ASSUIT UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Electrical DepartmentElectronics & Communication Section

Graduation Project OnRadio Frequency Identification For Oil,Mining and

Utilities2016

Work Group? Omar Elwy? Soliman Dawood? Mena Kaheel

Supervisors? Dr. Osama Haraz

? Dr. Mohammed Farouk

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All deepest sense of gratitude and respect and to our super-visors

Dr. Osama.HarazDr. Mohammed Farouk

to their permanent support,encouragement and supervision onour graduation project and boosting us to do our best in thisproject and provide us with all what we need to achieve theproject goals.

and we also thank

Engineer. Mohammed Aly

to his efforts and support with us along the year.and we also thank all technicals who help us in experimentalstages.

and all thanks to the

scientific research academy in cairo

to their generous financing .

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ABSTRACT

There are many technologies that can be used to allow business to identify,assign track and audit. Automating the collection of data about stock, as-sets, components, and customers reduces costs, increases accuracy and speedsinformation flow. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) solutions can beused to help in this.Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is one of the mostexciting technologies that revolutionize the working practices by increasingefficiencies, and improving profitability. RFID is widely recognised as animportant way to provide fast, accurate identification for business solutions.RFID is a well established technology. It is a versatile technology. It can beused to tag assets so that information about them can be collected. It can beused to identify individuals in order to allow or prevent access or to provideinformation about their whereabouts. It can be used as part of systems forlogistics and delivery tracking, security or for managing safety inspections.RFID also can be used as useful technology in Oil’s,Mining’s extreme envi-ronments such Identifying Pipe Joints, Oil Tanker Tracking,Automaticallytrack assets and monitor critical process or movement within the facility.However, like all technologies, RFID has its strengths and weaknesses.

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Contents

1 RFID Overview 71.1 What Is RFID? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.3 The technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91.4 How Does RFID Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101.5 The Main RFID Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

1.5.1 The Tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111.5.2 Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241.5.3 External host system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

1.6 Advantages of RFID in comparison to barcodes. . . . . . . . 291.7 Software-Defined Radios in RFID Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 301.8 RFID System Selection Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 Chipless RFID 322.1 Chipless RFID Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322.2 The chipless RFID tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332.3 The chipless RFID reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342.4 Spiral Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.4.1 A chipless RFID tag using multiple E-shaped resonators 352.4.2 The layout of multi-resonator design . . . . . . . . . . 36

2.5 Encoding Data Using ”Spiral resonator” Technique . . . . . 362.6 Ultra Wideband Antennas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

2.6.1 Antennas for Chipless Tag RFID Reader: . . . . . . . 37

3 RFID General applications 383.1 Benefits of RFID Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.2 RFID Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.3 RFID General applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

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3.3.1 RFID in Retail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423.3.2 RFID in Healthcare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433.3.3 RFID in Livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.3.4 RFID in Transportation & Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . 483.3.5 RFID in libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503.3.6 RFID in Security concerns ,Schools , prisons and mu-

seums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.3.7 RFID in Military . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523.3.8 RFID in Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543.3.9 RFID in Hajj season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4 RFID in Oil and Mining 574.1 RFID Systems for the Oil & Gas Extraction Industry . . . . . 57

4.1.1 Pipeline inspection/maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594.1.2 Asset and Equipment Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604.1.3 Equipment maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614.1.4 Monitoring Personnel Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624.1.5 Oil Distribution Tracking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634.1.6 Access Control and Management . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

4.2 RFID Systems for Coal Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.2.1 Track Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664.2.2 Monitoring and Locating Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . 674.2.3 Monitor and Manage Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674.2.4 Control Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

5 RFID,Problems,Concerns and challenges 695.1 Technical problem with RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

5.1.1 Problem with RFID standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695.1.2 Read accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695.1.3 Tags are application specific. No one tag fits all . . . . 705.1.4 Design Robustness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705.1.5 RFID systems can be easily disrupted . . . . . . . . . . 715.1.6 May be difficult to troubleshoot if we have problems

with the RF link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715.1.7 RFID can only work if there’s enough RF signal strength

725.1.8 RFID reader collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725.1.9 RFID tag collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

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5.1.10 Cancer risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725.2 Economical problems with RFID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

5.2.1 Cost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725.3 Security and privacy problems with RFID . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5.3.1 Loss of privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735.3.2 RFID tags are difficult to remove . . . . . . . . . . . . 735.3.3 RFID tags can be read without our knowledge . . . . . 735.3.4 RFID tags can be read a greater distances with a high-

gain antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

6 Experimental setup 756.1 kvb-30D- exposure unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

6.1.1 Features : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 756.1.2 Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

6.2 R& S ZVL Vector Network Analyzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 796.2.1 Features: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806.2.2 Function Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816.2.3 Navigation Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826.2.4 Data Entry Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836.2.5 Rotary Knob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836.2.6 Test Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846.2.7 Calibration Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846.2.8 Other additional tools using with vector network analzer

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7 Experimental Results 877.1 The Reader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

7.1.1 Structure of Reader Antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877.1.2 computer simulation using CST software . . . . . . . . 907.1.3 experimental result measured by VNA . . . . . . . . . 92

7.2 The Chipless Tag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937.2.1 High Bit Encoding Chipless RFID Tag Using Multiple

E-Shaped Microstrip Resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957.2.2 Multi-resonator Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957.2.3 project experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

7.3 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

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Chapter 1

RFID Overview

1.1 What Is RFID?

Radio frequency identification (RFID) is a rapidly growing technology thathas the potential to make great economic impacts on many industries. WhileRFID is a relatively old technology, more recent advancements in chip man-ufacturing technology are making RFID practical for new applications andsettings. These advancements have the potential to revolutionize supply-chain management, inventory control, and logistics.At its most basic, RFID systems consist of small transponders, or tags, at-tached to physical objects. RFID tags may soon become the most pervasivemicrochip in history. When wirelessly interrogated by RFID transceivers, orreaders, tags respond with some identifying information that may be associ-ated with arbitrary data records. Thus, RFID systems are one type of au-tomatic identification system, similar to optical bar codes. There are manykinds of RFID systems used in different applications and settings. Thesesystems have different power sources, operating frequencies, and functionali-ties. The properties and regulatory restrictions of a particular RFID systemwill determine its manufacturing costs, physical specifications, and perfor-mance. Some of the most familiar RFID applications are item-level taggingwith electronic product codes, proximity cards for physical access control,and contact-less payment systems. Many more applications will become eco-nomical in the coming years. While RFID adoption yields many efficiency

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benefits, it still faces several hurdles. Besides the typical implementationchallenges faced in any information technology system and economic barri-ers, there are major concerns over security and privacy in RFID systems.Without proper protection, RFID systems could create new threats to bothcorporate security and personal privacy.

1.2 History

In 1945, Leon Theremin invented an espionage tool for the Soviet Unionwhich retransmitted incident radio waves with audio information. Soundwaves vibrated a diaphragm which slightly altered the shape of the resonator,which modulated the reflected radio frequency. Even though this device wasa covert listening device, not an identification tag, it is considered to be apredecessor of RFID, because it was likewise passive, being energized andactivated by waves from an outside source. Similar technology, was rou-tinely used by the allies and Germany in World War II to identify aircraftas friend or foe. Transponders are still used by most powered aircraft tothis day. Another early work exploring RFID is the landmark 1948 paperby Harry Stockman. Stockman predicted that ”... considerable research anddevelopment work has to be done before the remaining basic problems inreflected-power communication are solved, and before the field of useful ap-plications is explored.”Mario Cardullo’s device, patented on January 23, 1973, was the first trueancestor of modern RFID, as it was a passive radio transponder with mem-ory The initial device was passive, powered by the interrogating signal, andwas demonstrated in 1971 to the New York Port Authority and other po-tential users and consisted of a transponder with 16 bit memory for useas a toll device. The basic Cardullo patent covers the use of RF, soundand light as transmission media. The original business plan presented toinvestors in 1969 showed uses in transportation (automotive vehicle identi-fication, automatic toll system, electronic license plate, electronic manifest,vehicle routing, vehicle performance monitoring), banking (electronic checkbook, electronic credit card), security (personnel identification, automaticgates, surveillance) and medical (identification, patient history)

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An early demonstration of reflected power (modulated backscatter) RFIDtags, both passive and semi-passive, was performed by Steven Depp, AlfredKoelle, and Robert Frayman at the Los Alamos National Laboratory in 1973.The portable system operated at 915 MHz and used 12-bit tags. This tech-nique is used by the majority of today’s UHFID and microwave RFID tags.The first patent to be associated with the abbreviation RFID was granted toCharles Walton in 1983.

1.3 The technology

RFID technology is just one of several technologies known as auto-identification(Auto-ID) technology which uses radio frequency waves to transfer data be-tween a reader (transceiver) and a moveable or stationary objects (transpon-der or tag) to identify, categorize, and track the objects as they move througha controlled environment .The RFID system consists of two different layers which are physical andinformation technology (IT).

Figure 1.1 An overview of the RFID system physical layer.

Physical layer consists of the followings:

?One or more radio-frequency (RF) tags.? One or more interrogators (readers) .

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? One or more reader antennas.?Deployment environment.

Information technology (IT) consists of the followings:

? Hardware such as computers.?Networks?Software (device drivers, filters, middleware, and user applications

1.4 How Does RFID Work

Figure 1.2 RFID Operation

RFID belongs to a group of technologies referred to as Automatic Identi-fication and Data Capture (AIDC). AIDC methods automatically identifyobjects, collect data about them, and enter those data directly into com-puter systems with little or no human intervention.RFID methods utilize radio waves to accomplish this. At a simple level,RFID systems consist of three components: an RFID tag or smart label, anRFID reader, and an antenna. RFID tags contain an integrated circuit andan antenna, which are used to transmit data to the RFID reader (also calledan interrogator). The reader then converts the radio waves to a more usable

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form of data. Information collected from the tags is then transferred througha communications interface to a host computer system, where the data canbe stored in a database and analyzed at a later time.

1.5 The Main RFID Components

1.5.1 The Tag

A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to theobjects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called inter-rogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read it’s response.

Figure 1.3 Some RFID tags

RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted passive. An activetag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. Abattery-assisted passive (BAP) has a small battery on board and is activatedwhen in the presence of an RFID reader. A passive tag is cheaper and smallerbecause it has no battery; instead, the tag uses the radio energy transmittedby the reader. However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminated with

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a power level roughly a thousand times stronger than for signal transmission.That makes a difference in interference and in exposure to radiation.

Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial numberthat is used as a key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field pro-grammable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; ”blank” tags may be writ-ten with an electronic product code by the user.

RFID tags contain at least two parts: an integrated circuit for storingand processing information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency(RF) signal, collecting DC power from the incident reader signal, and otherspecialized functions; and an antenna for receiving and transmitting the sig-nal. The tag information is stored in a non-volatile memory. The RFID tagincludes either fixed or programmable logic for processing the transmissionand sensor data, respectively.

An RFID reader transmits an encoded radio signal to interrogate the tag.The RFID tag receives the message and then responds with its identificationand other information. This may be only a unique tag serial number, or maybe product-related information such as a stock number, lot or batch number,production date, or other specific information. Since tags have individualserial numbers, the RFID system design can discriminate among several tagsthat might be within the range of the RFID reader and read them simulta-neously.

Figure 1.4 RFID Tag picture showing the components(Chip, antenna).

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The Chip

The integrated circuit (IC,chip) is mainly comprised of RF front-end, somebasic signal processing blocks, logic circuitry , and memory for storage .These components are crucial for the operational functionality of the tagsunless it is a chipless tag.

The Antenna

RFID Tag antenna receives and reflects radio-frequency (RF) waves comingfrom the reader antenna. Since it is the largest part of the tag, it deter-mines the size of the tag. Antenna is designed for a particular frequency andcustomized for the application.

RFID Tag Technologies

Different applications require different RFID tag technologies. All RFID sys-tems have in common the idea of contact-less reading of data from transpon-ders known as tags but different types of tags are used for different applica-tions. RFID uses data carrying tags which include a microprocessor, trans-mitter and a radio antenna that allows data from the tag to be read andwritten without contact between the reader and the tag. There are two mainclasses of RFID technology, one based on tags that contain their own powersupply (active tags) and one (much more widely used) based on tags whichuse power provided by the presence of a reader (passive tags). Choosing thetechnology for a particular application depends on careful consideration ofthe different capabilities, costs and performance characteristics of the variousRFID technologies in relation to the needs of the application. RFID systemsonly allow relatively low volumes of data to be stored on the tags . As aresult the design of the information to be held on the tag is a critical part ofthe application. Different tags frequencies are used in different applicationsand have different standards associated with them.

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Classification of RFID Tags

Tags can be categorized according to the power source, frequency, function-ality and protocols that they belong to:

Power Sourse

Depending on the source of the power, tags are classified as:

?Passive.?Semi-active or semi-passive (also called battery assisted passive tags- BAPor battery assisted tag - BAT).?Active.

Passive Tags:

Figure 1.5 passive tag

The passive tag does not have its own power source (no on board battery)or a radio transmitter. It obtains power from the RF waves emitted by thereader. Therefore, it can communicate only when inside the read zone andis energized by the RF waves. The passive tag’s read range is limited by theamount of power that can be obtained from the RF waves from the reader.Beyond approximately 3-5 m from the reader antenna, the tag can not col-lect enough power to turn on it’s IC and thus can not communicate with thereader. Some of the advantages of the passive tag are small size, lightweight,

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inexpensive and longer life (+20 years). The disadvantages of passive tagsare a lower read range and high power readers.

Semi-Active (Semi-Passive) Tags:

Figure 1.6 Semi-Active (Semi-Passive) Tag

The semi-active tag has a battery on it but no radio transmitter. The batterypowers it’s integrated circuit (IC), which helps it to modulate the reflectedsignal. The reflected signal is required because the tag does not have a radiotransmitter. The advantage of this type of tag is that you do not need topower the tag from the reader. Therefore, one can use low-power readersand store more data on the tag. This type of tag is used to get longer readrange (up to 50m) or to couple the tag with environment sensors such astemperature, pressure, relative humidity, Global Positioning System (GPS),etc.. Since the sensors require continuous power, the battery is required onthe tag. The disadvantages of these tags are higher cost, larger and heaviertag and limited life due to battery.

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Active Tags:

Figure 1.7 Active Tag

Active tags have their own battery and transmitters. This tag communicatesat a longer distance because it is not dependent on a reflected signal. It’scommunication distance ranges from 100m to 225m. It has more memory.However, the cost is high, the size is larger, and the weight is higher. So,the same advantages and disadvantages of semi-active tags also apply to theactive tag .

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The Table 1.1 below provides an overview of the tag parameters andrelated data for passive and active tags.

Table 1.1 Active vs. Passive Tag

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The Table 1.2 below points out the primary tradeoff between active andpassive tags is range versus cost

Table 1.2 Active vs. passive tag tradeoffs

frequency

tags are designed to operate at different frequency bands to communicatewith the readers because of:

?Government regulatory requirements.?Type of host material (such as metal, water, etc.).?Read range and speed required.

Four frequency bands are used in tag design:

?125, 135 KHz (low frequency - LF).?.13.56 MHz (high frequency - HF)

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?.860-960 MHz (ultra high frequency - UHF)?2.45 and 5.8 GHz (microwave) .

Different frequency tags have different characteristics. They behave dif-ferently when tagged to different types of material. The read range variesfrom a few centimeters to few meters. Because of government regulationsand customer mandates, certain frequency tag may be selected.

•Low Frequency Tags: 125 to 135 KHz (LF)

LF tags require a coil antenna with several hundred turns around a ferritecore. They are expensive to manufacture. Attenuation of water is less com-pared to high frequency tags. These tags are first to be used and are stillbeing used for animal tracking. LF does not penetrate or transmit aroundmetals and LF tags are well suited for applications requiring reading smallamounts of data at slow speeds and minimal distances.

•High Frequency Tags: 13.56 MHz (HF)

HF tags have simpler antenna design with fewer turns of coil (five to seventurns) and are therefore thinner and cheaper to manufacture than LF tags.HF like LF is not affected by water. HF tags are well suited for applicationsrequiring small read distances or where the tagged objects contain water likepharmaceuticals, humans, and animals. They have higher data rate thanLF and HF readers cost less than the LF and the UHF readers. HF is usedin Smart Cards popular in Europe and the typical read range of HF tag isabout 30-70 cm.

•Ultra High Frequency Tags: 860-960 MHz (UHF)

UHF tags have good non-line-of-sight communication (except for ”lossy” ma-terials) capability. They have higher data rate and a typical read range of upto 5m. UHF reader antennas are directional providing a controlled read zone.This is the most talked about frequency range for supply chain applications.UHF does not penetrate water/tissue, UHF readers are more expensive thanHF and the technology is less matured than HF. Also regulations regardingUHF use are different in different parts of the world. Different countriesallow different frequencies, number of channels, maximum power, and dutycycle.

•Microwave Frequency Tags: 2.45, 5.8 GHz

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Microwave tags also have good non-line-of-sight communication (except for”lossy”materials) capability. They have higher data rate and a typical readrange of up to 15m. These tags are also effective around metals with tun-ing/design adaptations. Microwave reader antennas are directional providinga controlled read zone.Table 1.3 below summarizes the RFID frequencies and related applications.

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Table 1.3 List of the RFID frequencies and related applications

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Figure 1.8 Max. Possible Read Range based on frequency range

RFID Tag Functionality

tag classes categorize t by implemented functionality. RFID tag distinguishestags in six classes (numbered 0 through 5) according to their:

?Read and write capabilities.?Power sources.?Communications capabilities.?Memory capacities.

Tags are classified from classes zero to five, with zero being the class withthe least functionality .The Table 1.4 below lists the various classifications and their related func-tionality.

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Table 1.4 List of the various classifications and their related functionality

RFID Tag-Reader Protocols

A protocol is the tag-to-reader wireless air interface scheme. Basically, itis a language that allows the tag and the reader to communicate with eachother. Protocols are defined by the manufacturers of the tags and readers orby various standards setting organizations and may be proprietary or open.Open standardized protocols help readers and tags from different manufac-turers work together. The reader and tag must use the same protocols tocommunicate . Tag reader protocols are specified by:

?Air interface .?Data structure .?Command and control.

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Example of protocols:

protocols are independently developed and generally do not interoper-ate since the user needs transparency (that is, multiprotocol and multibandreaders). Protocols preceded by a company name are proprietary protocols.The followings are the examples of protocols :•ISO 14443 (A/B) .•ISO 18000-4 (A/B.)•ISO 15693 .•TI Tag-It .•18000-v2.•18000-v7.•ISO 18000-6 (A/B/C).

1.5.2 Reader

Another important part in a RFID system is the reader sub-system. It isa device used to communicate with RFID Tag,The reader has one or moreantennas , which emits radio waves and receive signals back , from the RFIDTag,Also called Interrogator because it interrogates the RFID Tag. It is pos-sible to divide an RFID reader system into two differentiated groups, namelythe high frequency interface and the control system. These groups interactamong each other and with an external host system.The main functions performed by a reader are demodulating the data re-trieved from the tag, decoding the received data, and energizing in the caseof passive and semi-passive tags. Readers are designed for various frequenciesor protocols .A more detailed diagram of the reader can be found in Figure 1.9

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Figure 1.9 RFID reader block diagram

The HF Interface:The HF interface carries out the principle functions listed below:•Demodulates and decodes the information retrieved from the tag.•Supply power to passive tags to communicate with them.

Elements:

•Antenna:A reader antenna is a converter between radiated waves and wired voltage. Itis the biggest and the most obvious component of system and is most vulner-able to obstruction by metallic objects. With UHF and microwave, antennapolarization is important and the choice depends on the circumstances ofuse. For example:?In a controlled tag orientation environment, using linearly polarized antennato provide the longest range with the least amount of power is more efficient.?In an uncontrolled tag orientation environment, using circularly polarizedantenna to provide the best tag readability is more efficient.

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Requirements for RFID Antenna.?Small enough .?Must provide maximum possible signal .?Polarization.?Be robust.?Be cheap.?Range.?Penetration depth.

Figure 1.10 passive tag antenna

?RFID Antenna Patents.

More than 50% - US patents every year. Annual increasing amount is 183.6%from 2001-2005, The application amount from Jan 2006 to Aug 2006 isaround 88.3% of that in 2005.

•Transmitter:

The main task of this element is to transmit power and the clock cycleto the tags. It is part of the transceiver module.

•Receiver:

This component is responsible for receiving signals from the tag via theantenna. Afterwards, it sends these signals to a microprocessor where thedigital information is extracted.

•Power:

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This module supplies the adequate power levels to all components in thereader.

•The Control Group:

To allow the functions of decoding, error checking and communication withan external system the control unit makes use of a microprocessor, a con-troller, a communication interface, memory and input/output channels.

•Microprocessor.

The reader protocol is implemented in the microprocessor. The microproces-sor will interpret the received commands, and then seek the memory for thecorresponding program code and will execute it depending on the protocolrequired by the particular standard. At this is the point error checking isperformed.

•Controller.

In order to allow joint operation with an external system, a system calledthe controller, responsible for converting external orders to understandablemicroprocessor binary code, is needed to enable communication. The con-troller may be either in a software or hardware form.

•Communication Interface.

By using the controller, the communication interface is able to interact withan external host system by transferring data, passing or responding to in-structions. The communication interface can be a part of the controller oran independent entity depending on the integration level and speed require-ments.

•Memory.

The memory is responsible for storing the data retrieved from the tags. Thedata will be transmitted to the host system when demanded.

•Input/output Channels for External Sensors:

While operating a reader it might happen that when the tags are not in itsread range, making continuous operation is a waste of energy. For instance;in a conveyor belt passing in front of the reader, it is likely to efficiently run

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the reader by activating it at the required times by using external sensorsthat is capable of detecting the presence of an item nearby. Additionally, itis possible to classify the readers by the communication interface in use orby its mobility.

Figure 1.11 Some RFID readers

1.5.3 External host system

like Server/ PC link between the coupler and your library automation sys-tem. The Server/ PC is the heart of a comprehensive RFID system. It isthe communications gateway among the various components. It receives theinformation from the antennae and exchanges information with the circula-tion database. The server typically includes a transaction database so thatreports can be produced.

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1.6 Advantages of RFID in comparison to

barcodes.

RFID and barcode are two different technologies and have different appli-cations, which many times overlap. RFID technology has brought manyadvantages over the existing barcode technology. The big difference betweenthe two is barcode is a line-of-sight technology. Since RFID tags don’t needto be line-of-sight like optical barcode technology, it’s popularity and de-mand has increased. In addition, barcode can only recognize a single itemat a time, whereas RFID can read multiple items at once. Furthermore,RFID tags can be embedded in an item rather than the physical exposurerequirement of barcodes and can be detected using RF signal. RF signalgeneration also enhances the read range for RFID tags. Barcodes only con-tain information about the manufacturer or originator of an item and basicinformation about the object itself; however, RFID is particularly useful forapplications in which the item must be identified uniquely. RFID’s also canhold additional functionality which means more bits of information .

Table 1.5 Some of the differences between RFID and barcode

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1.7 Software-Defined Radios in RFID Systems

The problem of continuous change in the market is a vitally important onefor all RFID users, and especially those responsible for buying and installingan RFID reader infrastructure. While tags are the consumables of RFIDsystems, constantly varying, iterating, and regenerating, the RFID readerinfrastructure is a deployed capital expense that can not easily or cost effec-tively be replaced every time a new tag variant appears. Further, the comingsand goings of tags are not neatly synchronized. Generation 1 will not turninto Generation 2 instantaneously; the two generations will coexist, perhapsfor as long as few years, and the reality surrounding Generation 3 will begin,as well as the introduction of new classes of tag. This type of change is goodfor the RFID user because it will deliver ever-improving performance anddecreasing costs.Software-defined radio (SDR) uses software for the modulation and demod-ulation of radio signals. An SDR performs the majority of its signal.processing in the digital domain, most commonly in a digital signal proces-sor (DSP), which is a type of microprocessor specifically optimized for signalprocessing functions.The advantage of an SDR-based RFID reader is that it can receive andtransmit a new form of RFID communication protocol simply by runningnew software on existing SDR hardware. A software-defined RFID readerconsists of an RF analog front end that converts RF signals to and from thereader’s antennas into an analog baseband or intermediate frequency signal,and analog-to-digital converters and digital-to-analog converters, which areused to convert these signals to and from a digital representation that canbe processed in software running on the reader’s digital signal processor.

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1.8 RFID System Selection Basics

?How do we select a Technology?

? How far do we want to read?

?How fast do we need the data?

?How much Data do we need to store on the RFID tag?

?Do we need to have specific data on the tag (write to the tag)?

?How many?

?Attached to and surrounded by what?

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Chapter 2

Chipless RFID

2.1 Chipless RFID Systems

The concept of chipless RFID tags seems to be a promising solution for lowcost item tagging. In order to minimize cost, tags are made fully printableand without ICs .Encoding data without an IC is done by two chipless tagencoding schemes:1-Time domain reectometry (TDR)2- spectral signatures.Printable TDR-based chipless tags :These tags encode data using a train ofprecisely delayed backscattered pulses of the interrogation signal (1 ns pulse)by using multiple capacitive loadings at particular points of the microstripline. Each data bit needs a delay line, which significantly increases the sizeof the tag. The drawbacks of this technology are the amount of bits that canbe encoded, the size of the tags, and the amount of spectrum used.Spectral signature-based chipless transponders encoded data into the spec-trum using resonant structures. Each data bit is usually associated with thepresence or absence of a resonant peak at a predetermined frequency in thespectrum.

The chipless RFID system uses spectral signatures for data encoding andis fully passive, hence the tags do not need any power supply in order tooperate The main application for this chipless RFID system is mainly shortranged (up to 40 cm) tagging of extremely low cost items.The principal blockdiagram of the chipless RFID system is shown in next figure 4.1

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Figure 4.1 Principal block diagram of chipless RFID system

As can be seen in Fig. 4.1 , the chipless tag encodes data in the frequencyspectrum hence having a unique ID of spectral signatures. The spectralsignature is obtained by interrogating the tag by a continuous wave (CW)multi-frequency signal of uniform amplitude and phase. The tag then receivesthe interrogation signal and encodes the data into the frequency spectrum inboth magnitude and phase. The encoded signal is then retransmitted backto the reader. This allows the reader to use two criteria for data decodingamplitude and phase.

2.2 The chipless RFID tag

The chipless RFID tag consists of UWB antennas and a multi-resonatingcircuit operating in the UWB frequency spectrum as shown in Fig. 4.2 . TheUWB antennas are used to receive the interrogation signal sent from thereader and transmit the signal back to the reader after performing spectralsignal modulation by the multi-resonator. The multi-resonator is a combina-tion of multiple filtering sections, which are used to modulate the spectrumof the interrogation signal sent by the reader. Modulation is performed inboth magnitude and phase of the spectrum. The magnitude and phase are

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modulated in the forms of magnitude attenuations and phase jumps at theresonant frequencies of the multi-resonator, respectively.

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of chipless RFID tag

2.3 The chipless RFID reader

The chipless RFID reader is an electronic device, which can detect the ID ofthe chipless tag once it is within the reader’s interrogation zone. The blockdiagram of the chipless RFID reader and its basic components are shownin Fig. 4.3 . The RFID reader has transmitting and receiving antennas forsending the interrogation signal to the chipless tags and receiving the encodedsignal from the chipless tags, respectively. The RFID reader transmittercomprises a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), low noise amplifier (LNA),and power amplifier (PA). Tuning of the VCO’s output frequency is doneby the micro-controller through the digital-to-analog (ADC) converter. Thereader transmitter generates the interrogation signal, which is sent to thechipless tag. The chipless transponder encodes its spectral signature intothe reader’s interrogation signal and sends the signal back to the reader.The signal processing of the received tag signal is performed at the receiverend of the RFID reader and results in a digital signal being sent to themicroprocessor of the RFID reader. The receiver comprises an LNA, a band-pass filter (BPF), a demodulating circuit which converts the RF signal tobaseband, and an analog-to-digital converter. The microprocessor uses tagdetection and decoding algorithms to determine the ID of the chipless tag.This data is sent to an application or software enterprise on a PC, whichprovides the graphical user interface between the RFID system and the user.

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Figure 4.3 Block diagram of chipless RFID reader

2.4 Spiral Resonators

The spiral resonator is one of the main components of the chipless RFID tagwhich is used to encode data into the tag’s spectral signature. Spiral res-onators are developed in microstrip and coplanar waveguide technology. thetag encodes data by using a multi-resonator. The multi-resonator consistsof cascaded microwave spiral resonators coupled to a microstrip transmissionline. The microwave spiral resonators must be fully planar, exhibit narrowbandwidth meaning high Q factor and compact in size for use in the printablechipless tag. Various spiral resonators coupled to the microstrip lines can befound in open literature. Some are etched in the ground plane, while oth-ers are etched inside the microstrip line or gap coupled to the microstrip line.

2.4.1 A chipless RFID tag using multiple E-shapedresonators

The tag identity can be decoded either from amplitude, phase or group delayinformation.The advantage of the proposed tag is that it gives the designer,a flexibility to design a variety of RFID tags with minimal layout modifica-tion.different sets of frequencies can be derived from the same basic structureby simply changing a single parameter.

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2.4.2 The layout of multi-resonator design

multi-resonance is achieved using cascaded E-shaped resonators excited by a50 Ohm microstrip transmission line Each E resonator(R1 : R8)of a differentmiddle arm length introduces a different stop band resonance.The prototypeis fabricated on substratefr4 with dielectric constant 4.3 as shown next .

Figure 4.4 Layout of the proposed 8 bit multi-resonator circuit L =10mm,Wa = 13mm, Wb = 12mm, W1 =11.8mm, W2 =11.5mm, W3 =11mm,

W4 =10.6mm, W5 =10.4 mm, W6 =9.9mm, W7 =9.5mm, W8=8.8mm,Wt = 59mm, Lt = 30mm,Wf = 3mm, Lc = 1mm, o =0.5mm, G

=1mm, εr = 4.3,height=1.6mm

2.5 Encoding Data Using ”Spiral resonator”

Technique

It is necessary to encode data into the tag in order for the tag to have aunique IDIn the spectral signature based chipless RFID system,RFID reader sends amulti-frequency interrogation signal to the RFID tag.The tag encodes itsidentityin the spectral domain using a multi-resonating circuit.This circuit will actas a bandstop filter to the interrogation signal sent from the reader, creatinga unique spectral signature,which can be decoded by the RFID reader.In the proposed tag,multi-resonance is achieved using cascaded E-shaped res-onators excited by a 50 Ohm microstrip transmission line as shown in theprevious Figure.Each E -resonator(R1/R8)of a different middle arm length

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introduces a different stop band resonance. The middle arm of the E-shapedresonator is approximately quarter wave length long at the resonant fre-quency.λg4

= wi + ∆lfigure 4.5 shows the variation in resonant frequency by changingWi .It is clearthat resonant frequency decreases as W increases.This technique is used inimplementing the multi-resonator circuit.

figure 4.5 the variation in resonant frequency

2.6 Ultra Wideband Antennas

Chipless RFID tags require a significant amount of spectrum in order toencode their data. Hence, ultra wideband antennas seem like the obvioussolution as the antenna of choice for the chipless RFID tag.The antennas used in this project are UWB due to the wideband spectrumrequired to encode spectral signature data. Based on the chipless RFID sys-tem specialisations. it is clear that the antennas used for the tag and thereader are completely different. This is because the tag requires an omni-directinal antenna, while the reader circuit requires a high gain directionalantenna.

2.6.1 Antennas for Chipless Tag RFID Reader:

High gain RFID reader antennas with directive radiation patterns can sig-nificantly Increase the RFID reader’s reading range, and the number of tagsthat are interrogated as the antenna can provide spatial diversity with itsnarrow beam width.

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Chapter 3

RFID General applications

3.1 Benefits of RFID Solutions

Establishing a business case for the use of RFID technology dependson identifying the relevant business benefits that will result from it’s deploy-ment. Although RFID has application across retail, logistics, manufacturing,the public sector defence and many other sectors, different benefits will beof different relative importance in different industries. In each applicationarea, different systems will demand different technologies depending on thedifferent capabilities required from the tags and the readers but in generalRFID applications offer a number of potential business benefits:?Lower costs and higher productivity: RFID applications can automate thecollection of information about the movement and location of assets, compo-nents, stock or other items; doing this more quickly, more cheaply and withgreater accuracy and reliability than is possible with manual methods andwith more detail than can be obtained from techniques such as bar-coding.Data collection can be a by-product of other activities, eliminating the needfor effort in form filling. Identifying products using RFID is quicker thanbarcode scanning or manual entry of product details. the opportunities forhigher sales and better margins.?Improved quality of data capture: Use of the contact-less connection RFIDapproach makes it easier, quicker and more reliable to use than ”swipe” typecontact reading technologies or laser bar-code reading.

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? Shorter processes: Because RFID technologies can be integrated with othersupply chain technologies (automated pallet handling, stock picking systems,etc) the time from order to despatch and delivery can be reduced.? Reduced capital costs: RFID technologies help to lower inventory costsby providing better stock control and can be used to enable better controlof business assets such as test equipment, computing technology and otherportable devices.? Improved regulatory compliance: Using RFID to control when devices havebeen inspected or to restrict their movement can form part of a strategy toaddress health and safety issues . ? Better security: Access control systemsusing RFID contribute to improved security of business premises, RFID tag-ging of stock makes it easier to track inventory ”shrinkage” and tags can beused to fight against product counterfeiting.?More accurate, relevant, current management information: Because RFIDallows data to be captured in real-time as stock or assets are moved de-tailed, up-to-date, management information is available for planning andoperational management purposes.

3.2 RFID Applications

RFID is a versatile technology and can be used in a wide range of appli-cations, wherever there is a need to automatically identify items. Examplesof application areas where RFID is already widely used include:• Electronic ticketing in public transport where gateways read the tickets offrequent travellers, charging them for each trip.• Road tolling, similar to ticketing.• Tracking pallets and other returnable packaging.• Security guard patrol monitoring, by providing check in points where aguards RFID tag is used to record the time at which they visited each point.• Manufacturing work in progress control.• IT asset management.• Identifying equipment for planned or preventative maintenance.• Tracking specimens for experiments, Ensuring all items required for a par-ticular task are present (configuration management)& Auditing that regula-tory inspections (such as safety equipment inspections) are carried out when

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required.In each case the performance of tags and readers will often require an ini-tial trial to determine which RFID approach is best suited to a particularrequirement.Since different tags perform differently when attached to different materialsand since the orientation and size of the RFID tag’s antenna can also affectread speed, distance and success rates ,it is usually advisable to carry out atest or trial application. Because of the wide range of possible technologysolutions and the range of different equipment available within each typeof RFID, ... ”one size doesn’t fit all” certainly applies here. Choosing theright combination of tags and readers for an application is most likely to besuccessful if the choice is made in cooperation with a specialist in the field.

3.3 RFID General applications

Product Marketing 75 years agoYou can have any color, as long as it is black !

Product Marketing - TodayAdd consumer flexibility, courtesy of robotics, computers ,, Customer windowinto final stage of manufacturing.

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Figure 3.1 Markets by application 2014

?Effect on manufacturing

•Need to ensure error-free, custom assembly.•Need inventory of components for the various customization options.•Critical Issues.∗ Assembly process control.∗Inventory management.∗Supply chain integration.

∗One solution: RFID∗

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3.3.1 RFID in Retail

Figure 3.2 RFID in Retail

RFID technology goes beyond the basic self-checkout lines. Now, as it contin-ues to develop, RFID is being used to increase work efficiency and boost sales,job satisfaction, and customer service levels. Innovative retailer, ZARA, hasbuilt their business around RFID. They are now able to conduct a physicalinventory in their outlets in about 15% of the time it used to take.

benefits in RFID technology in retail.

1-BOPIS is a Win-Win.

Perhaps one of the biggest benefits in RFID technology is the buy-online,pick-up-in-store (BOPIS) advantage. As a retailer, managing inventory isn’talways easy. Through technology, we’re able to be on the grounds of eachof the stores to see what’s in stock and what’s available for purchase. Whenthe customer goes to the store , she will find that what said was in stock wasactually in stock.BOPIS technology gives the customer peace of mind. She knows what shewants is waiting for her at your store, and she knows it’s waiting for her rightwhen she walks in. It’s one of the easiest and most effective ways to keep thecustomers and in-store sales team happy.

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2-RFID Technology Provides a Faster Checkout Experience.

Consumers today demand high levels of service. As customer stands in linewaiting to give money, he grows exponentially impatient with each minutehe has to wait.With RFID technology, the impatience melts away. Instead, he’s left de-lighted by her buying experience something we can bet he’ll remember thenext time he needs to make another purchase from this store or other com-petitors.

3-Retail RFID Technology is Being Adopted Faster Than Ever Be-fore.

Over half of product manufacturers have implemented item-level RFID. An-other 21.1% plan to implement RFID over the next year and 18.4% say theyplan to implement RFID over the next two years. That’s according to the2014 GS1 US Standards Usage Survey. The retail industry has reached thetipping point. Now, an increasing number of retailers have seen the provenconcept and are adopting RFID technology. As more retailers see tangibleresults, other retailers jump on board.

4-There’s a Significant Cost to Adding RFID Technology.

According to a 2009 RFID Journal report, retailers were spending an aver-age of 30,000$ for a single store . That cost has decreased over the last 6years. Now, there’s a new cost standing in the way of retailers adopting thistechnology.

3.3.2 RFID in Healthcare

Less than 10 % of hospitals have warmed up to RFID technology. so it’s verymuch an emerging trend in healthcare. The idea is that by using resourcesmore effectively, hospital staff can spend less time running around trying tofind medical supplies and more time with patients.The reason why healthcare costs are so high is hospitals keep buying thingsthey already have and waste money. Hospitals have been so focused on thepriority of saving lives that they have been slow to adopt technology that

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saves money.

Figure 3.3 RFID in Healthcare

Representatives from hospitals and the healthcare industry illustrated howthey have used the technology to adopt leaner supply chain practices associ-ated with manufacturing to pare down costs and improve safety.

benefits in RFID technology in Healthcare.

1-Reducing supply overstock.

One of the most annoying problems nurses had at Hospital has been over-stock of supplies. The hospital also wanted to get a better handle on it’ssupply management. Getting clinicians involved in developing it and cham-pioning these systems is essential to it’s success. The system uses primaryand secondary batches of supplies. Each has a tag containing a passive RFIDtransponder. The person who takes the last of the primary batch of item,moves the next batch forward and places the tag on a wall-mounted RFIDreader board near the storage unit. That triggers an automated replenish-ment request to the hospital’s material management information system andthat generates a requisition to purchase the items. It had a 13% percentinventory reduction across its departments with the biggest inventory reduc-tions in its surgery unit, ICU and emergency department. It also increasedinventory where it needed it most.

2-Injection safety.

example of 270-bed hospital i, use RFID as part of an effort to better man-age its medical equipment. It started with needles. Using a handled readerwith RFID tags in patient wristbands, drugs are matched with prescriptioninformation in electronic medical records. The information can be accessed

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by scanning a bar code on the bottle and reading the patient’s ID numbercoded into the RFID tag on the patient’s wristband. It also links to thehospital’s injection drug inventory and traceability system.

3-Infection control.

One way Texas Health Harris Methodist Hospital is using RFID tags de-ployed to patients and staff is to trace people who come into contact withpatients with a contagious potentially dangerous infection. It uses a teamit refers to as mission control who can crunch data generated by RFID tagscanners to alert people who need to be screened.

4-Track and trace prescription drugs.

On Thanksgiving President Barack Obama signed into law the Drug Qualityand Security Act to electronically track and trace prescription drugs throughproduct identifiers. Although this will largely affect pharmaceutical compa-nies, it will change the way drugs are tracked. It will shift from tracking adrug based only on it’s lot number and include information such as expira-tion date and each point of contact for the drug from the manufacturer tothe pharmacy.

5-Patient Safety .

•RFID wrist-banding allows for better patient safety at the point-of-care.With one scan one can retrieve:∗ Medical history.∗ Prescribed medications.∗Meal Medicine scheduling.•Eliminate doctor and nurse negligence in regards to serving patients incor-rect medications or foods.•Allow for surgeons to have the nurses full attention in the operating roomas opposed to being occupied by the administrative tasks of counting andtracking surgical equipment.

6-Access Control .

•Streamline card-based access control solutions with durable, highly securecredentials printed on-demand.Monitor and control access to the most restricted parts of medical office in-cluding:

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∗Operating Rooms.∗Supply closets.∗Secure hospital wings.

3.3.3 RFID in Livestock

Animal identification, a worldwide market, grows about 30% every year.RFID technology today identifies several hundred million animals, such aspigs, sheep, goats, cows, deer, horses, fish and pigeons.

Figure 3.4 RFID in Livestock

Application Benefits of RFID Livestock Management.

•Provides proof of origin.•Verifies age and supports disease control.•Automates handling at farm.•Provides theft protection.•Supports storage and updating of vaccination and movement data.

RFID Features Beneficial to this Application.

•Permanent identification.

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•No line-of-sight requirement.•Simultaneous multiple identification.•Robust and suitable for harsh environments.•Compliance with government mandates.

Figure 3.5 RFID operation in livestock

RFID provides benefits such as not requiring a line-of-sight between the tagand reader, and the ability to read RFID tags at a distance. Thanks to theanti-collision technology, RFID readers can identify several animals simul-taneously by reading their tags. The technology improves automation andlogistics, as well as reduces labor costs. Through improved traceability, RFIDlivestock management also increases consumer protection from animal-bornediseases.

Livestock Tracking.

RFID enhances theft protection by giving each animal a unique, en-crypted identification. Meat industry stakeholders can improve disease con-trol by storing and updating vaccination and movement data directly intoeach animal’s chip, or by correlating the identification number with this infor-mation in the backend system. Such traceability ensures consumers healthyand tasty meat, with clear proof of origin.

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The ability to track livestock and their movements allows governments totrace what occurs in the supply chain, and to tax each player appropriately.In the case of disease outbreaks, the technology makes it possible to identifywhich flocks have been affected, which helps to avoid unnecessary waste.

Real-World Examples.

Farmers across a leading beef exporting nation in the Americas use prod-ucts made with RFID technology to comply with governmental mandates forelectronic identification of cattle.Several suppliers of animal identification devices in UK and Germany useRFID-based devices for a new sheep and goat tagging mandate .In Germany, a pig-breeding farm enjoys a direct ROI through reduced failurerates and reduced labor costs, thanks to RFID-powered tags.A government agency in a leading Asian nation uses the latest RFID technol-ogy to tag pigs, thereby increasing consumer protection from animal-bornediseases. These RFID tags also improve breeding logistics and farm automa-tion.A sports association in Asia uses the proprietary security features of RFIDchips for time-keeping and fraud prevention in pigeon racing. This electronicmethod increases accuracy and convenience, ensuring smooth and fair com-petitions .

3.3.4 RFID in Transportation & Logistics

RFID and RFID asset tracking/tagging has afforded industries with severaladvantages as it’s use continues to grow among everyday tracking.

Figure 3.6 RFID in Container Stowage

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we take a look at five advantages of RFID in the Transportation & Logisticsmarket.

1-Automated Yard Management.

•Automate workflows and processes while capturing data on tracked assetsat multiple sites.•Identify shipping bottlenecks and quickly adjust delivery schedules withinsupply chain.•Access historical data on the location and status of assets, eliminating writ-ten logs.•Achieve increased visibility into supply chain to help meet service level com-mitments.

2-Optimization of Container Stowage to Increase Profits.

Figure 3.7 RFID in Cargo Operations

•Increase production without adding resources.•Reducing operating costs.•Improve customer service.•Maximize asset utilization.

3-Optimization of Ground Support Equipment Operations and LowerCapital Expenditures.

Figure 3.8 RFID in shipping Operations

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• Status and location monitoring.•Access control.•Safety and security audit.•Battery and fluid monitoring.•Reports and key performance indicators.•Maintenance forecasting and condition monitoring.

4-General Cargo Operations.

•Improve control over Container Freight Station .•Support for all types of roll-on/roll-off (Ro-Ro) Vehicle Operations.•Simplify Billing.•Extend Mobile Framework/Customization Capabilities.

5-Vehicle Tracking.

•Reduce labor cost for vehicle processing.•Decrease on-site dwell time, enabling better yard throughput and increasedresponsiveness to dealer and customer demands.•Enhance quality by ensuring that no process steps are missed and that ev-ery vehicle departs in accordance with dealer/customer specifications.

3.3.5 RFID in libraries

Today, over 5,000 libraries worldwide have already introduced RFID, andmillions of customers benefit from the technology.

Figure 3.9 RFID in libraries

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RFID provide Advantages for libraries such:

•Rapid charging/discharging.•Simplified patron self-charging/discharging.•High reliability.•High-speed inventorying.•Automated materials handling.

3.3.6 RFID in Security concerns ,Schools , prisons andmuseums

It also used in many other applications such as Jewelry Tracking, Gas Cylin-der Tracking.

Figure 3.10 RFID in Jewelry and Gas Cylinder Tracking

RFID system also helps track the movement of children in schools and ver-ifies if students are getting off at the right bus stop. It also helps automateattendance. RFID has brought about great advancement to the security in-dustry and offers an effective method to enhance safety of premises. Mostoffices have been using RFID technology for a while. Now, schools are alsoreaping the benefits of this technology.

Also RFID has found a place in some of the world’s most important mu-seums. Not on display, but behind the scenes. Many of these institutions

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have found unique ways to utilize the technology to improve the managementof their collections as well as the experience of their visitors.

Figure 3.11 RFID in prisons,schools and museums

RFID can be used also as a tracking system in prisons, which lets correctionalofficers keep tabs on inmates and mitigate or prevent disturbances.Basically we have a contained RFID system, meaning we place antennaaround and throughout the prison facility that allows us to capture signalsthat come off the tamper-detecting bracelets that inmates and staff wear.The system also makes investigating an incident easier because the systemshows exactly who is involved - and where.That shortens the investigative process because we don’t need to rely on re-luctant or intimidated witnesses.In the event of an assault or other emergency situation, staff will immediatelyknow the identities and prison histories of everyone involved because everyinfraction committed by an inmate is stored in a database.

3.3.7 RFID in Military

Today’s military is responsible for keeping track of a growing array of weaponsand technology systems. Manual and barcode tracking processes that workedin the past might not be efficient enough for today’s needs. The military isseeking ways to cut costs, boost productivity, and handle complexity.

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RFID technology can reduce man-power, automate the process trackingof assets, and improve asset visibility. Because it is so much more efficient,RFID has the ability to reduce annual physical inventory audits from weeksor months down to hours or days, freeing up soldiers to focus on their corejob responsibilities.

for example :

?Military Weapons Racks & RFID Weapons Tracking For High Se-curity Military Storage .

Secure weapons, ammunition, optics, radios, and other critical gear. WeaponsStorage Racks are used by military police, firearm training facilities and bat-talion armories to provide space efficient secure storage. Weapons Rack inte-riors are flexible to accommodate a variety of lengths and types of weaponsand gear in any unit. Additional security through an RFID Weapons Track-ing system provides army with an audit trail of your entire armory.

Figure 3.12 RFID in Weapons Rack

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RFID management and tracking of weapons provides an audit trail as to who,what, when and where of weapons inventory. RFID tracking is achieved byplacing special RFID tags within the weapons themselves. The tag is passiveand does not emit a signal. The tag number is linked to the weapon serialnumber. When the RFID Reader ’reads’ weapons, the radio wave powers theRFID transmitter (within the label). Once powered, the RFID label withinthe weapon sends a message to the RFID Reader with the message: ”I amthis weapon with this serial number and at this location”.Portable RFID Readers are used to rapidly inventory weapons, and finditems that are misplaced or missing. Portable RFID Readers can read anyweapons within a few feet of the reader. Misplaced weapons can be foundby entering the weapon serial number into a portable RFID Reader. Whenthe reader comes within a few feet of the weapon the reader will beep whenthe misplaced weapon is located. Fixed RFID Readers are placed at Armorydoorways to read items passing into and out of the Armory.

3.3.8 RFID in Sports

Timing is everything in sports and not only on the track or playing field.Fans need to gain entry to their seats quickly and efficiently, and conces-sion operators have to move their goods at a rapid pace. Most important,sports organizers and officials need to time competitors precisely and tracksplit-second plays in events as diverse as NASCAR races, horse races andmarathons.

figure 3.13 RFID in Sports

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Over the past several years, RFID has become an integral part of a grow-ing number of sports and sports-related activities. RFID is even being incor-porated into sports equipment to help golfers find their balls and memorabiliacollectors authenticate their prized objects.Also 7 million Olympics tickets will incorporate RFID tags featuring a uniqueID number, designed to make it impossible for the documents to be modi-fied . By eliminating the need for manual identification, the technology alsopromises to accelerate ticket-holder entry into events while enabling officialsto detect if a ticket is being reused. For added security, tickets to the open-ing and closing ceremonies will include the holder’s digital picture and IDinformation.

3.3.9 RFID in Hajj season

Millions of Muslims go to Mecca every year to perform their Hajj (Pilgrim-age). Managing of Hajj activities is a very complex task on Saudi Arabianauthorities and Hajj organizers due to the large number of pilgrims, the spe-cific geographical area for the movement of pilgrims and the short period ofHajj.Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology can be used in variousapplications during Hajj season to provide good solutions for many problemsand contribute in overcoming many difficulties.

Figure 3.14 RFID in Hajj season

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RFID provide many solutions to Hajj season like:•Security solutions.•Statistical solutions.•Health and financial solutions.

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Chapter 4

RFID in Oil and Mining

The Mining,Quarrying,and Oil & Gas Industries involve many sectors suchas coal, metal ore, salt, and potash mining, as well as peat and oil & gasextraction.

Every sector in the industry operates in harsh environments and usessophisticated, capital-heavy equipment while relying on hundreds of on-siteworkers. Success lies in the ability to efficiently manage assets and personnelwhile ensuring absolute safety in the field.

4.1 RFID Systems for the Oil & Gas Extrac-

tion Industry

Oil and gas extraction is a multi-billion dollar global industry. There are 42US gallons or 159 litres of oil in a barrel. According to the Oil Market Report,the world consumes in excess of 93 million barrels of oil per day.On January2015 production forecast put production at more than 94 million barrels perday. Crude oil is derived from mineral oil that contains hydrocarbons andother impurities such as sulphur.

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Figure 3.1 Gas Extraction site

The demand for oil is most apparent when we consider China’s energyneeds. Almost half of all global oil demand will come from China and thistrend will continue to 2040.Crude oil uses:•Plastic production.•Fuel for automobiles and planes.•Used in the manufacturing of detergents, paints and pharmaceuticals.•Furniture manufacturing.Natural gas is a clean burning fuel generally located in deep undergroundporous rocks or trapped between dense rock formations. The OECD Euro-pean region has predicted 22 trillion cubic feet of natural gas will be consumedfrom 2015 to 2040.

Natural gas fulfills the following functions:•Heating the home.•Cooking fuel.•Electrical generation.•Creating polymers used in plastic.

?Using RFID Systems in the Oil & Gas Extraction IndustryThe Oil & Gas Extraction industry faces many challenges daily. Managingasset utilization, ensuring employee safety, and creating a profit from ex-tracted natural resources are all part of every manager’s top priorities.As anyone in the oil and gas business knows, the failure of a single piece ofon-site equipment can cause drilling to come to an abrupt and costly halt.

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To avoid this undesirable state of affairs, it’s essential that equipment bemanaged, monitored and maintained in strict accordance with specificationsand best practices.

The RFID Systems for the Oil & Gas Extraction industry can help in:•Pipeline inspection/maintenance.•Track Assets and Equipment.•Equipment maintenance.•Monitor Personnel Safety.•Track Oil Distribution.•Access Control and Management.

4.1.1 Pipeline inspection/maintenance

Figure 3.2 RFID in Pipeline

Today, monitoring pipelines is an expensive and time-intensive process thatinvolves workers covering an area as great as 500 square miles by vehicleto physically inspect and repair pipelines as needed. With RFID, oil andgas companies can heavily automate and improve the quality of pipelineinspection and maintenance.The many parts throughout a pipeline can be serialized with an RFID tagincluding flanges, gaskets and bolts. Now, with a quick scan of the RFID tag

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via a handheld RFID reader, field operators can determine when the part wasplaced in use, any known defects, maintenance history, repair procedures,the date the part should be retired and more. The ability to couple richdata with every part provides maintenance staff with the visibility requiredto better monitor the pipeline. The incidence of leaks and failures that canoccur when parts are incorrectly repaired or replaced is substantially reduced,helping prevent unplanned downtime, losses and environmental catastrophe.

4.1.2 Asset and Equipment Tracking

Offshore oil platforms contain 100’s of different types of machinery and equip-ment for the extraction of crude oil from the oceans floor. Tagging the milesand miles of steel piping with RFID Tags on an offshore rig tells the op-erator when a particular section of piping requires replacement. Withoutall piping being at functional capacity a rig can shut down resulting in theloss of millions of dollars if the mechanical problem is not rectified in time.RFID tagging eliminates the traditional pen and paper technique of partsand maintenance records.

Figure 3.3 oil Equipment

And In the large and geographically dispersed environments of the oil and gasindustry, asset tracking can be a highly labor-intensive and costly process,but the use of RFID can automate the tracking of everything from consum-able supplies and safety equipment to trucks, cranes, tools, parts, and even

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drill bits from the moment of arrival in the facility to end-of-life.Tracking begins at the receiving dock with mobile or handheld RFID readers,where assets are immediately identified, entered into your system and visiblein the inventory.

Figure 3.4 RFID in Asset and Equipment Tracking

4.1.3 Equipment maintenance

RFID Readers are accurate in the recording of relevant equipment mainte-nance. Drilling supervisors can be notified in real time of any potential issuesthat may come up.1.Maintenance dates for equipment.2.Next maintenance date.3.Technician sign off sheet.

Figure 3.5 RFID in Equipment maintenance

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As a technician completes service, critical maintenance data can be writtento the asset tag such as service date and time, technician, service performedand next inspection date. An asset’s complete history is always available tothe technician with a quick read of the asset’s RFID tag.In addition, the information is not only stored directly on the asset tag, butcan also be sent automatically to the system, ensuring the timely schedulingof future maintenance required to maximize equipment uptime.This ensures optimal asset utilization and reduces the chances of these equip-ment being removed from the premises. This, in turn, ensures the highlyaccurate and complete maintenance records required to best adhere to main-tenance schedules and optimize the performance.

4.1.4 Monitoring Personnel Safety

RFID-tagged identity badges and helmets can provide supervisors with thelocation information required to better protect workers in the hazardous en-vironments of oil and gas facilities.

Figure 3.6 RFID in Monitoring Personnel Safety

Fixed RFID readers help ensure employee safety by automatically trackingthe movements of workers. As a result, in an emergency evacuation, we canverify that all employees have arrived in a safe muster point. In addition,if an employee remains in an area longer than expected an alarm can beautomatically triggered and sent to the security/safety staff, enabling rapididentification and location of employees who may be injured or still in ahazardous area.

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4.1.5 Oil Distribution Tracking

The RFID Asset Tracking System can be used to track the distribution ofbarrels of oil and gas. Instead of relying on traditional paper tagging thatcan fade or fall off containers the use of RFID Tags can relay informationspecific to the content being shipped.

Figure 3.7 RFID in Oil Distribution Tracking

Identifying what tractor trailers are carrying what is of great benefit to theoperator and buyer of oil during the transportation process. Being able toidentify the arrival time of a shipment goes a long way in reducing logisticalerrors.

4.1.6 Access Control and Management

Whether it is personnel or vehicles, every area of the oil rig is important andsensitive. Only authorized personnel should be allowed into certain zones toensure safety.

Figure 3.8 RFID in Access Control and Management

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RFID Access Control System is a way to grant and deny access to zones with-out using keys or having manned entrance points. Each RFID Badge given tothe employees can be programmed with access levels. Authorized staff whowalk in proximity of RFID Readers installed on doorways are immediatelygiven access. This even is also logged in the database in case managers needto review access activity. Similarly, vehicles and machinery used through theoil rig can also be outfitted with RFID Vehicle Tags that can be programmedfor access certain areas.

4.2 RFID Systems for Coal Mining

figure 3.9 coal mine

The top five coal producers in the world are China, India, Australia,South Africa, the U.S.A., and Canada. Coal is the primary source for elec-tricity and the world’s most abundant fossil fuel. Coal is classified as thefollowing:Lignite: A lower ranked coal used in electricity power generation.Sub-bituminous coal: A cleaner burning coal used for electricity in power

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generation.Bituminous coal: Primarily used for fuel in electrical power generationand coke for steelmaking.Anthracite coal: The appearance is glossy black used for home heatingand steelmaking.

Canada has 24 coal mines located in British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewanand Nova Scotia. In Canada coal is extracted by surface mining and stripmining. China is the world’s largest producer and consumer of coal in theworld, accounting for 46% of global coal production and 49% of the world’sconsumption. China relies heavily on coal for power and energy produc-tion. Asia currently accounts for more than 67% of global coal consumption.Countries such as Japan, Chinese Taipei and Korea import steam coal forelectricity generation and coking coal for steel production. Coal is a cheapsource of energy. Coal is used in everything from paper manufacturing tothe pharmaceutical industries. Ammonia gas, the byproduct of coal ovensis used to manufacture ammonia salts and agricultural fertilisers. Coal andcoal by-products are used in soap, aspirins, dyes, plastics, solvents and fibres.This product is an essential ingredient in the production of carbon fibre andsilicon metal.

Mining Methods

Surface mining is implemented when a coal seam is found near the surface.Large surface mines can cover many square kilometres of land. After thecoal seam is exposed after being broken up by explosives it is drilled andextracted using shovels and trucks.With the many challenges that the industry faces, RFID has multiple solu-tions that help organizations within this industry.

Using RFID Systems in the Coal Mining Industry

•Track Equipment.•Monitoring and Locating Personnel.•Monitor and Manage Inventory.•Control Access.

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4.2.1 Track Equipment

Figure 3.10 RFID in Tracking

RFID technology can be used to tag mining equipment such as the following:•mobile crusher jaws.•drag lines.•large trucks (used to transport coal).•conveyors.•bucket wheel excavators.•power shovels.

Coal mining sites periodically rent mining trucks for temporary time pe-riods. Deploying RFID Tags that have been assigned to rented equipmentallows to track and locate the specific location of the unit on the mining site.In addition, we can track each individual piece of machinery for maintenanceand service records prevent the breakdown of machinery and parts. Servic-ing machinery while it is under warranty and before it requires maintenanceprevents having a pivotal machine out of commission delaying production ofcoal operations.

To gain a clear perspective on how tracking mining equipment can saveorganization money. Imagine not know what equipment we have on site, andletting them sit idle without use while paying hourly for rental fees?

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4.2.2 Monitoring and Locating Personnel

Figure 3.11 RFID in Locating Personnel

Coal mining accident rates in China and the U.S.A. are a common occurrence.The Chinese Administration of Coal Mine Safety has worked to improvesafety conditions but the end result speaks for itself, mining accidents caused2631 fatalities. The director of State Administration of Coal Mine Safetyreleased statistics that for every million tons of excavation there were 0.89deaths.

RFID is a viable solution for tracking the exodus of mining personnel inpossible disaster scenarios. Using RFID Personnel Locating System, everyemployee is outfitted with an Active RFID Badge that continuously commu-nicates their location to the RFID Readers installed across the site. Thisinformation is relayed to the database, allowing us with the ability to in-stantly look up employees by badge ID to locate their location and status.

4.2.3 Monitor and Manage Inventory

Coal that has been extracted from underground or surface mining and sep-arated from refuse material is placed into piles. Lumps of coal are knownas gob piles, slate dumps, boney piles and culm banks. Coal piles may bemoved several times before final transport. The insertion of RFID Tags incoal containers is easily documented using an RFID Reader that informsmining supervisors of the exact location of different grades of coal.

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4.2.4 Control Access

Incorporating RFID Access Control on sites at coal mining operations con-tributes towards the prevention of unauthorized vehicles or personnel to se-cure job sites. Work sites consist of expensive equipment. Tagging under-ground equipment and personnel in mining zones is best tracked with theoptions provided by RFID.

Every vehicle and worker can be detected at the gate by their assignedtags that communicate with the boom barrier to allow them to enter. Unau-thorized personnel or trucks will be denied entrance. Securing access to coalmining sites makes the site more safe and everyone becomes accountable.

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Chapter 5

RFID,Problems,Concerns andchallenges

5.1 Technical problem with RFID

5.1.1 Problem with RFID standard

RFID has been used in different ways by different manufacturers. The fre-quencies used for RFID in the USA are currently incompatible with thoseof Europe or Japan. This can cause problems for companies. Moreover,consumer have problems with RFID standard. For example, Exxon Mobil’sSpeedPass system is a proprietary RFID system; if another company wantedto use the convenient SpeedPass, they have to pay to access it. If everycompany had their own SpeedPass system, a consumer would need to carrymany different devices with them.

5.1.2 Read accuracy

accuracy (not established ) needs to approach 100% needs to approach 100%because of :∗Metal containers, liquids, Etc. impact tag readability.Metal objects will affect an RF field, so we do not expect 100% reliability ifwe are working near metal objects. Metal is common and in a warehouse itmay be hard to avoid. So just lower our expectations and work around it.

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As RF is like light, except we can not see it. Both RF and light are electro-magnetic energy. Like light, with RF we can get patterns of RF light andshade around structures, we just can not see it but an antenna can detect it.A receiving antenna is like a pair of electronic eyes. A transmitting antennais like a light bulb they both radiate electromagnetic energy.But... we can move RF tags from the RF shade into the RF light. So move-ment between tag and reader can actually help, because we can move thetag from an RF dead spot into a position where the signal is strong and itonly takes an instant to read a tag. The same applies if the tag stays stilland the reader moves.After all the tag only has to be read once to establish that it’s actually there.we can minimize this problem by using an RFID system that uses lower fre-quency RF.∗Tag/reader orientation: polarization effects.∗Reader configuration: cooperative networks of readers.∗Interference from other readers and other radiators.∗Implementation distribution centers relatively low tech need networking,power, etc.

5.1.3 Tags are application specific. No one tag fits all

There are applications that need maximum security and others that don’tneed any security at all. RFID tags used in high security applications, suchas bank cards, must comply with standards that demand the maximum levelof security.

5.1.4 Design Robustness

Needs to be robust enough to survive/function in warehouse environments.•RFID tags are usually larger than barcode labels.The size of an RFID tag is mainly determined by the size of its antenna.Ideally we want a tag to be as small as possible. But this is limited by thesize of the antenna. The size of the antenna depends on the frequency of theRF. Usually, if we use a higher frequency, the antenna can be smaller.

On an active tag, the processor chip is small compared with the antenna.The chip is the small blob and the larger printed copper conductor surround-ing it is the antenna.

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Usually, the higher the frequency, the smaller is the antenna. So if weneed the tag to be smaller, we may be able to use a higher frequency. Butnote that higher frequencies may introduce other limitations, and we needto consider these as well.

5.1.5 RFID systems can be easily disrupted

Since RFID systems make use of the electromagnetic spectrum, they arerelatively easy to jam using energy at the right frequency. This problem couldbe disastrous in business where RFID is increasingly used, like hospitals orin the military in the field.Tags may be vulnerable to Electro-Static Discharge (ESD) damage.This may affect tags attached to insulating materials such as plastics. Theproblem is usually caused by friction and can occur when items rub againsteach other and build up an electro-static charge. This may occur duringmanufacture, processing, transport and handling.

There’s a sinister side to ESD. The damage isn’t always immediate orobvious, and ESD may be one of the least-understood disadvantages of RFID.ESD can degrade an RFID (or any other electronic) device and make itoperate erratically. It may fail completely, a minute, an hour, a day or amonth later. There’s no way of knowing.

Proactive ESD protection is a worthwhile strategy. Often there’s enoughmoisture in the air to provide a leakage path that will slowly discharge anyelectro-static charge that starts to build up. But on a dry day...!

we could fit two tags to minimize the risk if it’s critical. There are variousways to minimize these risks, including making sure that charges can’t buildup in the first place, or if they do, they are discharged in a controlled waythat doesn’t stress the microchip.

5.1.6 May be difficult to troubleshoot if we have prob-lems with the RF link

Another of the disadvantages of RFID is that we can not see RF (it’s invisible)and the tags may be hidden. So if we can’t read a tag we are less likely toknow why, than with a bar code ID system we can’t be sure if the tag is eventhere?So what can we do?

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Test the reader by using a known-good test tag. This lets we verify that therest of the system is working. If it is, move the reader around and closer tothe target tags.

5.1.7 RFID can only work if there’s enough RF signalstrength

RF carries the information between reader and tag. And that’s about it. Sowhat can go wrong? If we don’t understand it, quite a lot.However, we can minimize RF dead spots. we can minimize these by usingmore than one reader and circularly-polarized or multiple-axis antennas.

5.1.8 RFID reader collision

Reader collision occurs when the signals from two or more reader overlap.The tag is unable to respond to simultaneous queries.

5.1.9 RFID tag collision

tag collision occurs when many tags are present in a small area; but since theread time is very fast, it is easier for vendors to develop systems that ensurethat tags respond one at a time.

5.1.10 Cancer risk

Veterinary and toxicology studies spanning the last ten years surfaced in-dicating that RFID chips induced malignant tumors in laboratory animals.However, there are some controversies,that the chips are completely safe andthat they were unaware of the studies.

5.2 Economical problems with RFID

5.2.1 Cost

∗Tags - currently 50 cents need to be 5 cents or less.∗Readers currently thousands of dollars need to be hundreds of dollars .

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also In comparison to the barcoding system,RFID technology is definitelymore expensive. This however is justifiable as it require parts such as hard-ware and software as well as architectural management.

5.3 Security and privacy problems with RFID

5.3.1 Loss of privacy

Tag can be read at a distance, it become possible to gather sensitive dataabout individual without consent. For example, an RFID tag can be readafter the item leaves the supply chain, this allows anyone to see the contentsof purse as pocket as we walk down the street.where The contents of an RFID tag can be read after the item leaves thesupply chain.An RFID tag can not tell the difference between one reader and another.RFID scanners are very portable. Some tags can be turned off when theitem has left the supply chain.

5.3.2 RFID tags are difficult to remove

RFID tags are difficult to consumers to remove; some are very small (lessthan a half-millimeter square, and as thin as a sheet of paper) - others maybe hidden or embedded inside a product where consumers can not see them.New technologies allow RFID tags to be ”printed” right on a product andmay not be removable at all .

5.3.3 RFID tags can be read without our knowledge

Since the tags can be read without being swiped or obviously scanned (as isthe case with barcodes), anyone with an RFID tag reader can read the tagsembedded in our clothes and other consumer products without our knowl-edge. For example, we could be scanned before we enter the store, just to seewhat we are carrying. we might then be approached by a clerk who knowswhat we have in our backpack or purse, and can suggest accessories or otheritems.

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5.3.4 RFID tags can be read a greater distances witha high-gain antenna

For various reasons, RFID reader/tag systems are designed so that distancebetween the tag and the reader is kept to a minimum . However, a high-gainantenna can be used to read the tags from much further away, leading toprivacy problems.

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Chapter 6

Experimental setup

In our Experimental Project we will use two main instruments in the lap:1-kvb-30D- exposure unit.2-R&S ZVL Vector Network Analyzer

6.1 kvb-30D- exposure unit

The Kinsten UV Exposure Box has a maximum exposure area 230 x 380mmand can be used for single sided, or double sided PCB’s.It includes digital timer & vacuum table.Three (3) FL-15 tubes top and bottom, ensure high intensity ultra-violetradiation for rapid exposure time. For applications that require more intenseUV, Kinsten now offer the KVB30DQ with four (4) lamps per side for 220Vregions and KVB30DT with five (5) lamps per side for 110V regions.The dominant UV wavelength is 350 400nm and the KVB-30D, while de-signed for use with Kinsten PCB, is often suitable for other applications thatrequire transfering an image to a UV sensitive surface. They have been usedin other applications including label making and rubber stamp production.

6.1.1 Features :

• Built-in vacuum pump allowing an individual to freeze the PCB’s set upfor perfect position to artwork.•An changeable timer & counter-top for setting publicity time.

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• 110V/200W procedure.•A convenient ”re-expose” button for do it again configurations when doingmultiple PCB’s.• 6 each 15 watt UV lights (3 higher/3 lower) - Exposure area:16”x9.5”.•Separately switched upper & lower light pipes for publicity of one/doublesided PCB’s.

Figure 6.1 kvb-30- exposure unit

Producer : KinstenExplanation : Deluxe UV Publicity Device With Vacuum Pump (KVB-30D)Type : Home Light Accessory

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6.1.2 Operation

Figure 6.2 kvb-30D box

The power cable is located in the top lid of the exposure box, to release pullsmall brass knob.(Fig1.1).Turn off all switches on the front panel(Fig1.2) & plug power cable into rearof the KVB30D. Ensure the voltage supply is correct and plug into electricitysocket.Adjust exposure time using Second Preset buttons. Typical exposure time is60 − 90 seconds for photo plot and 70 − 120 seconds for artwork base whenused with Kinsten PCB.

Figure 6.3 front panel

Unlock the vacuum clamp by pushing the metal latches outward with thumbs,and lift clamp.

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Figure 6.4 vacuum clamp

Remove protective film from PCB and align the artwork with the PCB.Alignment of double sided PCBs is made easier by using PCB offcuts to makea pouch with the artworks pre-aligned as shown in the image.

Artwork should be printed as a positive (black tracks) reversed image.Lay the printed side against the PCB, so the result will be correct.

Figure 6.5 Kinsten PCB

Place the assembled PCB and artwork inside the vacuum clamp, leaving aminimum 1cm distance from the air pipe.Close and latch the vacuum clamp. Start the vacuum pump and wait forapproximately 30 seconds until the air under vacuum clamp has been fullyremoved.Close box and turn on UV light source, upper/lower or both as required. Dis-play panel counts down seconds and at the end of exposure time, a buzzerwill give a 2-3 seconds signal.Turn off vacuum pump, open the box and wait a few seconds, then unlockthe vacuum clamp and open it slowly. Remove and process the PCB.

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Figure 6.6 vacuum pump

Caution:1-Avoid UV exposure at a short distance for more than 5 seconds. If neces-sary, wear UV protective glasses.2-Adjusting the Second Preset during exposure may interrupt the timer.3-Unplug the power cable before replacing the fuse, 3 Amp for 100-120V, 2Amp for 220-240V.4-Do not use solvents on transparent plastic surface, use soft cloth with wa-ter/detergent or 50% water/alcohol.5-Normal artificial room light will not harm Kinsten presensitised surface ifexposed less than 5 minutes.

6.2 R& S ZVL Vector Network Analyzer

The R& S ZVL is a cost-efficient, powerful, and portable network analyzer inthe compact class, and is therefore ideal for use in development, production,and service. It is the only instrument to combine the functions of a networkanalyzer, spectrum analyzer, and power meter in a single box, and will thustremendously increase our work efficiency.

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Figure 6.7 R&S ZVL Vector Network Analyzer

The compact R&S ZVL from Rohde & Schwarz redefines network analysis.The network analyzer’s favorable price and scope of functions in combinationwith it’s excellent RF characteristics make it the ideal instrument for RF cir-cuit development. It’s dynamic range of 123 dB, bidirectional measurementcapability, powerful analysis functions such as the multi-trace display, as wellas extensive marker functions make it fit for measurement requirements ofbase station duplex filters. Moreover, due to it’s low weight of 7 kg andbattery operation, it is also suitable for mobile applications.

6.2.1 Features:

•Measurement of S-parameters, impedance, admittance and stability.•Measurement output as Smith chart, inverted Smith chart, magnitude andphase, polar diagram, real / imaginary, group delay, VSWR.•Fully portable; weighs less than 7 kg, optional battery power.•Very high number of traces and channels, overlay display of traces and dif-ferent channels in a single diagram.•Evaluation of traces within up to 10 ranges: max, min, rms, mean, std de-viation, electrical length, phase delay.•Evaluation of band pass filters in terms of center frequency, bandwidth,quality factor, attenuation.•Optional spectrum analyser (ZVL-K1) including all functions also availablewith the network analyzer R&S ZVL.•Frequency ranges from 9 kHz to 6 GHz.

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•Universal RF analysis. The most important instruments in one box;.∗bidirectional 2-port vector network analyzer to characterize all 4 S-parameters.∗optional spectrum analyzer.∗optional power meter (with an R&S NRP power sensor).

6.2.2 Function Keys

The keys in the upper right part of the front panel provide direct access to themost important measurement settings. Each key opens a drop-down menu(softkey menu) or activates a menu command (softkey) of the graphical userinterface. The softkeys are hidden after a while to make room for the displayand the measurement results. If the spectrum analyzer option (R&S ZVL-K1) is active, the keys have a similar function. The network analyzer keysSCALE, FORMAT, and CAL have no direct equivalent in spectrum analysis;they are replaced by the AMPT, TRIG, and RUN keys, respectively.

Figure 6.8 Function Keys

• CENTER or SPAN define the center frequency and the width of the sweeprange..•SCALE defines how the current trace is presented in the diagram. If thespectrum analyzer option (R &S ZVL-K1) is active, the key provides addi-tional functions affecting the displayed signal amplitude (AMPT).•PWR BW defines the power of the internal signal source, sets the step at-tenuators and the IF bandwidths.•SWEEP defines the scope of measurement, including the sweep type, thenumber of points, the measurement delay and the periodicity of the mea-surement .• FORMAT defines how the measured data is presented in the graphicaldisplay. If the spectrum analyzer option (R &S ZVL-K1) is active, the keyprovides trigger settings (TRIG).

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Figure 6.9 Function Keys

•MKR positions markers on a trace, configures their properties and selectsthe format of the numerical readout.•MARKER provides marker functions that allow to search for values ontraces, define the sweep range, scale the diagram, and introduce an electricallength offset .•CAL provides all functions that are necessary to perform a system errorcorrection (calibration). If the spectrum analyzer option (R&S ZVL-K1) isactive, the key starts a new measurement (RUN).•MEAS selects the quantity to be measured and displayed .•LINES defines limits for measured values and activates the limit check.•TRACE provides functions to handle traces in diagram areas, evaluate tracestatistics, and store trace data.

6.2.3 Navigation Keys

Figure 6.10 Navigation Keys

The navigation keys below the rotary knob are used to navigate within theanalyzer screen and the Help system, to access and control active elements.

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6.2.4 Data Entry Keys

Figure 6.11 Data Entry Keys

The data entry keys are used to enter numbers and units.

6.2.5 Rotary Knob

Figure 6.12 Rotary Knob

The rotary knob can be turned in both directions or pressed.Turning the rotary knob is equivalent to the action of the cursor up and

down keys. Turn the knob in order to:•Increase or decrease numerical values .• Scroll within lists .• Switch to the previous or next dialog element Pressing the rotary knob is

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equivalent to the action of the ENTER key. Press the knob in order to: .∗Activate the selected active control element, e.g. a button in a dialog or alink in the Help .∗ Confirm selections and entries made and close dialogs .

6.2.6 Test Ports

Figure 6.13 Test Ports

N-connectors labelled PORT 1 and PORT 2/ RF INPUT. The test portsserve as outputs for the RF stimulus signal and as inputs for the measuredRF signals from the DUT (response signals).•With a single test port, it is possible to generate a stimulus signal and mea-sure the response signal in reflection. .• With 2 test ports, it is possible to perform full two-port measurements.• The two network analyzer ports are equivalent. If the Spectrum Analysisoption (R&S ZVL-K1) is active, test port PORT 2 serves as an AC-coupledinput for the analyzed RF signal; PORT 1 is not used.

6.2.7 Calibration Overview

Calibration is the process of eliminating systematic, reproducible errors fromthe measurement results (system error correction). The process involves thefollowing stages:1. A set of calibration standards is selected and measured over the requiredsweep range. For many calibration types the magnitude and phase responseof each calibration standard (i.e. its S-parameters if no system errors occur)must be known within the entire sweep range.2. The analyzer compares the measurement data of the standards with their

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known, ideal response. The difference is used to calculate the system errorsusing a particular error model (calibration type) and derive a set of systemerror correction data.3. The system error correction data is used to correct the measurement re-sults of a DUT that is measured instead of the standards. Calibration isalways channel-specific because it depends on the hardware settings, in par-ticular on the sweep range. The means that a system error correction dataset is stored with the calibrated channel. The analyzer provides a wide rangeof sophisticated calibration methods for all types of measurements. Whichcalibration method is selected depends on the expected system errors, the ac-curacy requirements of the measurement, on the test setup and on the typesof calibration standards available. Due to the analyzer’s calibration wizard,calibration is a straightforward, menu-guided process.

TOSM Calibration

A TOSM (Through Open Short Match) calibration requires the same stan-dards as the one-path two-port calibration, however, all measurements areperformed in the forward and reverse direction. TOSM is also referred to asSOLT (Short Open Load = Match Through) calibration. The four stan-dards are used to derive 6 error terms for each signal direction:• In addition to the source match and reflection tracking error terms providedby the one-path two-port calibration, TOSM also provides the load match.•The directivity error is determined at both source ports .• The transmission tracking is determined for each direction. The number ofrequired standard measurements and of error terms for 2-port measurementsis shown in the following table.An open, through and match measurement is required at each port; in ad-dition, a through must be measured between the two ports and in bothdirections. The analyzer automatically performs each through measurementin both directions, so the number of connected standards is smaller than thenumber of measurements.

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6.2.8 Other additional tools using with vector networkanalzer

Figure 6.14 Other tools and PCB products

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Chapter 7

Experimental Results

our two main components of the RFID system here will be:1-The Reader. 2-The chipless Tag.

7.1 The Reader

7.1.1 Structure of Reader Antenna

Using high-directivity and high-gain antennas in the reader can increase thereading range. The Vivaldi antenna, with a periodic and continuously scaledstructure, theoretically has an unlimited instantaneous bandwidth, a signifi-cantly high peak gain, and linear polarization.and so it is a perfect candidate for our reader antenna. Two identical Vivaldiantennas with a planar structure as shown in Figure 7.1,7.2

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Figure 7.1 A top view of the reader’s antenna structure

Figure 7.2 A bottom view of the reader’s antenna struc ture.

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Figure 7.3 The dimensions of the reader’s antenna structure. (mm).

The antennas had a profile of an exponentially tapered slotline, ending witha circular-slotline cavity. The exponentially tapered profile was defined bythe position of the origin, indicated as O in Figure 7.1,the opening rate r andthe two coefficients, c1 and c2 These were related according to

y = c1erx + c2

, where x was from 0 mm to 150 mm in that design. This profile served asthe radiator of the antenna, and was etched onto one side of the substrate.

For good impedance matching across the UWB frequency range, a linear-tapered stripline, etched on the other side of the substrate as shown in Figure7.2, was used for feeding the signal to the radiator. The stripline had a90 bend, and was terminated with an arc-shaped stripline stub. All thesedimensions were optimized forS11 < 10 dB across the UWB frequency rangeusing computer simulation.

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Figure 7.4 The prototype of the reader’s antenna.

7.1.2 computer simulation using CST software

Figure 7.5 e-field f=3.5 GHZ

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Figure 7.6 Far field

Figure 7.7 Far field pattern

Figure 7.8 S parameters

from figure 7.8 we can get the bandwidth below -10 db from 2.6 GHZ to morethan 6 GHZ

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7.1.3 experimental result measured by VNA

Figure 7.9 the experimental result measured by VNA

and for receiving and transmitting we made two raders have the followings-parameters experimental measured by VNA

Figure 7.10 the experimental result measured by VNA for both readers

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Figure 7.11 both readers measurements

7.2 The Chipless Tag

The underground oil and gas pipe network is complex and diversified, whichmakes it difficult to locate underground pipes.

The ChallengeDesign a chipless tag to survive 1,000 hours underground where the pres-

sure can reach 30,000 PSI, temperatures climb to 450 degrees Fahrenheit andcorrosive chemicals are common.

Figure 7.12 RFID in underground oil pipes

to put on underground pipes during transport of oil and gas With goodRead/Write Range (The read/write range is the communication distancebetween the reader and tag). The read/write range is, among other effects,mainly related to:? Electromagnetic coupling of the reader and tag antennas.

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? The RF output power level of reader .? Carrier frequency bands.? The power consumption of the device.? Antenna orientation.? The distance between the reader and the tag.? Operating environment conditions (metallic, electric noise).? The tag and the tag’s dwell time.As many parts throughout a pipeline can be serialized with an RFID tag .And , with a quick scan of the RFID tag

via a handheld RFID reader, eld operators can determine when the partwas placed in use, any known defects, maintenance history, repair procedures,the date the part should be retired and more.

Figure 7.13 underground oil pipes identification

The ability to couple rich data with every part provides maintenance staffwith the visibility required to better monitor the pipeline. The incidence ofleaks and failures that can occur when parts are incorrectly repaired or re-placed is substantially reduced, helping prevent unplanned downtime, lossesand environmental catastrophe.

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7.2.1 High Bit Encoding Chipless RFID Tag UsingMultiple E-Shaped Microstrip Resonators

Encoding a large number of bits within a narrow band is an important factorin the development of chipless RFID tags.Data encoding in these RFID tags are performed in the frequency domainusing resonant structures.

The proposed tag comprises a multi-resonating circuit with eight E-shapedmicrostrip resonators in the frequency band of 3.22 to 3.8 GHz .

The unique feature of the proposed tag is that a different set of frequen-cies can be derived by changing a single parameter of the structure. Theprototype of the tag is fabricated on a substrate FR4 of dielectric constant4.3 .The advantage of the proposed tag is that it gives the designer, a flexibilityto design a variety of RFID tags with minimal layout moderations. Differentsets of frequencies can be derived from the same basic structure by simplychanging a single parameter.

7.2.2 Multi-resonator Design

: A 8 bit chipless RFID tag multi-resonance is achieved using cascaded E-shaped resonators excited by a 50 Ohm microstrip transmission line as shownin Figure 7.14 In the spectral signature based chipless RFID system: Each Eresonator(R1R8) of a different middle arm length introduces a different stopband resonance.(band stop filter)

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Figure 7.14 Layout of the proposed 8 bit multi-resonator circuitL = 10mm,Wa = 13mm,Wb = 12mm,W1 = 11.8mm,W2 = 11.5mm,W3 =

11mm,W4 = 10.6mm,W5 = 10.4mm,W6 = 9.9mm,W7 = 9.5mm,W8 =8.8mm,Wt = 59mm,Lt = 30mm,La = 3.5mm,Lb = 3mm,Lc = 1mm,Ga =

0.5mm,G = 1mm, εr = 4.3, height = 1.6mm, losstangent0.0018.

Figure 7.15 fabricated multi-resonator circuit

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Figure 7.16 Simulated response of insertion losses of chipless tags of themulti-resonator with CST softwareS21

We can see clearly the eight bits resonators in figure 7.16 below−10db

Figure 7.17 Variation in resonant frequency withWI for a single E-shapedresonator

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and for simplicity we design one and two bits Resonators.

Figure 7.18 Single E-shaped resonator structure and it’s dimensions and

tag antenna

In order to improve the readability of the multi-resonator, transmitting andreceiving antennas are used. Figure 7.19 shows the fabricated semi-circularbroadband antenna used for this project.

Figure 7.19 fabricated semi-circular tag antenna

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The practical response of the antenna in the operating band of the tag isshown in Figure 7.20 using VNA.The antenna operates in the range of 2.855 GHz to 4.115 GHz. soret theresponse

Figure 7.20 S11 of semi-circular tag antenna

The final structure of the tag in Figure 7.21 thus consists of a verticallypolarized circular monopole receiving antenna, an two/one element multi-resonating E-structure, and a horizontally polarized circular monopole trans-mitting antenna.

Figure 7.21 fabricated complete tag

The need of two cross-polarized antennas is to minimize the interferencebetween the transmitted signal and the retransmitted encoded signal whichcontains the spectral signature.

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7.2.3 project experiment

Figure 7.22 project experiment

we made the experiment at different distances using two readers for trans-mitting and receiving and two bits resonator tag and move the tag 5cm andtaking results of S21

at operation frequency between 3.37 GHz and 4.1 GHz

Matlab code

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Figure 7.23 at distance of 5 cm

Figure 7.24 at distance of 10cm

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Figure 7.25 at distance of15cm

Figure 7.26 at distance of 20cm

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Figure 7.27 at distance of 25cm

Figure 7.28 at distance of 30cm

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Figure 7.29 at distance of35cm

Figure 7.30 at distance of 40cm

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Figure 7.31 at distance of 45cm

and we can see clearly the two bits of tag that received by receiving readerantenna in the following figure

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Figure 7.31 two bits of the tag

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7.3 REFERENCES

1-High Bit Encoding Chipless RFID Tag Using Multiple E-Shaped MicrostripResonators paper by Mohan Sumi1, Raghavan Dinesh, Chakkanattu M. Ni-jas, Shanta Mridula, and Pezholil Mohanan 2014 (tag)

2-Design of Chipless UWB RFID System Using A CPW Multi-Resonatorpaper by Y. F. Weng, S. W. Cheung, T. I. Yuk, and L. Liu ..The Universityof Hong Kong(reader)

3- Multiresonator-Based Chipless RFID barcode of the future book by Ste-van Preradovic and Nemai Chandra Karmakar

4-Chipless RFID Tag Using Multiple Microstrip Open Stub Resonators pa-per by C.M. Nijas, R. Dinesh, U. Deepak, Abdul Rasheed, S. Mridula, K.Vasudevan, and P. Mohanan 2012

5-Finkenzeller, K., RFID Handbook, 2nd edition, Wiley, Munich, Germany,2003

6- Thiele and A. Tafl ove, FD-TD Analysis of Vivaldi Flared Horn Anten-nas and Arrays, IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, AP-42,5, May 1994, pp. 633-641.

7-http://www.rfidjournal.com/

8-http://gaorfid.com/oil-gas-extraction-rfid-systems/

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