Defi nition

Some might say that the rhetorical situation, an expression coined by Lloyd Bitzer, is the most important concept in writing.

According to Bitzer, all writing occurs within a rhetorical situation, and every rhe-torical situation has three components.

First, a rhetorical situation includes what he calls an “exigence,” or occasion for writing. More specifi cally, such an occasion carries with it both a sense of urgency and a promise that through writing, a composer can make a change to that situation.

Second (and while it may seem obvi-ous), a rhetorical situation includes an audi-ence that can be infl uenced by or react to the writing.

Rhetorical Situation

Third, a rhetorical situation by defi ni-tion has constraints, and they come in two forms. An author may bring certain con-straints to the writing, for example certain beliefs that infl uence how the author under-stands a given issue. Likewise, there are con-straints associated with the situation itself, for instance the frame of mind of the audi-ence or the environment in which they hear or read a text. Both of these constraints are part of the rhetorical situation because they can infl uence audience response and the po-tential of the writer to make change.

Importance in the Field

Although scholars disagree on which comes fi rst—the writing or the rhetorical situation—they agree that effective writers use the con-cept of the rhetorical situation throughout their composing processes. They use it as a way to frame a writing task, for example. And they use it as they compose, to be sure that their writing keeps its intended focus.

In sum, the rhetorical situation is the situation in which we all write—be it a text message; a resume; or a research project and poster.

Resources

Enos, Richard Leo. “The History of Rhetoric.” Coming of Age: The Advanced Writing Cur-riculum. Ed. Linda K. Shamoon, Rebecca Moore Howard, Sandra Jamieson, and Robert Schwegler. Portsmouth: Boynton/Cook, 2000. 81–86. Print.

Lowe, Kelly. “Against the Writing Major.” Com-position Studies 35.1 (2007): 97–98. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A. “The Future of Writing Programs—and WPAs.” Plenary Address. Conference of the Council of WPA. Grand Hyatt, Denver. 10 July 2008. Address.

Subject

Composer Audience

Context

Text, Genre, Medium

College Composition and Communication

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Error

Definition Significance

Resources

An error in writing, like an error in other practices or texts, is a mistake, and there was a time when writing teachers focused on errors as a very important mechanism for helping writers develop. Today, we focus more on composing processes, purpose, audience, and genre. We also have a more informed sense of history regarding error: what “counts” as an error has changed over time. The word ain’t, which is understood as an error now, was recommended usage in Shakespeare’s time. More generally, errors in writing can be viewed in four ways. One: errors change over time: what is an error in one age may be acceptable usage in another time. Two: errors depend largely on context: in a very formal setting, error-free language is often expected, while in an informal or casual setting, “errors” can be expected as part of a more relaxed discourse situation. Three: errors have their own logic, and we can’t understand what an error actually means until we inquire into its logic. Four: as writers try new genres, their writing often includes errors that are addressed as

Readers engaged with a text often don’t even notice errors, but errors that impact meaning merit attention.

Connors, Robert J., and Andrea A. Lunsford. “Frequen-cy of Formal Errors in Current College Writing, or Ma and Pa Kettle Do Research.” College Composition and Communication 39.4 (1988): 395–409. Print.

Hull, Glynda, and Mike Rose. “‘This Wooden Shack Place’: The Logic of an Unconventional Reading.” College Composition and Communication 41.3 (1990): 287–98. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea A., and Karen J. Lunsford. “‘Mistakes Are a Fact of Life’: A National Comparative Study.” College Composition and Communication 59.4 (2008): 781–806. Print.

Kolln, Martha J., and Loretta Gray. Rhetorical Gram-mar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 6th ed. Boston: Longman 2009. Print.

Micciche, Laura. “Making a Case for Rhetorical Gram-mar.” College Composition and Communication 55.4 (2004): 716–37. Print.

Shaughnessy, Mina. Errors and Expectations. New York: Oxford UP, 1977. Print.

Williams, Joseph M. “The Phenomenology of Error.” College Composition and Communication 32.2 (1981): 152–68. Print.

the writer becomes more experienced in the new genre. In other words, er-rors can be a sign of growth. At the same time, errors that interfere with a writer’s expression or an audience’s understanding need to be addressed: writing wants to be read.

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