RFP gene = Red Fluorescent Protein

GFP gene = Green Fluorescent Protein

Let’s Back UpLet’s talk about the architecture of organic molecules……• Isomer = the same molecular formula but different

structures SO different properties.

Isomers1. Structural isomers –differ in the covalent

arrangement of their atoms.

Formula C4H10

Isomers2. Geometric Isomers –differ in their spatial arrangement but have the SAME

covalent bonds. Double bond makes them more inflexible-cannot rotate freely like in single bond! (variation in arrangement around a double bond)

Isomers3. Enantiomers –variation in spatial arrangement around asymmetric carbon. Result: molecules

that are mirror images of each other (Left and Right Handed). Usually one is active and the other inactive in the body. (arrangement of the four spots around asymmetric carbon)

Important for pharmaceutical companies?

Enantiomer

IsomersEnantiomers –Important for pharmaceutical companies? Why?Example: 1960- Thalidomide-ease pregnancy discomfort• Drug mixture of 2 enantiomers• 1 enantiomers-sedative• Other- side effects – birth defects

LIPIDS

• diverse group of organic compounds: grouped together because

HYDROPHOBIC• insoluble in water• will dissolve in nonpolar solvents• not a true polymer; still a

macromolecule (C and H)• include:

1. Fats2. Phospholipids3. Steroids

Lipids1. Fats (Triglycerides)

– Glycerol + 3 Fatty Acids– Saturated = No Double Bonds (solid)– Unsaturated = Double Bonds (liquid)

Organic Compounds: Lipids: Fats

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

OH

Ester Bonds

1. FATS

• Composed of:– glycerol (3-carbon alcohol; each with a Hydroxyl

group)– fatty acid (contains carboxyl group; long

hydrocarbon chain or “tail”)• the nonpolar C-H bonds make the chain hydrophobic

and insoluble in water

• Fatty acids may vary in # of carbon atoms (usually even #)

• Each of glycerol’s 3 hydroxyl groups can bond to a fatty acid by an ester linkage producing a fat. (resulting in triacylglycerol, or a triglyceride)

Lipids2. Phospholipids

– Glycerol with Phosphate Head + 2 Fatty Acid Chains

– Amphiphilic (“Both” “lover”)• Hydrophilic head• Hydrophobic tail

– Forms 2 layers in water– Makes up cell membranes

Organic Compounds: Lipids: Phospholipids

Phosphate

Glycerol

Fatty Acids

• clusters in water in patterns (e.g. micelle, bilayer)

• shows ambivalent behavior towards water (tails are hydrophobic and heads are hydrophilic)

Organic Compounds: Lipids: Steroids

Lipids

OH

O

Testosterone

HO

O

Estrogen

3. Steroids– Lipids whose Carbon Skeleton consists of 4 fused

rings– Includes:

• Hormones• Cholesterol

– Makes up cell membranes

HOOH

O

O

OH

Biotechnology• To extract DNA and other

organelles from a cell, the phospholipid bilayer must be dissolved. This is achieved by the use of detergents which disrupts the hydrocarbon tails.

I. Monosaccharides =

single/simple sugars • major nutrients for cells

• glucose is most common (C6H12O6)

• store energy in their chemical bonds which is harvested by cellular respiration

*examples: glucose, ribose, galactose

Classification of MonosaccharidesCatorized depending on:

1. Location of carbonyl group either Aldose (Aldehyde sugar) or Ketose (Ketone sugar)2. Size of carbon skeleton ~3-7 carbons long (most form rings in solution)3. Isomers – spatial arrangement around asymmetrical carbon***Shape = function /interaction in body!

Classification of Monosaccharides

Aldose Structural Isomer of glucose=Ketose

II. Polysaccharides = hundreds or thousands of

monosaccharides • formed by linking monomers

dehydration synthesis (condensation) reactions

• Monomers held together by covalent bonds called glycosidic linkages

Condensation or Hydrolysis?

Glycosidic Linkage

Condensation or Hydrolysis?

Disaccharide

A. Examples of energy storage polysaccharides:

• Starch = glucose polymers in plants (amylose/amylopectin)

• Glycogen = glucose polymer in animals

LE 5-6

Chloroplast Starch MitochondriaGlycogen granules

0.5 µm

1 µm

Amylose

Starch: a plant polysaccharide

AmylopectinGlycogen

Glycogen: an animal polysaccharide

IN PLANTS

Digestion = Hydrolysis

Difference in most carbohydrates is how the glucose monomers are connected!

Gycogen in liver cells: stained red

B. Examples of structural support polysaccharides: • cellulose = major structural

component of plant cell walls that cannot be digested by most organisms because of missing digestive enzyme

• chitin = forms exoskeletons of arthropods

B. Examples of structural support polysaccharides:

• chitin =

Know the difference between the 5-carbon sugars!!!

Biotechnology• Use glucose as food source for cell cultures.

Biotechnology• Carbs also affect DNA purifications in plant cells because they are too sticky