Post-Mortem
PPE PersonalProtectionEquipment
RFID RadioFrequencyIdentification
10
1. Introduction
Inthefieldofforensicscienceanddisastervictimidentification(DVI),adisaster is
defined as an unforeseen incident that consequently results in the demise of amass of
lives1.Suchincidentsmayinclude,howeverarenotlimitedto,naturaldisasters,trafficor
technical accidents and terrorist attacks. Following these fatal events, DVI processes are
conducted by forensic investigators in order to identify the fallen victims, as this is the
highest priority1, 2. Qualified and experienced specialists, such as pathologists,
odontologists, anthropologists, fingerprint experts, photographers, and many more, are
involvedinordertoexpeditetheprocessingofbodyparts1.Thislegalresponsibilityfallson
the investigators to positively identify every victim, to the best of their ability, for the
purposeofreturningtheremainstotheirrespectivefamilies1.
Thesequenceofprocessesthatareconductedbyinvestigatorsinvolvefourphases
whichareacknowledgedandexecutedgloballyat theaftermathofanydisaster incident.
After several large scaleDVI incidents thathaveoccurred internationally, the four-phase
process has demonstrated to be a reliable procedure, where post-mortem evidence of
human remainswere positively identified tomatch the data ofmissing individuals1. The
DVI INTERPOL recognises that technology is continuously developing and as such, has
enabled the operations and procedures to become increasingly effective1. It is also
mentionedthatsuchtechnologiescannotbeasubstitutefortheexpertsandskillsthatare
involvedineachphase1. However,thisprojectaimstoaidtheexpertforensicofficersby
employingtechnologythatcouldpotentiallybeutilisedatDVIincidents,inawaythatwill
expeditetheprocessofidentification.
11
In order for the DVI process to be conducted successfully and expeditiously, the
four phases must be strictly adhered to. The first phase involves the processing of the
humanremainsandpropertyatthesceneofthedisaster.Thepost-mortemisphasetwo,
whereadetailedanalysisoftheremainsisconductedinamortuary.Next,beingthethird
phase,theante-mortemprocessisconducted.Thisincludescollectingthedataofmissing
individualsfromnumeroussources.Reconciliationisthefourthandfinalphase,wheredata
fromthepost-mortemandante-mortemismatched,forapotentialpositiveidentification1.
At the aftermath of a disaster, victims are found to be the citizens of various
countries. For this reason, the responsibility of theDVI procedureof phases falls on the
officials andexpertsof those respective countries. This responsibility is known tobe the
“GoodDVIGovernance”, that includes the sensibility, sensitivity andmoral treatment of
eachvictim.Theofficialsofthecountrywheretheincidentoccurred,alsohavethehighest
duty of conducting suchDVI procedures, that should consequently result in the positive
identificationofasmanyvictimsaspossible1.
The approach to responding to ahorrific event canbemade, to a greater extent
manageable,byclassifyingthedisasterasanopenorclosedform.TheDVIINTERPOLstates
thatintheeventofamajorandunfortunatedisaster,whereseveraldeceasedvictimsare
unidentified,andnopreviousrecordsordataareobtainable, itwouldbeclassifiedasan
openformdisaster1.Thedifficultywithsuchcasesisthatthereisnostartingpointtobegin
amissingpersonlist,hencebecomingcomplicatedtogaininformationonthetotalnumber
of deceased victims. Consequently, specialistsmust conduct an efficient andmeticulous
investigationforthepurposeofsuccessfulDVIprocedures1.
Acloseddisaster,ontheotherhand,isdefinedasadisasterwhereeachindividual
is identified. An example of this, listed by INTERPOL, is an aeroplane crash with an
12
extensive list of passengers that were onboard1. Hence, this list can be accessed
immediately, andmore positive identifications of individuals can bemade by employing
DVIproceduressooner.Theremayalsobedisastersthatcouldbeclassifiedasbothopen
and closed, in which case, officials must be broad-minded. In any case, classifying the
disaster can significantly reduce the amount of time that is spent onDVI procedures by
managingthesceneappropriately1.
After the examination of deceased victims froma disaster, authoritiesmust then
confirmtheidentities.Thepost-morteminformationorresults,aresignificantly impacted
by factors such as the amount of time that the human remains were exposed and
vulnerable to environmental conditions as well as how damaged or decomposed the
remains are. It is of vital importance that the analysis procedures of identification are
conducted in a reliable and scientifically accuratemanner. They should alsobemethods
thatcanbeundertakeninafieldenvironment,whilstinafeasibleamountoftime.TheDVI
INTERPOL states that the primary methods of identification include fingerprint analysis,
DNA analysis and odontology, as they are highly dependable1. Secondary methods of
identification can include, however, are not limited to, descriptions of the individual,
medicalrecords,scarringortattoodesigns,andwearablesontheremains.Thismethodis
notadequate,howeversupportstheprimaryidentificationmethod.Allinformationthatis
obtained through AM and PM examinations should be recorded accordingly for the
purposeofevaluation,andcomparisontoinformationthatmightalsobeobtainedfroma
victims residence. The quality of such recordings is of the utmost importance in any
investigation1.
TheDVIINTERPOLGuiderecognisesthatthegeneralimpressionofanidentification
process is that it is time-consuming. The purpose of this research is to outline the
13
difficulties that forensic authorities encounter when conducting such investigations.
Unfortunately, due to the general misconception of standard international procedures,
familiesofthosewhohavelosttheirlivesindisasterincidentstendtobecomedisgruntled
attheextensivetimethatistaken.Assuch,thisresearchaimstoprovideandinvestigatea
potential solution for the timeliness response to mass disasters. The result of an
acceleratedforensicinvestigationcouldtoagreatextent,relievethestressandanguishof
survivingfamilymembersandpreventdecomposition1.
By conducting severalmass disaster investigations, international authorities have
developedanumberingsystemthathasbeenclearlyoutlined inAnnexure13of theDVI
INTERPOLGuide1. At the scene of a disaster incident, the remains of a victim should be
assignedadistinctivenumber,whereitisrequiredtostay,asitwouldbeassociatedtothe
victim and any personal belongings. This identifying number is used on all forms of
documentation and relevant exhibits or samples for the duration of the mass disaster
identificationprocess.Additionally,labelsandseveralformsmustbecompletedbyofficials
astheinvestigationisunderway.Annexure11oftheINTERPOLGuideprovidestwospecific
forms and they are known to be the Post-Mortem (pink colored) Victim Identification:
Unidentified Human Remains form, and the Ante-Mortem (yellow colored) Victim
Identification:MissingPersonform1.
Instructionsofthedetailandhowtofilleachformisoutlined,alongwithdirections
onhowtofastenDVIlabelstoanexhibit.Ithasalsobeenmentionedthatwiththeevolving
of technology, bar codes have been utilised for the purpose of tracking body bags. The
remainsofadeceasedvictim,alongwiththeirbelongingsandaffiliateddocumentation,are
placed in a body bag that includes the PM identification number in the bar code1. The
instructionsforlabellingandcompletingtherelevantformsforidentification,aretosome
14
extent complex andwould vary in the caseof unique situations. Furthermore, filling the
documentswouldbeatediousprocessforforensicofficersatthescene,consideringthat
eachdocumenthasaminimumofeighteenpages.Forthesereasons,theresearchproject
thatwill be conducted, aims to simplify the process of identification through the use of
RFIDtechnology.
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is an advanced technology that transmits a
wireless radio signal, in order to track and identify objects. This technology has been
implementedandinvestedinbusinessesonaglobalscale3.Biohackingwiththeuseofthis
devicehasalsoemerged for thepurposeofbiometricanimal identification4.A studyhas
indicatedthattheRFIDsystemhasbeencommerciallyappliedandhasbeenbeneficial in
several ways, however it may raise privacy issues5, which would not affect the field of
forensics and DVI. The technology has been implemented in manufacturing processes,
inventorycontrol,transportation,logistics,security,andrecalls5.Thesystemitselfisknown
for its reliability as well as its consistency in performing at a high standard. It enables
information tobestored in transceivers,and thedata tobe readautomatically.Assuch,
thedevicecanbereadatanyplaceoratanytime3.
Chudy-Laskowska has indicated that an RFID tag may contain information that
details the object, the goods in transport, as well as its location3. There are several
advantagestotheutilisationofthistechnology,andthis includes itswirelesscapabilities,
with a distance range as far as several tens of meters from the reader, its automatic
operating system, and it is scarcely visible, unlike general barcodes. Passive designs
containing a chip may feature a replaceable/non-replaceable power source, where the
power is provided to the chip and expands the area of operation. Active tags contain a
power source, that enables the identifier to measure physical characteristics such as
15
temperature, light,pressure, therateofmovementanddisfiguration.Allof theseresults
canbestoredinthememoryofthedevice1.
The technology has a far greater amount of benefits when compared to the
drawbacks. RFID possesses “read andwrite” operations and packagingwill not create a
barrierfortheoperation.Assuch,byimplantingthetagsub-dermally,thedeviceshouldbe
capableofreceivingthe informationof thevictimorremains.Therateof transmission is
high,informationcanbeupdatedregularly,thedatawillbeencryptedandcanbeusedin
several programs3. Dirt/weather resistant tags are capable of operating in a vast
temperaturerange,withahighreliabilityandtrackinglocationsystem.Thereisachanceof
readingseveraltagsatonetime,andthetechnologyexaminestheconditions/environment
where the object was located. The cost of the advanced technology however, is a
disadvantage.With the transmissionof radio frequencies, there isahealth risk for those
involved or consistently operating the system3. Throughmaking use of the RFID system,
unemploymentratesmayincrease.Passivetagsmustbereadataslowerrateinorderto
ensure theencryptionofdata,whilstother tagsmayexperience reading issuesdue toa
short distance3. Although, many of these limitations may be avoided through careful
considerationinthefieldofforensicsandDVI.
Inthecontextof largescaleDVI incidents, theuseofanRFIDtaggingsystemhas
thepotentialtosignificantlydecreasethevaluableforensicexaminationandidentification
timeof victims. Amongst various other evidence types,DNAprofiling is known to be an
accurate and systematic procedure that can positively identify body parts of a victim.
However,obtainingandcollectingahigh-qualityDNAsamplecanmoreoftenthannot,be
relativelycomplexduetotheaftermathofaDVIincident.Thepreservationofcadaversis
madedifficultbyenvironmentalconditionsaswellastheriskofcrosscontamination6.
16
BodeTechnology isknowntobea“forensicDNAservicesandproductsprovider”
thathassuccessfullyutilisedtheRFIDsystemforthetrackingofevidenceandcasefilesto
improve “efficiency, accuracy and security” of forensic examinations and the chain of
custody procedures7. With the potential use of the RFID system, microchips could be
implanted intheremainsorbelongingsatthedisastersceneby investigators,detailscan
be input, theremainscouldbepackagedanddispatchedsooner for furtheranalysis.The
technology is also likely to provide comprehensive information that will assist with the
chainofcustody.Hence,theuseofRFIDtagscouldsubstantiallyexpeditetheprocessingof
humanremainsinlargescaleDVIincidents.
2. Discussion
2.1 MassDisasters
2.1.1 DVIProcesses
The DVI INTERPOL Guide, initially published in 1984, has been reviewed and
amendedbyexpertsandauthorities,asexperiencewasgainedfromdisasterincidentsthat
haveoccurredovermanyyears1.Someinternationaldisasterswhereexpertshavegained
valuableexperience, thathas contributed to themakingof the INTERPOLGuide include:
theOklahomabombingin1995,wheretherewere168fatalities;theWorldTradeCenterin
2001, as many as 2,000 lives were lost; the Asian tsunami that occurred in 2004 had
approximately 280,000 deceased victims; and hurricane Katrina that took an estimated
2,000 lives8. The DVI Guide’s sole purpose is to provide a reference, explanations and
instructions to INTERPOL Member Countries, in the case of a disaster incident where
identificationsofvictimsshouldbemade. It is intendedforusebyexperts in the fieldof
forensics as well as law, by local and national “strategic managers and planners and
17
operationalpractitioners”toaidinorganizingDVIteamsandmanagingtheproceduresthat
shouldbeconductedatanincident1.
Thereareanumberofhighlyskilledandexperiencedspecialistswhoareinvolvedin
the DVI investigation process, some of which include forensic pathologists, forensic
odontologists, fingerprint experts, forensic biologists, forensic anthropologists,
photographers, scene and PM recorders, evidence collection and management teams,
investigators, and missing persons officers. The four phases of the DVI process, as
mentionedpreviously,areconductedbytheseexperts,astheyensurethatallprocedures
areaccurateandefficientlyperformed.TheDVIGuidedetailsthefirstphaseasthescene,
where the area would be treated as though it was a crime scene, where all remains,
exhibitsandpropertyarekept intheiroriginal locations.CrimeSceneExaminersandDVI
SpecialistTeams,wouldthenberequiredto forensicallyexaminethescene,accordingto
standardprocedures1.
Inaccordancewith theDVIGuide,allhumanremainsmustbe identifiedwith the
preciselocationrecorded.Eachremainmustbemarkedwithanumberedpostorevidence
plate along with adequate documentation thatmust be completed. A recovery number
shouldthenbeattachedtotheremainsandisusedasareferencethroughouttheprocess.
Abodybagisusedtostorethehumanremainsandthereferencenumberisthenplaced
ontheoutsideofthebag1.Tosimplifythisprocess,RFIDmicrochipscouldbeutilisedtotag
theremains,thenallrelevantinformation,suchasthelocation,byGPStracking,wouldbe
storedinthechipitself.Thisremovesanyuncertaintythatinformationmaygoastrayinthe
DVIprocess.
As the scene management plan is completed, the forensic examinations of
photographing,recording,andexhibitcollectioncancommenceandbecompleted.Atthis
18
point, information can be noted on to the PM (pink colored) Victim Identification:
Unidentified Human Remains form. The PM form is a nineteen-page document that
providesachecklistregardingspecificdetailsofthedeceasedvictim.Otheroperationssuch
as “recovery, storage and transportation of human remains and property” should be
interrelatedwiththisprocess.Thepreservationandstorageofevidenceexhibitsmustalso
be involved1.As this lengthyprocessmaybecometedious for specialists toconduct, it is
possible for RFID technology to address this issue by reducing the time it takes to
documentallnecessarydetailsregardingthedisastervictims.
Forthepurposeofconductingthesecondphase,Post-Mortem,a(temporaryset-up
or pre-established mortuary should be utilised, for the examination and storage of the
human remains. At this stage, photography, fingerprint analysis, DNA sampling,
odontology, autopsy and radiology procedures are carried out. Any wearables or other
belongings to the remains are analysed, cleaned and stored appropriately. Further
information that has been observed during this phase is also recorded on the pink PM
form.Asthisphasecomestoitscompletion,theremainsareplacedinsecurestorageuntil
aformalidentificationhasbeenmadeandisapprovedbyauthoritiesortheCoroner1.
The AM,where information is gathered regardingmissing individuals in order to
positivelyidentifywhencomparedtoadeceasedvictimsdata,isthethirdphaseoftheDVI
process at the event of a large scale disaster. A missing person list is generated from
families and friends who express concerns of a loved one and are then interviewed to
collect adequate details of the potentially deceased victim. Belongings, wearables,
medical/dental records, photographs, DNA and fingerprints, are amongst the highest
priority of details, samples and descriptions that are collected for comparison. These
details are recorded on the eighteen-page, AM, yellow colored Victim Identification:
19
Missing Person form. After this form is sufficiently completed, the file is examined and
comparedagainstthePMinformation,andiftherequirementsforapositiveidentification
aremet,thefileispassedontotheReconciliationCentre1.Again,itispossibletominimize
thetimespentoncompletinglargepaperdocuments,byutilisingandtakingadvantageofa
secureandreliablesystemsuchastheRFIDtechnology.
ThefourthandfinalphaseoftheDVIprocessoccursattheReconciliationCentre,
wherethePMandAMdocumentsarecomparedforthepurposeofpositively identifying
disaster victim remains. Following this, and provided that all necessary thresholds have
beenmet, the individual cases arepreparedandpresented to an identificationboardof
authorities,inordertocometoafinalconclusion.Theresultsthatareevidencetothefinal
conclusion,areportthatindicatescomparisons,alongwitha“certificateofidentification”,
areall presented toanauthority suchas theCoroner, foreachhuman remain1.Adeath
certificateisformallyissued,thatconfirmstheidentityandcauseofthevictimsdeath,as
theconclusionsareacceptedbyauthorities.Finally,astheprocesscomestoaconclusion,
preparations can begin for the victims remains to be returned to their respective loved
ones1.
Section7.16oftheDVIINTERPOLGuideconsidershowinformationisrecordedand
managed1. It stresses the importance of the data that is subsequently collected from a
disaster and will be used for the entirety of the investigation into the identification of
victims.Several considerationshavebeenmentioned that should takeprecedence in the
processandtheseinclude:“identifyingandrecordingwhatdocumentationhasorisbeing
madeandinwhatform”(electronicorhandwritten),“identifyinghowscenesandobjects
willberecorded(e.g.photographic,videomapsorsketches)andhowsuchrecordingswill
bemanaged”, aswell as “determining how all recordingswill be stored and transferred
20
confidentially and in a timely way”1. The DVI Guide indicates that the confidentiality of
informationshouldalsobeplacedahighpriorityinsuchinvestigations1.
WiththeuseoftheRFIDsystem,thetechnologymaybeabletominimizeoreven
eliminate the need tomake decisions, such as determining if electronically inputting or
hand-writing informationwillbesuitablefor furtherprocessing.Thereader/writerdevice
may have the capability to store essential details that relate to a particular exhibit,
furthermorereducingexaminationtime.Thiswouldallowforagreaternumberofvictims
remainstobeforensicallyexamined,andthereforeanincreaseinpositiveidentifications.
Through implementing this system, investigation officers can be assured that the
informationremainsconfidential,as ithasthepotentialtotrackthelocationandprovide
detailsofthechainofcustody.
As mentioned previously, Annexure 13 of the DVI INTERPOL Guide explains the
numbering system that should be followed in a DVI operation1. The purpose of the
numberingsystemistosimplyidentifytheremainsofdeceasedvictimsorseparatepartsof
abodyanddistinguishitfromotheritemsofevidence.TheguidesuggeststhatDVIlabels
should bemade of “moisture proofmaterial”1. Alternatively, it could be protected by a
transparentplastic covering. The label itself shouldbe “securely fastened to thedisaster
victims remains”1. This may present a complication, as there is a high risk of the label
becomingdetached,damagedandmisplaced.Toresolvethisissue,glass-encasedRFIDtags
couldbedirectlyimplantedintothecadaver/bodyparts,thereforelesseningthepossibility
ofmisplacementorconfusionbetweenhumanremains. Itmayalsoprovide investigating
officerswithassurancethattheprocesscanbeconductedsuccessfully,andwithease.
21
2.1.2 Managingthetimelinessofidentifyingdisastervictims
Three case studies by Sondorp et al.were conducted after the 2004 SouthAsian
tsunami disaster that affected the countries of Thailand, Indonesia and Sri Lanka9. The
authorsintendedtodocumenthowthefatalitiesofamassofvictimsweremanagedafter
the large scale disaster incident. Body recovery, storage of remains, timeliness,
identificationprocesses,andassociatedhealthrisksthatmayhaveoccurred,wereamongst
thestagesoftheDVIproceduresthatwereconsideredandexaminedaspartofthestudy.
Thepublishedarticle,writtenin2006,statesthatguidelines“formanagingmassfatalities
followinglargenaturaldisasters”werenotprovided9.TheDVIINTERPOLGuide,published
in2013,currentlyincludesdescriptiveinstructionsontheprocessofmanagingamultitude
of casualties1. Both documents however, discuss the necessity of a reliable and
manageableDVIprocedure.Sondorpetal.mentionsthatthe“psychologicalwell-being”of
survivorsmay be negatively impacted as a result ofmishandled or unidentified victims9.
The INTERPOL similarly states that victim identification is their highest priority, as it is a
“legalobligationandmoralnecessity”1.Forthepurposeofforensicallyidentifyingbodies
expeditiously,andforthefamiliesandfriendsofvictims,RFIDtagscouldbeimplemented.
Therefore,itishighlylikelythatmorevictimsmaybepositivelyidentified.
2.1.3 Thedecompositionofhumanremains
The post-mortem process of rapid decomposition is the consequence of several
conditions,whichinclude:humidityorweatherconditions;thesurfacethatthebodyisin
contactwith, e.g. soil properties, aswell as types ofwater (salt or freshwater) that the
remainsare located in; insectorscavengeractivity;clothing;burialanddepth;traumato
thebody;andtheweightof thebody1,9-12. Autolysisandputrefactionareapartof the
decompositionprocess10however, therateofdecayingmayvaryduetotheconditionof
22
thehumanremainsthemselves11.Tumeretal.discoveredthatthepropertiesandtextures
of soil can significantly affect the decomposition of human remains and this should be
considered in the estimation of postmortem intervals in crime scene investigations10.
Magni et al. conducted research that considered the “fate of floating remains in any
aquaticenvironment”11.Theresultsofthestudyconcludedthatmarinelifeactivityonthe
cadaverassistedinestimatingthepostmorteminterval11.
Sondorpetal. indicatedthatthedecayingofhumanremainsmadetheprocessof
visual victim identification difficult after a period of time9. At the scene of the disaster
incident, freezerswereunavailable for thestorageofhumanremains,andconsequently,
dryicewasutilised.Alternatively,themethodoftemporaryburialwasconductedduetoa
lackofforensiccapacity.Followingthetsunamidisaster,forensicmanagementplanswere
not thoroughlyestablished,hencetherateofdecomposition increased, the timelinessof
theresponsewasrestricted,andfewervictimswerepositivelyidentified9.Forthisreason,
the implementationof RFID technology could significantly increase the response timeof
forensicexperts,whichinturnwouldpreventfurtherdecompositionofhumanremains.
2.1.4 Thestorageofhumanremains
Inordertoprevent furtherdecayingofcadaversorbodyparts, theDVI INTERPOL
Guideindicatesthatmortuariesshouldbeutilisedforstorage.Othercoolingfacilitiessuch
as forensic medical institutes, local cemeteries/crematoriums, temporary mortuary
suppliers, ice skating rinks, refrigeration facilities, underground garages and refrigerated
transport containers, may also be used in the event of a large scale DVI incident1. The
remains shouldbe storedat a temperatureof 4-6°C for examination, unless itwouldbe
storedforalengthyperiodoftime,itiskeptat-14°C.Itisrequiredthatalistofremainsis
attached to the outside of the facility, and a duplicate should be updated in a central
23
registry. This ensures accuracy and reliability of the DVI process1. To aid the process of
storing deceased victims, the RFID system would be capable of retaining and updating
information.Thiswouldremovethecomplexitiesinmaintaininginventory.
2.1.5 ThechallengesfacedatDVIincidents
At the scene of amass disaster, it is possible for health andwell-being issues to
ariseandtheserisksrelatedirectlytotheworkthatDVIofficialsperform.Physicalhazards
suchasaltitudesicknessorworkinginextremeweatherconditions(extremeheatorcold
exposure)shouldbeconsideredandmanagedappropriately13.Blacketal.recognisesthat
byhandling severaldeadbodies, there isahighchance thatDVImembersof staff could
becomeinfectedwithdiseases13.Therearethreespecificinfectioushazardsthatarelikely
tobeencountered,whichinclude:blood-borneviruses(HepatitisB,HepatitisC,andHIV);
gastrointestinal (Salmonellosis, E coli, and Cholera); and respiratory infections
(Tuberculosis) 13. TheDVI INTERPOLGuide recommends that all personnel areprotected
against such hazards and direct contact with human remains, by using full Personal
ProtectionEquipment(PPE)1.Cross-contaminationcanbeavoidedifDVIofficersfollowthe
setguidelinesand requirements1,13.With the implementationof theRFID system, cross-
contamination can be further eliminated, as implanters are utilised to insert the glass-
encasedmicrochips into the human remains. This will decrease the amount of physical
handlingofexhibitsbyforensicinvestigators,therebyreducingtheriskofhealthhazards.
An article byWinskog et al. 21, considers other challenges that may arise at the
sceneofadisaster.ThiscanincludetheDVIprocessthatisconductedin“under-resourced
andsometimesisolatedlocations”21.Fromthis,anotherconcernisraisedastheremaybe
manyindividualswith“differentnationalities,languagesandexperience”21.Toaidofficers
in this instance, the RFID system could simplify procedures, by allowing only specific
24
details,suchasidentificationnumbersand/orGPSlocations,tobeinputandstoredinthe
memoryofthedevice.Communicationbetweeninvestigatorsmaythenbelesscomplex.
2.1.6 Theimportanceofchainofcustody
Sutton et al. expresses the importance of maintaining chain of custody by
describing the integrity and continuity of each itemof evidence14. It is crucial that each
exhibitdoesnotbecomecontaminated,asthereisariskofadecreaseinevidentialvalue.
The authors describe ‘integrity’ as demonstrating that an item of evidence has been
correctlymanagedandhasnotbeeninterferedwith,inregardtotheremoval,additionor
alterationofcasematerial.Theydefine‘continuity’asthepointintimewhereanitemof
interestbecomespotentialevidence,anditslocationand/ormovementsaredocumented,
until a final conclusion is reached by authorities14. These terms are used in crime scene
investigations as well as DVI incidents by forensic officers. The standard procedures for
chainofcustody,includerecordingobservationsordetailsindocuments,registersand/or
logbooks.Eachofficeror individualthathandlestheexhibits,mustalsoconformwiththe
chain of custody procedures, therefore successfullymaintaining integrity, continuity and
evidential value14. Inorder to increase theefficiencyof this process, RFIDwriterdevices
may be used to store all of such information on a microchip that is implanted in the
evidence. The system would recognise GPS location and hence, the evidence can be
monitored,andthechainofcustodyismaintained.Byimplementingthismethod,written
documentscanberemovedfromtheprocess,therebyreducingthetimethatisconsumed
byinventorycontrol.
2.2 RFIDTechnology
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology, is an advanced system that has
greatpotentialtobeasuccessfulreplacementforthebarcodingsystem.Ithastheability
25
to store large amounts of data, adapt to different functions or activities, and is an
operationthatcanbemodifiedwithease.Thechiplesssystemisuniqueduetoitsfeatures
of identification as well as its “tracing and tracking capabilities” 3, 15. Karmakar et al.
confirmsthatRFIDusessensortechnologythepurposeof“real-timemonitoringofassets”
15.Forthisreason,RFIDiswellsuitedforuseintheforensicfieldofDVIincidents.
Asmentionedpreviously,RFIDtechnologytransmitsawirelessradiosignal,forthe
mainpurposeof identifyingand locating items3. Itallows fordatabasemanagement, the
control of inventory, logistics, security of data storage, and possesses read or write
functions3,15,17.Karmakaretal.statesthatsomeRFIDtagscanshowdetailsregardingthe
environment that surrounds the object15. This can include “temperature, pressure,
moisture content, acceleration, and location” 3,15, all ofwhich factors arenecessary and
mayassistofficers intheDVIprocess.TherearethreeknownclassificationsofRFIDtags,
that includeactive,semi-activeandpassive.Eachtypeoftagisstructureddifferentlydue
to its “on-board power supplies” 15. Active tags contain a power source (battery),which
furtherdevelopssignalsandprovidesenergytothechip15,16.Theexamplethathasbeen
providedbyWant16,describesanactivetag,atransponderthatisfastenedtoanaircraft,in
order todetermine its countryof origin.According toKarmakar15, a semi-active tag also
possesses a battery, however it only provides energy to the chip. Unlike the active and
semi-active tags, the passive tag does not contain a source of power, as it searches for
energy from a signal that is emitted by an RFID reader device15. This is ideal for a DVI
processasthechipliferemainsforever15.AnotherreasonwhyRFIDpassivetagsshouldbe
utilised is due to its structure, as it has a form of encapsulation16 (see Figure 1 below).
Chudy-Laskowska andWant state that the encapsulation protects the chip and the tag
26
antenna from the surrounding environmental conditions, which is suitable for DVI
operations3,16.
Figure116:TheRFIDTrovantag,encapsulatedinaglassvialthatisapproximately1cminlength.
2.2.1 RFIDchallenges
Chudy-Laskowska describes the RFID tagging to be reliable and a system that
consistently achieves the very best results3. Although utilising this advanced technology
may be beneficial, themost undesirable challenge is the cost of implementation in the
process3, 16, especially in the case of DVI. Another challenge thatWant discusses, is the
need for acceptance of the new and advanced system16. He proceeds to explain that it
shouldbecautiouslyimplementedinorderto“incorporatesafeguards”inthecaseofRFID
misuse16. A drawback as stated byWeinstein18 is that the storagememory of the RFID
passive tag is relatively small, containing approximately two kilobits. However, he also
indicatesthatastechnologyiscontinuouslydeveloping,thequantityofmemorythatatag
wouldhold,shouldincreasesignificantly18.
2.2.2 RFIDapplications
RFID tags have proven to be successfully implemented in businesses on a global
scale,asstatedbyChudy-Laskowska3.Kantareddyetal.conductedastudywhereRFIDtag-
27
sensorswereputtouseasaninventory,assistingintheprocessofkeepingacountofthe
sharpsthatwereutilised intheoperatingtheatre17.The intentionoftheresearchwasto
minimizethepossibilityoffortuitously leavingasharp insideapatient,aftersurgery.The
researchers demonstrated that the RFID system was reliable and has the potential to
eliminate “manual intervention”, whilst reducing any possibility of error17. Weinstein18
mentions several uses of RFID tags, and these include: “identification cards for building
access,creditcards,orbusfares”.Tagsmayalsobeutilisedontherearof“labelsprinted
on standard ink jet printers” 18. The purpose of this is for the placement of inventory18.
Weinstein18 describes where the RFID technology has been successfully implemented.
Some of these businesses include: supply chain logistics for the tracking of products;
securityandidentification,asmentionedabove;andmovementtracking–ofhumans.
RFIDhasbecomeausefulsystemthathasbeenappliedtomanyareasofeveryday
life. Toll-payment transponders, libraries, passports and biohacking are amongst those
areasmentionedbyJuels19andYetisen4.Juels19statesthatRFIDtagshavebeenimplanted
inhumansforthepurposeof“medical-recordindexing”.Byscanningthetagonapatient,a
hospitalisabletolocatetherelevantrecords19.BiohackingwiththeuseofthisRFIDdevice
hasalsoemergedforthepurposeofbiometricanimalidentification,accordingtoYetisen4.
This author also noted that through the development of new and advanced RFID
technologyforanimaltrackingandidentification,ithadencouraged“self-experimentalists”
to subdermally insert tags into themselves4. The purpose of this was to interact with
electronicdevicessuchascomputers4.
Although the RFID device has some limitations, these can be avoided through
careful consideration in the field of forensics and DVI. In the context of large scale DVI
incidents, the tagging systemhas the potential to greatly decrease the valuable forensic
28
examination and identification time of victims.With the use of RFID, body parts can be
taggedatthescenebyinvestigators,detailscanbeinput,theremainscouldbepackaged
and dispatched sooner for further analysis. The technology is also likely to provide
comprehensive information thatwill assistwith the chain of custody. Hence, the use of
RFIDtagscouldsubstantiallyexpeditetheprocessingofhumanremainsinlargescaleDVI
incidents.
2.3 ForensicsandRFID
BodeTechnology,mentionedpreviously, is known tobea “forensicDNA services
andproducts provider” that has successfully utilised theRFID system for the tracking of
evidence and case files to improve “efficiency, accuracy and security” of forensic
examinationsandthechainofcustodyprocedures7.TheBode-RFIDsolutionsinclude:
• Securelytrackingevidencefromthemomentofcollectionatthesceneandestablishing
electronic chain of custody through entering information onto a RFID reader/writer
device7.
• Reducing accessioning time, RFID tags are read on samples and are automatically
identified,whilst thetaggedbadgesof laboratorypersonnelarereadbyRFIDreaders.
Thismaintainschainofcustody7.
• Identifyingandcollectinginformationfrommorethanonesampleforinventories7.
• Alarmsareactivatedintheeventofitemsorpersonnelenteringunauthorizedareas7.
Wessel20 describes how the Dutch Forensic Institute uses RFID to control crime
scene evidence, where labels include an “embedded RFID tag, readable text and a bar-
codedserialnumber”.Uponloggingtheevidence,asmallerlabel,withthesamebar-coded
number, is placed on the sheet. An automatic reading station that is similar to airport
luggagescanners, is thenutilisedwhentheevidencearrivesat the laboratory.Thecrime
29
sceneexhibitswouldbetransportedonabeltintoaportalthatreadstheRFIDtagsandthe
evidence is then photographed. Similar to Bode Technology7,Wessel20mentions that by
determiningthedifference inreadtimes,thesystemcancalculate ifan itemofevidence
wasmoved. Both articles7, 20 have similar solutions to the control of evidence, and this
includes the sounding of an alarm as evidencemay bemovedwithout permission in an
unauthorised area. TheDutch Forensic Institute’s highest priority is not todetermine an
“estimated return on its investment”, but the improvement in integrity, the chain of
custodyandmanagementofevidence20.
Inordertoreducetheintensiveandtime-consuminglabourthatisinvolvedinthe
process of DVI, as well as errors that are created by hand-writing, the RFID technology
shouldbeimplementedatlargescaledisasterincidents.Throughitsuse,thesystemcould
substantially expedite the processing of human remains and hence, positively identify a
greaternumberofvictims.
3. ExperimentalDesign
3.1 Method1:DryTrialofEquipment
Thistestwillbeconductedtodetermineifaminimumoftwohundredwordscanbe
input to an Allflex Microchip (RFID tag). Information such as the date, time, officer
identification, GPS location/triangulation measurements, photograph references,
identification/exhibitnumber,observationnotes,and/ormovementtracking,willbetyped
intotheVirbacRFIDread/writedevice.FurtherinformationwillthenbetypedintotheRFID
read/write device, in an attempt to ascertain its overwrite capabilities and data storage
limits.Observationswillberecorded.
30
3.2 Method2:MockDVIScene
An empty 3m x 3m room/demountable atMurdochUniversitywill be utilised to
simulateaDVIscenarioandfourpiecesofanimaltissue(beef)willbelaidontheflooras
“bodyparts”.TheBackHomeMiniMicrochips(Virbac)willbesub-dermallyinsertedbyan
implanterintoeachanimaltissue.Theglasscasingofthemicrochipensuresthelowriskof
contamination. The information, as mentioned above will then be typed into the RFID
reader, foreachmicrochip.Thepiecesofanimal tissuewillbepackagedasper standard
forensicDVIprocedures and stored in the freezerof aMurdochUniversity laboratory at
minus4°C.
Afteroneweekthepackageswillberemovedfromthefreezerandrelocatedtoa
laboratorybench.TheanimaltissuewillberemovedfromthepackageandtheRFIDreader
willbeusedtoassessiftheinformationonthemicrochipremainsaccessible,accurateand
reliable.Basedontheobservations/resultsthatwillbedeterminedfromMethod1,further
informationmaybe input to themicrochip from the readerdevice.Observationswill be
recordedinregardtothefeasibilityoftheRFIDtagsandreader.TheexpenseoftheRFID
technologywillthenbecomparedtoitsfunctionality.Thismethodwillberepeatedtwice
forreliability.
4. ProjectAims,ObjectivesandNullHypothesis
4.1 ResearchAimsandObjectives
Theobjectiveof this study is to investigate theusefulnessof theRFID technology
for the expedition of human remain processing in large scale DVI incidents. The study
intendstodeterminethefeasibilityandexpensesassociatedwiththeuseofRFIDtags.
31
Thisaimcanbefurtherdifferentiatedas:
1) TodeterminethefeasibilityofRFIDtagsfortheexpeditionofbodypartprocessing
inlargescaleDVIincidents,byconductingadrytestandmockDVIscenario.
2) To investigate theexpensesassociatedwith implementing theRFID technology in
largescaleDVIincidents.
4.2 Hypothesis
Asub-dermalRFID tag canbeused inamockDVI incident,utilisinganimal tissue
(meat)thatislaidacrossa3mx3mroom,tostoredata(location,photographreferences,
identification/exhibitnumber,observationnotes,and/or tracking)pertaining to thebody
part.
5. Conclusion
There are many scholarly articles that present detailed information on the DVI
process,casestudies,aswellasinformationregardingRFIDtechnology.However,veryfew
papers discuss the need for further improvements on the expedition of body part
processinginmassdisasters.Winskogetal.21explorestheprogressionfromdisastervictim
identification to disaster victim management as a “necessary evolution”. The legal
responsibility falls on the investigators to positively identify every victim, to the best of
theirability,forthesolepurposeofreturningtheremainstotheirrespectivefamilies2.The
RFID tagging system has the ability to significantly decrease forensic examination and
identification timeof victims. It alsohas thepotential to limit decomposition, aswell as
cross-contaminationanddisease1,13,whilstexpeditingthefreezingprocessforthestorage
ofremains1.
32
RFIDhasproventobesuccessfulinseveralorganisationsonaninternationalscale
and has even been effective through sub-dermal implantation in humans as well as
animals4.Although the costof implementingRFID is a limitation3, it hasdemonstrateda
highstandardofaccuracyandreliability inthefieldofforensics,as ithasbeenutilisedin
thestandardprocessofcollectingevidence, inventoriesandthetrackingofcase files7,20.
This, in turn, maintains chain of custody. Implementing the RFID tagging system will
essentially assist forensic investigators as well as legal authorities to expedite the DVI
processanddetermineagreateramountofpositivedeceasedvictimidentifications.
33
6. References1. INTERPOL.DisasterVictimIdentificationGuide.2013;6-127.
2. BroughAL,MorganB,RuttyGN.Thebasicsofdisastervictimidentification.Journalof
ForensicRadiologyandImaging.2015;3(1):29-37.
3. Chudy-LaskowskaK. Factors influencing thedecision to implementanRFID system.
LogForum.2018;14(2).
4. YetisenAK.Biohacking.TrendsinBiotechnology.2018;36(8):744-7.
5. KellyEP,EricksonGS.RFIDtags:commercialapplicationsv.privacyrights. Industrial
Management&DataSystems.2005;105(5/6):703-13
6. de Boer HH, Maat GJR, Kadarmo DA, Widodo PT, Kloosterman AD, Kal AJ. DNA
identification of human remains in Disaster Victim Identification (DVI): An efficient
sampling method for muscle, bone, bone marrow and teeth. Forensic Science
International(Online).2018;289:253-9.
7. IndustryG.RFIDhelpsforensicanalysis.InfotracNewsstand.2010
8. BlackS,WalkerG,HackmanL.DisasterVictimIdentification:ThePractitioner'sGuide.
Dundee,UNITEDKINGDOM:DundeeUniversityPress;2009
9. SondorpE,SribanditmongkolP,VanAlphenD,PereraC,MorganOW,SulasmiY.Mass
fatality management following the South Asian tsunami disaster: case studies in
Thailand,Indonesia,andSriLanka.PLoSMedicine.2006;3(6):809
10. Tumer AR, Karacaoglu E, Namli A, Keten A, Farasat S, Akcan R, et al. Effects of
different types of soil on decomposition: An experimental study. Legal Medicine.
2013;15(3):149-56
11. Magni PA, Venn C, Aquila I, Pepe F, Ricci P, Di Nunzio C, et al. Evaluation of the
floating time of a corpse found in amarine environment using the barnacle Lepas
34
anatifera L. (Crustacea: Cirripedia: Pedunculata). Forensic Science International.
2015;247:e6-e10
12. MannRW,BassWM,MeadowsL.Timesincedeathanddecompositionofthehuman
body: variables and observations in case and experimental field studies. Journal of
forensicsciences.1990;35(1):103
13. BlackS,WalkerG,HackmanL.DisasterVictimIdentification:ThePractitioner'sGuide.
Dundee,UNITEDKINGDOM:DundeeUniversityPress;2009
14. SuttonR,TruemanK,MoranC.CrimeSceneManagement:SceneSpecificMethods.
NewYork,UNITEDKINGDOM:JohnWiley&Sons,Incorporated;2016
15. Karmakar NC, Koswatta R, Kalansuriya P. Chipless RFID Reader Architecture.
Norwood,UNITEDSTATES:ArtechHouse;2013
16. WantR.AnintroductiontoRFIDtechnology.IEEEPervasiveComputing.2006;5(1):25-
33
17. KantareddySNR,BhattacharyyaR,SarmaSE,editors.Low-cost,automatedinventory
control of sharps in operating theaters using passive RFID tag-sensors. 2017 IEEE
International Conference on RFID Technology & Application (RFID-TA); 2017 20-22
Sept.2017
18. Weinstein R. RFID: a technical overview and its application to the enterprise. IT
Professional.2005;7(3):27-33
19. JuelsA.RFIDsecurityandprivacy:aresearchsurvey.IEEEJournalonSelectedAreas
inCommunications.2006;24(2):381-94
20. WesselR.DutchforensicinstituteusesRFIDtocontrolcrimeevidence.RFIDJournal.
2008
35
21. WinskogC,TsokosM,ByardRW.Theprogressionfromdisastervictimidentification
(DVI)todisastervictimmanagement(DVM):anecessaryevolution.ForensicScience,
Medicine,andPathology.2012;8(2):81-3
36
Thispagehasbeenleftintentionallyblank.
37
PartTwo
MANUSCRIPT
RFIDTAGSFORTHEEXPEDITIONOFBODYPARTPROCESSINGIN
LARGESCALEDISASTERVICTIMIDENTIFICATIONINCIDENTS
ACOSTANDFEASIBILITYPILOTSTUDY
38
Abstract
Inthefieldofforensicscienceanddisastervictimidentification(DVI),adisaster is
knowntobeanunforeseenincidentthatresultsinthedemiseofamassoflives.Following
these fatal events,DVI processes are conductedby investigators in order to identify the
fallen victims, as this is the highest priority. The DVI Interpol Guide recognises that the
generalimpressionofanidentificationprocessisthatitistime-consuming.Unfortunately,
dueto thegeneralmisconceptionofstandard internationalprocedures, familiesof those
whohavelosttheirlivesindisasterstendtobecomedisgruntledattheextensivetimethat
istaken.TheresearchgapremainsinregardtohowbodypartprocessingatlargescaleDVI
incidents can be expedited. As such, this research aims to provide and investigate a
potentialsolutionforthetimelinessresponsetomassdisasters,andmoreoverallowingfor
agreaternumberofpositiveidentifications.Theprojectthatwasconductedalsoaimedto
simplify theprocessof identification throughsub-dermal implantationofmicrochips into
humanremains,usingRadioFrequencyIdentification(RFID)technology.Implementingthe
RFIDtaggingsysteminaminiaturescaletrial,byinsertingdataandassessingitsreadand
writecapabilities,ithasproventobesuccessfulandwillassistforensicinvestigatorsaswell
aslegalauthoritiestoexpeditetheDVIprocessanddetermineagreateramountofpositive
deceasedvictimidentifications.
39
TableofContents
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................38
TABLEOFCONTENTS..................................................................................................................39
LISTOFFIGURES.........................................................................................................................39
LISTOFTABLES...........................................................................................................................40
LISTOFABBREVIATIONS.............................................................................................................40
1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................41
2. MATERIALSANDMETHODS.................................................................................................452.1 METHOD1:TRIALOFEQUIPMENT...............................................................................................472.1.1 WRITINGTOATRANSPONDER..................................................................................................482.1.2 TRANSPONDERI.....................................................................................................................492.1.3 TRANSPONDERJ....................................................................................................................512.1.4 TRANSPONDERH...................................................................................................................522.1.5 READINGATRANSPONDER.......................................................................................................532.2 METHOD2:EVIDENCESTORAGESIMULATION...............................................................................53
3. RESULTSANDDISCUSSION..................................................................................................54
4. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................................................57
5. REFERENCES........................................................................................................................59
ListofFigures
Figure1:TheAtmelRFIDreadandwritedevice,withantennacoil.
Figure2:TheAtmelRFIDsampletransponders.
Figure3:TransponderI,designatedtobodypart1.
Figure4:TransponderJ,designatedtobodypart2.
Figure5:TransponderH,designatedtobodypart3.
Figure6:TranspondersH,IandJstoredinafreezer.
40
ListofTables
Table 1: Details of specific information for transponder I typed into the RFID
transceiver.
Table 2: Details of specific information for transponder J typed into the RFID
transceiver.
Table 3: Details of specific information for transponder H typed into the RFID
transceiver.
ListofAbbreviations
AM Ante-Mortem
DNA DeoxyribonucleicAcid
DVI DisasterVictimIdentification
ICRC InternationalCommitteeoftheRedCross
PAHO PanAmericanHealthOrganisation
PM Post-Mortem
RFID RadioFrequencyIdentification
WHO WorldHealthOrganisation
41
1. Introduction
Followingseveralmassdisasters, researchwithin the fieldof forensic scienceand
disaster victim identification (DVI) has concentrated on developing effective practical
procedures in order to identify human remains. Majority of this research has involved
improvingtechnologyandmethodssuchasDNAanalysis1.Therearenumerousdocuments
that provide guidelines for procedures that should be undertaken in the event of a
disaster1. Some of these handbooks include the National Institute of Justice2, the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)3, and the INTERPOL DVI Guide4. Other
referenceguides(BioterrorismPreparedness5,Tolley'sHandbookofDisaster&Emergency
Management6, and Disaster Victim Identification: The Practitioner's Guide7) have been
establishedforthepurposeofinforming,preparingandinstructingauthoritiesinthecase
that a disaster incidentwas to occur. Journal articles based on specific DVI events have
beenwritten, including ‘Forensic Anthropology in the United Kingdom – current trends,
problems and concerns’1,8 however, a research gap remains in regard to howbody part
processing at large scaleDVI incidents canbe expedited. This project demonstrates that
Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology shows promise in expediting the
identificationprocess.
In 2005, the Pan American Health Organisation (PAHO), the World Health
Organisation (WHO), along with the ICRC, attended an organisedmeeting of experts to
discuss and reflect on the lessons learned in the aftermath of the 2004 Asian tsunami9.
After identifying theneed fora simpleandpractical setof guidelineson thehandlingof
deceased victims, the result was a manual on the ‘Management of Dead Bodies after
Disasters’ for first respondingofficialsor investigators9,10.Thereare threemainpillarsof
42
disaster response that have been recognised and made known by the humanitarian
community. The first pillar is the “proper and dignified management of the dead”, the
secondisthe“recoveryandcareofsurvivors”,andlastly,the“supplyofbasicservices”9.
Disregardinganyoneof thesecoreprinciples canpotentially cause suffering to surviving
familymembers9.
Attheaftermathofacatastrophe,thefirstresponse,intheinitialhours,isgenerally
conductedbymembersofthepubliccommunity9.Inthistime,theconditionandhandling
ofthedeceasedvictimsareofvital importance,as itmayhaveasignificanteffectonthe
identification process9. The DVI INTERPOL Guide, as well as the manual by PAHO
complementeachother,providingin-depthinformationforinvestigatingofficersaswellas
unofficial first responding individuals4, 9, 10. The guides have been applied in disaster
situations and have been beneficial towards the planning and preparation of response
efforts9.Additionally,afterseveralDVIevents,themanualshavebeenupdatedandrevised
withrecommendationsforfutureincidents9.
Ellinghametal.notesthat“intheeventofadisaster,timeisoftheessence”9.The
‘ManagementofDeadBodiesafterDisasters’manualprovidesastructuredoutlineofthe
responsibilitiesthatshouldbeundertakenatthescene,includingbutnotlimitedto:search
and recovery, allocating unique numbers to remains or evidence, recording data,
temporarystorageofthedeceased,aswellascollectingandmanaginginformationofthe
missing individuals9. In such environments, these tedious procedures may become
overwhelming, even chaotic, and it is concerning that a more efficient and expeditious
processhasnotyetbeendeveloped.Thisresearchaimstoprovideapotentialsolutionfor
thetimelinessresponsetomassdisasters,byusingRFIDadvancedtechnology.
43
TheNational Instituteof Justicenotes that it is imperative that laboratorieshave
prioritytoaccessallthenecessarydatathatrelatestoadeceasedvictimofadisaster2.This
datashouldconsistofDNA informationorprofiles,chainofcustodydocumentation,and
specific information that relates to an item of evidence2. The laboratories that conduct
analysesofthehumanremainshavearesponsibilitytomakedetailedandregularupdates
to the families of the deceased, the public, officials and authorities2. Additionally, forms
including theAnte-Mortem (AM) and Post-Mortem (PM) documentsmust be completed
with a high quality of detail4. The information of the deceased and results that are
documented can however, be impacted by factors such as the exposure time and
vulnerabilitytoenvironmentalconditions,aswellashowdecomposedtheremainsare4.It
isthereforeextremely importantthattheanalysisproceduresareconducted inareliable
and accurate manner. Implementing RFID technology aims to simplify the process of
identification. The result of an accelerated forensic investigation could hence, prevent
decompositionandrelievethesufferingofbereavedfamilymembers.
TheWorldTradeCenterdisasterof2001, theAsian tsunamiof2004, the London
bombingsof2005,andtheLouisianahurricaneKatrinaof2005,arejustsomeofthemass
fatalincidentsthathaveshowntheworldthedifficultiesthatareencounteredbyforensic
investigators7,11. For thepurposeof identifying, locating and trackingpeople, animalsor
belongings,RFIDtechnologythatusesradiofrequencyhasbeenutilisedonaglobalscale11,
12. Inatypicalset-upofanRFIDsystem,theindividual,animalorobject isprovidedatag
(alsoknownastransponderormicrochip),thatconsistsofanantennacoil,amemorychip,
and a unique electronic code11. The RFID transceiver sends a signal that activates the
transponder,inorderforthedataorinformationtobereadorwrittentothechipitself11.
44
Transpondersareknowntobea“compactcarrierofinformation”andcanbesub-dermally
implanted11.
Biohackinghasemerged for thepurposeofanimal identification, although recent
researchhas suggested thatRFID tags couldbemodified andembedded into thedental
cavityofadeceasedhuman11,13.Thetransceiverwouldbeabletolocate,readandwriteto
thetransponderbymovingthedeviceoverthecheeknearthetaggedtooth11.Thiswould
preventmultiplemicrochipsbeingsignalledatthesametimeandwouldreducethetime
taken to conduct forensic procedures11. It also ensures that the data is encrypted and
avoids costly procedures11. In contrast to previous research and projects, an issue may
arise if bodypartsbecomedetachedat the sceneof adisaster.Other complications can
include low quality samples of DNA, due to decomposition, alongwith the risk of cross
contamination14. Through implanting theRFID transponder sub-dermally, thesepotential
riskscanbesignificantlyreduced.Theremainscanbepackagedanddispatchedsoonerfor
furtheranalysis,henceexpeditingtheprocessofDVI.
The objective of this research project was to investigate the usefulness of RFID
technologyfortheexpeditionofhumanremainprocessinginlargescaleDVIincidents.This
was tobeexperimented through the sub-dermal implantationofRFID transponders into
animaltissueinamockDVIscenario.Thestudyalsointendedtodeterminethefeasibility
andexpensesthatwereassociatedwiththeimplementationofRFIDtags.Thehypothesis
was that a sub-dermal RFID transponder could be used in amockDVI incident, utilising
animaltissue(meat),tostoredata(location,photographreferences,identification/exhibit
number,observationnotes,and/ortracking)pertainingtothebodypart.Ifsuccessful,the
RFIDtagscouldbefurthervalidatedinlargertrials.
45
2. MaterialsandMethods
Twomethods were to be conducted for this project. The first, a dry trial of the
equipment,todetermineifaminimumoftwohundredwordscanbeinputtoanRFIDtag.
Information such as the date, time, officer identification, GPS location/triangulation
measurements, photograph references, identification/exhibit number, observationnotes,
and/ormovementtracking,weretobetypedintotheRFIDreadandwritedevice.Further
informationwould then be typed into the RFID read andwrite device, in an attempt to
ascertain its overwrite capabilities and data storage limits. Observations would then be
recorded.
Thesecondmethodwastobeconductedinanempty3mx3mroom/demountable
atMurdochUniversity to simulateaDVI scenarioand fourpiecesofanimal tissue (beef)
would be laid on the floor as “body parts”. The RFIDmicrochipswould be sub-dermally
insertedbyanimplantedintoeachanimaltissue.Theglasscasingofthemicrochipwould
ensurethe lowriskofcontamination.Theinformation,asmentionedpreviouslywill then
be typed into the RFID read andwrite device, for eachmicrochip. The pieces of animal
tissuewouldthenbepackagedasperstandardforensicDVIproceduresandstoredinthe
freezerofaMurdochUniversitylaboratoryatminus4°C.
Afteroneweekthepackagedwouldberemovedfromthefreezerandrelocatedto
a laboratorybench.TheanimaltissuewouldberemovedfromthepackageandtheRFID
reader device would be utilised to assess if the information on the microchip remains
accessible, accurate and reliable. Based on the observations/results that were to be
determined from the firstmethod, further informationwould be input to themicrochip
fromthereaderdevice.Observationswouldberecordedinregardtothefeasibilityofthe
46
RFID transponders and transceiver. The expense of the RFID technology would then be
comparedtoitsfunctionality.Thismethodwouldberepeatedtwiceforreliability.
The Atmel RFID Evaluation Kit (ATA2270-EK3) was purchased from the company
Microchip Technology15. This kit included the RFID read andwrite device (see Figure 1),
alongwithseveralsamplesoftransponders(seeFigure2).
Figure1:TheAtmelRFIDreadandwritedevice,withantennacoil.
AntennaCoil
RFIDDevice
47
Figure2:TheAtmelRFIDsampletransponders.
The RFID read and write system, as seen in Figure 1, includes the ATA2270-EK3
mainboard,readerboard,antennacoilaswellasapowersupply15.TranspondersA,H,I,
andJofFigure2areknowntobekeyfobsampletags(ATA5577M1330C)15.TransponderB
is an animal ear tag (ATA5575M2), and transponders C and K are contactless ISO cards
(ATA5577M1330C)15. Sample tag D is a plastic encased transponder (ATA5577M1330C-
PP)15.TransponderEisatagthatissuitablefortheuseofbarcoding/labels15.SampletagF
isanotherplasticencasedtransponder,whilstGisaglassencasedmicrochip15.
DuetothelatearrivaloftheAtmelRFIDEvaluationKit,theproceduresthatwereto
beconductedwerealtered.
2.1 Method1:TrialofEquipment
The first step was to ensure that the reader board was connected to the main
board. The antenna air core coil was already wound on a plastic housing, to be then
connected to the RFID transceiver. The powerwas connected using the supplied source
48
andtheevaluationkitwasreadyforoperationbyswitchingthepowertotheONposition15.
TheF1-F4buttonswereusedtoreturntothepreviousmenu,whilstallothernavigations
were to be accomplished by using the four-way joystick. By pressing the centre of the
joystick(“ENTER”),acommandwassuccessfullycompleted.Wheninitiallyworkingwitha
transponder, the tag itself was to be placed into/surrounding the coil field, or in direct
contact with the antenna coil. By choosing “RFID” on the transceiver, then the “Write
ConfigurationsMenu”,andselecting“Yes”, the transponderwas toberecognised.When
“Enter”wasselected,thesystemwouldattempttowritetheblockdataintotheselected
transponder.
2.1.1 Writingtoatransponder
Toensurethatthecorrecttagtypewasselected,“RFID>SelectReader/Tag”menu
was accessed. The tag thatwas being evaluatedwas to be placed into the antenna coil
field.Thetwoantennacoilswereplacedparallel toeachother inorder for themagnetic
fieldtocoupleandprovidesufficientpower15.“RFID>Read/Write”wasthenselected,and
then“OneBlock”intheWritecolumn.Oncetheblockwaschosen,movingthejoystickup
ordownwouldenableletters(A-F)ornumbers(0-9)tobeselected.Bypressing“Enter”on
thejoystick,theblockswereexited.Pressing“Enter”oncemoreensuresthatthewritewas
performed.Averificationmessagewouldappear,andaudiofeedbackwouldbeprovided.A
message window would appear if the procedure was successful or unsuccessful15.
Transponders H, I and J (as seen in Figure 2) were allocated a “body part” number as
though it would be designated to a deceased victim or item of evidence and had
informationtyped into it, todetermine if itcouldbereadby thedevice.Each line in the
RFID transceiverwas given a specific piece of information, and a legendwas created to
indicatedetails,foreachtransponder.
49
2.1.2 TransponderI
Figure3:TransponderI,designatedtobodypart1.
50
Table1:DetailsofspecificinformationfortransponderItypedintotheRFIDtransceiver.
TransponderI:Information BlockDetailBodyPartIDNumber 11111111Date 10112018(10thNovember2018)Time 00002220(22:20)PhotographReference
• DCC = Photograph ReferenceLetters
DCC00001
Location• A=Latitude• B=Longitude• E=(-)
AE32B115(-32°,115°)
Investigating Officer IdentificationNumber
33210058
AdditionalInformation(Ifneeded) -
51
2.1.3 TransponderJ
Figure4:TransponderJ,designatedtobodypart2.
Table 2: Details of specific information for transponder J typed into the RFID
transceiver.
TransponderJ:Information BlockDetailBodyPartIDNumber 22222222Date 10112018(10thNovember2018)Time 00002249(22:49)PhotographReference
• DCC = Photograph ReferenceLetters
DCC00002
Location• A=Latitude• B=Longitude• E=(-)
AE35B117(-35°,117°)
Investigating Officer IdentificationNumber
33210058
AdditionalInformation(Ifneeded) -
52
2.1.4 TransponderH
Figure5:TransponderH,designatedtobodypart3.
Table 3: Details of specific information for transponder H typed into the RFID
transceiver.
TransponderH:Information BlockDetailBodyPartIDNumber 33333333Date 10112018(10thNovember2018)Time 00002255(22:55)PhotographReference
• DCC = Photograph ReferenceLetters
DCC00003
Location• A=Latitude• B=Longitude• E=(-)
AE37B119(-37°,119°)
Investigating Officer IdentificationNumber
33210058
AdditionalInformation(Ifneeded) -
53
2.1.5 ReadingaTransponder
Once again, the correct tag type was selected through the “RFID>Select
Reader/Tag”menu.Thetagthatwastobeevaluatedwasplacedintheantennacoilfield,
withthecoilparallelasmentionedpreviously.“RFID>Read/Write”menuwasselectedand
“Manual” in the Read column, was chosen. “Enter” was pressed to perform the read.
Observationsweremadetoensurethatthecontentsoftheblockswerecorrect,andthat
audio feedback was provided. This would signify if the read attempt was successful or
unsuccessful.Abeepingaudiofeedbackwouldindicateasuccessfuloutcome15.
2.2 Method2:EvidenceStorageSimulation
Upon successful results from Method 1, the three RFID keyfob (ATA5577)
transponders (H, I and J)were placed in a zip-lock bag (as seen below in Figure 6), and
stored in a freezer, at minus 4°C, for two days. Once the tags were removed from the
freezer,theinformation,aspersection3.1.5,wasreadthroughthetransceiver.Thiswasto
determineifthereadandwriteoperationswouldbesuccessfulinchangingtemperatures
and/orstorageconditions.
54
Figure6:TranspondersH,IandJstoredinafreezer.
3. ResultsandDiscussion
The ATA5577 RFID transponders H, I and J, had a successful outcome and could
potentiallybeutilisedfortheexpeditionofforensicinvestigationsaswellastheprocessing
of large scale DVI incidents. Each of the sample transponders thatwere included in the
AtmelRFIDEvaluationKit,weretrialledforreadingandwritingoperations.However,only
threetagsweresuccessfullyreadthroughthetransceiverdevice.Therewereseveralissues
that were encountered during the process of this research project. Although, many of
thesedifficultiescouldbeovercomewithadditionaltimeandfunctioningequipment.
TheRFID transceiverdevicewas tobe connected toapower source,aswell asa
signalantennacoil.Thiswasseenasadisadvantagefortheinitialpurposeofthisstudy,as
55
forensicinvestigatorsmaynothaveadirectsourceofpowertoconnectthetransceiver.It
also limits the distance that the transceiver canmove. Thismeans that any evidence or
bodypartthatistobeprocessedorreadforinformation,shouldbeincloseproximityto
theRFIDreadandwritedevice.Similarly,eachtagthatwasbeingassessedneededtobein
theantennacoilfield,oralternatively,indirectcontactwiththeplastichousingofthecoil.
Thetransponders(A,B,C,D,E,F,G,andK)thatwereunsuccessfullywrittentoandread,
indicatedseveralquestionmarksintheblocksonthetransceiver.Apop-upmessagealso
indicated that the transponders were “unsuccessful”. These issues could be solved for
forensics,providedthat thedevice itselfwasbatteryoperated,andthatall transponders
weresuccessfullyoperating.
TransponderG,asseen inFigure2,wouldhavebeenan idealmicrochiptoutilise
fortheinitialpurposeofthisresearch,whichwastoexpeditetheidentificationprocessof
deceasedvictimsintheeventofadisasteroccurring.Itisasuitablesizeforthesub-dermal
implantationintohumanremainsataDVIincident.Also,itsglassencasingwouldensurea
lowriskofcontamination.However, theRFIDEvaluationKitdidnot includean implanter
forthemicrochip,andthereforethetranspondercouldnotbesub-dermally insertedinto
animaltissue.Thistransponderwasalsounsuccessfullywrittentoandread,whichfurther
complicatedtheproceduresthatweretobeundertakeninthefirstinstance.Providedthat
the transponder itself was operating and an implanter was included, it would be a
successful and suitable microchip that would potentially assist in reducing time and
decompositionofremainsatforensicDVIevents,whilstallowingforagreateramountof
positiveidentificationofvictims.
Another difficulty that was experienced in the process of this project was the
information input. Itwasnecessary to createa legend, as thedeviceonly accepts seven
56
linesof informationper transponder.With this, each linehaseightblocksavailablewith
letters ranging from A-F, or numbers 0-9. The information that was written to the
successful transponders included the body part identification number, date, time,
photograph reference, location, and investigating officer identification number. The
seventhlinecouldbeutilisedforadditionalnotesthataninvestigatingofficermaywantto
record.Witha limited rangeof lettersanddata storage, theDVIofficersmayencounter
problemswhencreatingadditionnotes.Thiscouldsimplyberesolvedbyallowingallletters
of the alphabet to be used on the RFID device and adding a sufficient quantity of data
storage toeach transponder. Learning the legendandentering information that is tobe
writtentoatransponder,willbecomeeffortlesswithtimeandpractice.
TheRFIDtransceiveroccasionallymalfunctioned,whichwasaslightdisadvantage,
as thewordson the screenwerenoteasy tobe read.Thiswasnot seenasa significant
issue however, as the device could be easily reset with the press of a button. No
informationordatawaslostatanypointofthisresettingprocess.Thetransceiveritselfis
efficientandissimpleforanyforensicofficertouse.Also,theinformationthatisinputto
thedevice, is secure in thedatamemory.Thiswasnotedas thesuccessful transponders
werereadwiththecorrectdataineachline,ensuringreliability,confidentialityaswellas
encryptionofinformationbetweeneachdeceasedvictim.
Eachofthetranspondershasthepotentialtobeusedinanyforensiccase,whether
itbeaDVIincidentorastandardforensiccrimeinvestigation.Besidestheuseoftheglass
encasedmicrochipbeingsub-dermally implanted inorder to identifyvictims,eachof the
remainingtransponderscouldpotentiallybeutilisedbysimplyinsertingorattachingthem
into anevidencebagor case file for thepurposeof tracking. This could ensure chainof
custodyfromofficersatthescene,throughtoattendanceatcourt.BodeTechnologyhave
57
successfully implemented the RFID system for the tracking of evidence and case files to
improve “efficiency, accuracy and security” of forensic examinations and the chain of
custodyprocedures16.TheDutchForensic InstitutealsousesRFID tocontrol crimescene
evidence,wherethesystemcandetermineifanitemofevidencewasmoved17.Although
thecostof theadvanced technology isadrawback, theDutchForensic Institute indicate
thattheirhighestpriorityisnottodeterminean“estimatedreturnonitsinvestment”,but
the improvement in integrity, the chain of custody andmanagement of evidence17. This
shouldbeconsideredinthefieldofforensicscienceandDVI.
FurtherexperimentationusinganimaltissueinamockDVIscenario,providedthat
animplanterisincluded,andthetranspondersareinworkingcondition,canbeconducted
to sub-dermally insert microchips for the purpose of determining the usefulness of the
RFIDsystem.Thisshouldthenbeatimedexperiment,includingalltransponders,whichcan
becompared to the time takenata standard forensic investigation.Theoutcomewould
determinethefeasibilityofRFIDtechnologyfortheexpeditionofbodypartprocessingin
largescaleDVIincidents.
4. Conclusion
The DVI INTERPOL recognises that technology is continuously developing and as
such, has enabled the operations and procedures to become increasingly effective4. It’s
alsomentionedthatsuchtechnologiescannotbeasubstitutefortheexpertsandskillsthat
areinvolved4.However,thisprojectaimstoaidtheexpertforensicofficersbyemploying
technologythatcouldpotentiallybeutilisedatDVIincidents.
RFIDhasproven tobe successful inorganisationsandhasbeeneffective through
sub-dermalimplantationinhumansandanimals13.AlthoughthecostofimplementingRFID
58
isalimitation,ithasthepotentialtopreventdecomposition,andhasdemonstratedahigh
standardofaccuracyand reliability in the fieldof forensics,as ithasbeenutilised in the
standardprocessofcollectingevidence,inventoriesandthetrackingofcasefiles16,17.This,
inturn,maintainschainofcustody.
Finally, implementing the RFID tagging system will successfully assist forensic
investigators as well as legal authorities to expedite the DVI process and determine a
greateramountofpositivedeceasedvictimidentifications.
59
5. References
1. Scully JL,Williams R. Approaching disaster victim identification.NewGenetics
andSociety.2014;33(3):233-8.
2. Justice NIO. Lessons learned from 9/11: DNA identification in mass fatality
incidents:USDepartmentofJustice,OfficeofJusticePrograms;2006.
3. ICRC. Missing People, DNA Analysis and Identification of Human Remains. A
Guide to Best Practice in Armed Conflicts and Other Situations of Armed
Violence.InternationalCommitteeoftheRedCrossGeneva,Switzerland;2009.
4. INTERPOL.DisasterVictimIdentificationGuide.2013.
5. Bennett GF, Bennett G. N. Khardori, Editor, Bioterrorism Preparedness:
Medicine-PublicHealth-Policy,Wiley–VCH,Weinheim,Germany(2006)276pp,
ISBN:3-527-31235-8.Journalofhazardousmaterials.139(1):180-1.
6. Cornwell-Smith N. Tolley's handbook of Disaster & Emergency Management.
TheSafety&HealthPractitioner.20032003/10//:57.
7. BlackS,WalkerG,HackmanL.DisasterVictimIdentification:ThePractitioner's
Guide.Dundee,UNITEDKINGDOM:DundeeUniversityPress;2009.
8. Thompson TJU, Evison MP. Forensic Anthropology in the United Kingdom –
currenttrends,problemsandconcerns.Science&Justice.2003;43(4):181-2.
9. Ellingham S, Cordner S, Tidball-Binz M. Revised practical guidance for first
respondersmanagingthedeadafterdisasters.InternationalReviewoftheRed
Cross.2016;98(902):647-69.
10. Pan American Health Organization, WHO. Management of Dead Bodies in
DisasterSituations.Washington,D.C.:PAHO;2004.176p.
60
11. ThevissenPW,PoelmanG,DeCoomanM,PuersR,WillemsG.Implantationof
anRFID-tagintohumanmolarstoreducehardforensicidentificationlabor.Part
I:Workingprinciple.ForensicScienceInternational(Online).2006;159:S33-S9.
12. Chudy-Laskowska K. Factors influencing the decision to implement an RFID
system.LogForum.2018;14(2).
13. YetisenAK.Biohacking.TrendsinBiotechnology.2018;36(8):744-7.
14. deBoerHH,MaatGJR,KadarmoDA,WidodoPT,KloostermanAD,KalAJ.DNA
identification of human remains in Disaster Victim Identification (DVI): An
efficientsamplingmethodformuscle,bone,bonemarrowandteeth.Forensic
ScienceInternational(Online).2018;289:253-9.
15. Atmel.AtmelATA2270-EK3RFIDEvaluationKit-UserGuideIn:TechnologyM,
editor.2015.
16. IndustryG.RFIDhelpsforensicanalysis.InfotracNewsstand.2010.
17. Wessel R. Dutch forensic institute uses RFID to control crime evidence. RFID
Journal.2008.
