RoadmapBattery Production Equipment
2030
Battery Production
Update 2018
Phone +49 69 6603-1186
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Internet
+49 69 6603-2186
http://battprod.vdma.org
Dr. Sarah Michaelis, Ehsan Rahimzei
Authors
VDMA Battery Production
PEM of RWTH Aachen
Fraunhofer ISI
Battery LabFactory
Braunschweig (BLB) and
TU Braunschweig
Prof. Dr. Achim Kampker, Dr. Heiner Heimes, Christoph Lienemann, Christian Offermanns, Mario Kehrer
Dr. Axel Thielmann, Tim Hettesheimer, Christoph Neef
Prof. Dr. Arno Kwade, Wolfgang Haselrieder, Sina Rahlfs, Roland Uerlich, Nicolas Bognar
Editors
Dr. Sarah Michaelis, Ehsan Rahimzei, Laura Abraham, Jennifer Zienow
Professional support
Thorge Thönnessen, Marc Kirchhoff, Peter Schulz, Volker Seefeldt
Publisher and production
VDMA Verlag GmbH, Frankfurt am Main
Printing
h. reuffurth Gmbh, Mühlheim am Main
Copyright 2018
The work, including its parts, is protected by copyright.
Picture Credits
Front Cover
Other pictures
© Kadmy/stock.adobe.com
„Stone by stone breaking through the Red Brick Walls.“
See image captions.
Imprint
Publisher
VDMA Battery Production
Lyoner Str. 18
60528 Frankfurt am Main
VDMA Battery Production is your contact for all questions
to machine and plant engineering relating to battery
production. The member companies of the department
supply machines, systems, machine components, tools
and services for the entire process chain of battery
production: From raw material preparation, electrode
production and cell assembly to module and battery
system production. The current focus of VDMA Battery
Production is on Li-Ion technology.
We research technology and market information, organise
customer events and roadshows, hold our own events,
such as the annual conference, which has established
itself as an important industry meeting place, and are in
dialogue with research and science on current topics and
on joint industrial research.
http://battprod.vdma.org
The Chair of Production Engineering of E-Mobility
Components (PEM) at RWTH Aachen University is
synonymous with successful and forward-looking
research and innovation in the field of electric vehicle
production. The group Battery Production of Professor
Kampker's chair deals with the manufacturing processes
of the lithium-ion cell as well as with the assembly
processes of the battery module and pack. The focus is on
integrated product and process development approaches
to optimize cost and quality drivers in manufacturing and
assembly processes. Through a large number of national
and international industrial projects as well as central
positions in well-known research projects, the PEM of
RWTH Aachen offers extensive expertise in the fields of
battery cells and battery modules and packs.
https://www.pem-aachen.de/
The Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation
Research ISI conducts practical research and sees itself as
an independent thought leader for society, politics and
business. Our expertise lies in sound scientific
competence and an interdisciplinary and systematic
approach. Our assessments of the potentials and limits
of technical, organisational or institutional innovations
help decision-makers from business, science and politics
to set the strategic course and thus support them in
creating a favourable environment for innovations.
http://www.isi.fraunhofer.de
The Battery LabFactory Braunschweig (BLB) is an open
research infrastructure for the research and development
of electrochemical storage devices from laboratory to
pilot scale. The research spectrum covers the entire value
chain from material, electrode and cell production to
recycling. The existing infrastructure enables us to
investigate fundamental and application-oriented
research and development issues. The focus is on flexible
production and process technology to increase the energy
density, quality and safety of batteries. For this purpose,
the engineering and scientific competences of eight
institutes of the TU Braunschweig, the PTB and institutes
of the TU Clausthal as well as the LU Hannover are
bundled in the BLB.
https://www.tu-braunschweig.de/forschung/zentren/
nff/batterylabfactory
Battery Production
Roadmap
Battery Production Equipment 2030
Update 2018
In cooperation with
Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research ISI
Chair of Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components PEM
Battery LabFactory Braunschweig BLB and TU Braunschweig
Contents
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Executive summary
IntroductionRoadmapping: the whole picture
Technology roadmapping in mechanical and plant engineering
Methodology
Lithium-ion technology as a reference scenario
Workshops at VDMA
MarketsMarkets, demand, supply
Frugal innovation vs. full digitalization
Cell formats: advantages and disadvantages of the various formats
What are the possibilities of the new 21700 format?
Product requirements and specifications Performance parameters for applications in electromobility
Performance parameters for stationary applications
Requirements of battery manufacturers
The solutions offered by mechanical and plant engineering Cost degression
Increasing quality
Challenges and the required technological breakthroughs (red brick walls) Red brick walls: an overview
Grand challenges
2018 — assessment of red brick walls from 2016
History of the development of the red brick wall assessment
Red brick walls 2018 in detail
The lithium-ion batteries of tomorrow — what will the future bring? Lithium-ion technologies
Beyond lithium-ion technology
Conclusions
Conclusions and recommendations for action Recommendations for action
References
AppendixList of workshop participants, evaluation by questionnaire or interview 96
4 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The references and unique selling points of the
production solutions create the ideal conditions
for establishing a sustainable and long-term
position in the future-oriented field of battery
production and becoming more attractive as a
solutions partner worldwide. Production
research in mechanical engineering provides the
basis for competitive cell production. It is the key
to process innovation and to the strategically
vital development of unique selling points. The
roadmap process makes a valuable contribution
to this by specifying concrete needs in
production up to 2030 and formulating initial
proposals for solutions.
In 2014, VDMA Battery Production published its
first technology roadmap that focused on
production technology rather than the
development of products themselves. The
roadmap attracted worldwide attention and
many of its suggestions were taken up;
implementation of these has already started.
We have continued a target-oriented dialog
between battery producers, production
researchers, and the mechanical and plant
engineering industry, also drawing on
experience with foreign experts. Because the
battery sector is so dynamic, gathering the
findings and information we gain from this in a
full revision of the roadmap every two years is
very important to us.
In 2016, for the first time we not only studied
the market itself but also added a careful
evaluation of factory capacities and the
solutions these offer worldwide. This has now
been updated in this roadmap, in which the
focus of observations turns increasingly to
China. Machinery and plants in the high price
segment need to impress with regard to the
total cost of ownership — especially in countries
like China. The chapter “Frugal innovation versus
full digitalization” is intended to serve as food
for thought about how the price pressure there
can be confronted.
The roadmapping method introduced in 2014
has been retained. An evaluation of the
necessary technological breakthroughs (“red
brick walls”) identified in 2016 formed the
starting point for the update. Next, the future
requirements for the battery manufacturing
sector were discussed from today’s point of view
and solution approaches relating to mechanical
and plant engineering compiled. Working on the
basis of the first roadmap, a total of 16 red brick
walls were identified and revised to reflect the
current state of the art in technology. All the red
brick walls can be traced back to the core
challenge of increasing quality while reducing
costs (1) and thus to process stability (2),
increasing production throughput (3) (by
upscaling or increasing process speeds), and
sustainability (4). Together, these four aspects
form the “grand challenges.”
The recommendations for action for the German
mechanical and plant engineering industry
compiled in 2014 and 2016 remain both correct
and important. The need for research illustrated
in our roadmap should be met with targeted
cooperation between industrial partners and
research organizations. Recent years have seen
the issue of sustainability gain in importance. It
is vital not to lose sight of the overarching
objective of reducing CO2 emissions. Access to
series production remains essential in order to
qualify developments directly in large-scale
production and acquire references. As before,
one of the key challenges is to generate positive
public opinion in order to encourage investment
in battery production.
VDMA Battery Production will continue to
actively drive forward the roadmapping process
as well as the subsequent implementation.
Executive summary
INTRODUCTION 5
Roadmaps are a proven method of creating
clarity — they supply a coherent picture of a
future vision, (ideally) represent consensus
across a broad industrial field, act as an
investment guide, and encourage pre-
competition cooperation between all the actors
concerned.
Following the initial publication of the roadmap
in 2014 and the update in 2016, VDMA Battery
Production has continuously maintained and
encouraged dialog between all the actors
involved. For the purposes of this 2018
publication, the contents of the 2016 roadmap
were reviewed, completely revised and
expanded to include new material. The
fundamental methodology has remained
unchanged.
Roadmapping: the whole picture
Technology roadmapping is a strategic tool in
innovation management. Forecasts of future
megatrends and markets1 (“know why”) can
benefit everyone who is able to generate specific
requirements for products (“know what”), the
technologies to be deployed (“know how”) and
the required research and development
programs over a defined period of time (“know
when”) [Phaal2003a].
This generates separate “travel routes” which
can be considered in each case with separate but
related roadmaps2: Requirements are
formulated by working from top to bottom,
while solutions are created working from
bottom to top. The overall roadmapping process
accordingly leads from an overarching scenario
through to products and feasibility and on to
specific needs for research, which can be
visualized in a milestone chart3 [Phaal2003b].
If we adapt this to our present case, the
following picture emerges: End customer
markets such as the automotive industry,
electricity suppliers, and mobile machinery
represent the blue “Market” route. The green
“Product” route is the battery. The yellow route
specifies the production technology and the red
route designates production research.
Technology roadmapping in mechanical and plant engineering
User markets and battery technologies have
already been studied worldwide in numerous
roadmaps [NPE2016, LIB2015, BEMA2020].
Although they also emphasize the importance of
production for the sector’s progress, they are not
technology roadmaps for production technology
in the truest sense.
In 2014, VDMA Battery Production published a
first technology roadmap [Maiser2014] that
focused on the further development of
production technology and not on product
development itself. The dialog oriented to this
objective between battery producers, production
researchers, and the mechanical and plant
1 Popular examples include digitalization, urbanization, climate change, individualization etc. 2 Identified by different colors in the milestone chart 3 Strictly speaking, our roadmapping follows the development path shown in the milestone chart in reverse.
Introduction
Roadmapping: from an overarching scenario through to products and feasibility and on to specific needs for research. Development paths in a milestone chart [Phaal2003b]
What everyone wants to know:
Resarch needs
“BatteryProducers View“
“Machinery View“
“End User View“ Requirements
for battery manufacturers
M1
P1 P2 P3
P4
T1 T2
T3 T4
RD3
RD4
RD5
RD6
M2
RD1 RD2
Time
Timeline(know-when)
Solutions for end customers/ requirements
for machine builders
Solutions for battery manufacturers/ demand
production equipment research
Purpose(know-why)
Purpose(know-what)
Purpose(know-how)
Implemen-tation
6 INTRODUCTION
engineering industry remained the basis of
further discussion and has been continued ever
since.
Starting point, objectives and target groups
The expectations placed on all players along the
battery value chain are high. Competition to
create the best production technology is running
at full speed, and cooperation along the process
chain is essential for progress. Experience from
the consumer sector continues to represent a
considerable advantage for the production of
large-scale energy storage devices. Continual
innovation and rigorous internationalization
strategies have played a major part in
generating the first successes of German battery
manufacturers in the important markets of Asia
and North America.
These companies benefit from the experience of
related industries4. This makes it possible to take
new approaches and introduce revolutionary
ideas.
We described the objectives of the roadmapping
process in detail in our roadmap published in
2014 [Maiser2014]. These objectives remain
valid:
To determine the current situation of the
mechanical engineering industry: latest
progress and future challenges
To comprehensively specify the need for
research into production technology
Benchmarking, expansion of product
portfolios, and encouragement of the
formation of consortia for new and
established players
Recommendations for action for all actors
4 For example semiconductor, photovoltaic, and automotive production, as well as the food and packaging industry.
As a general principle, the persons or
organizations that benefit the most will be
those that participate actively in the dialog
[Groenveld1997, Phaal2009].
Methodology
VDMA’s experience with roadmapping
[ADRIA2005, VDMA-PV2010] has underlined the
importance of clearly specified methodology for
the roadmapping process. We have adapted the
roadmapping process used in the semiconductor
industry to the needs of battery production. At
the heart of this method is the concept of
formulating roadmaps separately for customers
and production equipment manufacturers. This
prevents a situation in which customers make
their requirements dependent on the feasibility
of process technology and technology suppliers
make statements about process solutions only
when there is a prospect of volume production.5
The importance of “red brick walls”
Compiling the requirements placed on battery
manufacturers and on feasibility from the point
of view of process development within the
defined time grid reveals the following for each
individual process step:
(1) Process solutions are already available in the
field
(2) Process solutions are available only at a pilot
stage
(3) Process solutions have been demonstrated or
exist as temporary solutions
(4) Process solutions are currently unknown
If solutions are unknown in several process steps
that are required to meet a manufacturer
requirement, a metaphorical “red brick wall”
5 A more detailed description can be found in the roadmap published in 2014 [Maiser 2014].
INTRODUCTION 7
arises. This indicates that technological
breakthroughs are necessary.
Research efforts must now be targeted at
overcoming the red brick walls in order to fulfill
the manufacturers’ requirements. The
identification of red brick walls is thus a core
task within the roadmapping process. From this
it is possible to derive specific and clearly
defined research requirements.
Multidimensional roadmaps —
focus on mechanical and plant engineering
The milestone chart shown above effectively
results in a separate chart for each battery
technology. This makes our roadmap
multidimensional (see illustration) and it would
be too complex to discuss production
technology in the necessary depth.
To allow an intensive study of the process chain,
we have accordingly focused on the battery
technology that has already been introduced on
an industrial scale: lithium-ion technology (LIB,
shown in color in the chart).
As production research requires technologies
that are ready for series production, our
roadmap addresses the lithium-ion generations
1 to 3 (see table). Within these generations, the
production technology is upwards-compatible.
This means that any conclusions can be applied
directly to the next generation, since the
changes primarily affect the chemical
composition of the active components.
The term “generation 4” is used to designate all-
solid-state and lithium-sulfur (Li-S) technologies,
while generation 5 indicates lithium-air. These
technologies are still at the development stage.
Changes would be needed to some sub-sections
of production for these generations. Detailed
information can be found in the all-solid-state
process flyer.
In view of the competitive environment for
German companies, we shall also limit ourselves
to considering large-scale cells for high-capacity
and high-energy applications.
If we regard a milestone chart as a roadmap for production technology, further charts emerge for each battery technology. This work is concerned with the challenges associated with the volume production of the first to third generations of lithium-ion technology; the generations are defined in accordance withthe roadmap of the German National Platform for Electric Mobility (NPE). Source: VDMA
8 INTRODUCTION
Lithium-ion technology as a reference scenario
For a long time, the already very well-developed
4.1 V LIB was the reference system for “classic”
LIBs for use both in electromobility and in
stationary applications. The 4.2 V LIB has now
become established, and experiments with the
4.35 V LIB are ongoing. In these cells, however,
the performance is still increasing at the
expense of service life. High-voltage cells with a
voltage of 4.5 or more do not currently exist.
In electrochemical terms, the current reference
system is based on a cathode made of lithium
nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) or lithium
ion phosphate (LFP) and an anode made of
graphite or graphite with a small percentage of
silicon. Lithium titanate is also suitable as an
alternative anode material, particularly for use
in large-scale stationary storage devices or in
HEVs6 in the field of electromobility.
Large-scale cells for mobile and stationary use
will be based on LIB technology in the future.
The overall picture in battery technology
research and development shows that the
potential of the current generations of “classic”
large-scale lithium-ion batteries is far from
exhausted. Improvements could be achieved
through the use of high-voltage cathodes with
appropriate electrolytes or graphite anodes with
a higher percentage of silicon, for example.
In view of its broad design base and the
associated wide range of applications, the LIB
reference technology described will remain the
reference system for many years to come.
6 HEV: hybrid electric vehicle
Workshops at VDMA
The roadmap is revised every two years to
ensure it is up to date. The first step in this
process is a two-day workshop to evaluate the
existing RBWs in line with the following criteria:
current situation, relevance for battery
manufacturers, and cost/benefit ratio.
Comments and suggestions can also be added.
Following this, the results were discussed in a
plenary session.
Just as in 2016, the evaluation session on the
first day of the workshop was followed by work
on the requirements for the manufacturers of
production systems from today’s point of view.
Alongside the mechanical and plant engineering
industry, battery manufacturers, the automotive
industry and research institutes were also
involved.
On the second day, the solutions offered by the
mechanical and plant engineering industry were
formulated. The required technology
breakthroughs were discussed and considered
based on the 2016 roadmap and the results of
the first day. The discussion also included the
timeline for achieving each objective.
To complement the workshops, expert
interviews with the customer sector were later
held, just as in 2016. This additional evaluation
by experts ultimately ensures consistent content
in the workshop results and the newly defined
RBWs.
Conclusion: This roadmap formulates solutions
that could be provided by the German
mechanical and plant engineering sector and
describes the need for research to prepare for
large-scale production of high-performance
lithium-ion energy storage devices in the period
up to 2030.
MARKETS 9
Markets
As a starting point for this update to the
“Roadmap for Battery Production Equipment
2030” published in 2014 and 2016, we once
again studied the developments in the battery
market and production capacity. What do the
forecasts look like, both in general and with
regard to specific applications such as electric
vehicles, industrial applications, and stationary
energy storage devices, as seen at the present
time? Which battery technology will be the
major driver of market growth in the coming
years or decades and therefore has the greatest
need for appropriate production solutions?
Who is involved in production today and in the
future and what plans for factories exist
worldwide? What are the driving factors behind
the requirements that battery manufacturers
place on their suppliers?
These questions can be answered by studying
markets, supply and demand, and the product
specifications of battery manufacturers.
The analysis of markets and demand is based
on current published roadmaps for user
markets and market studies. The data
documented in the following has, relative to the
roadmap published in 2016 [Michaelis2016],
been updated to the year 2018 and continues to
confirm the existence of trends that had begun
to emerge even then.
Markets, demand, supply
The possible applications of electrical energy
storage technologies in general and lithium-ion
batteries (LIB) in particular are many and
various, ranging from consumer electronics,
electromobility, and stationary energy storage,
all the way up to the large batteries used
directly in industry [Thielmann2015a, b, c].
Since their introduction to consumer electronics
7 We assume 115 GWh (+/- 10 percent).8 Cars, commercial vehicles, etc.
at the start of the 1990s, lithium-ion batteries
have almost 30 years of development behind
them. This is transferred to various specific
applications through intensive further
development of larger cylindrical cells (size
21700), large-scale pouch cells, and prismatic
batteries. All these cell formats have their
advantages and are used both in electric
vehicles and in industrial and stationary
applications [Hettesheimer2017]. It can be still
expected that lithium-ion battery technology
will be developed to full maturity within the
coming 10 to 20 years. This means that, for the
next two decades, there will still be
considerable development potential in this
technology, which will be optimized step by
step in the coming years.
LIB cells: global demand
The global demand for LIB cells in 2017 was 100
to 125 GWh7 [Avicenne2018], [Takeshita2018],
[Thielmann2017]. Around 57-69 GWh can be
attributed to electromobility8 and
approximately 1.5-5 GWh to stationary
applications. In the area of portable/mobile
applications9, the size of the LIB market in 2017
was between 45 and 50 GWh. There are
statistical uncertainties related to the source
and market study concerned and differences in
the determination of product-specific unit sales
and average battery sizes.
The LIB market has seen average annual growth
of 25 percent over the last few years. Based on
this, demand in 2018 should be up to 150 GWh.
9 Portable i.e. 3C: consumer devices, communication, computers
10 MARKETS
The biggest source of demand and dynamics is
electro-mobile applications, which have seen
growth rates of around 40 percent in recent
years and are expected to remain at an average
of 30-40 percent in the next few years, too.
Demand is thus now significantly higher than
for the 3C applications (see figure above).
LIB markets — electromobility
When it comes to electromobility for private
cars, particular attention is currently being paid
to the development of plug-in hybrids (PHEV)
and battery electric vehicles (BEV). Alongside
nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries, LIBs are
increasingly being used in hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV). Even when only LIBs are used,
however, demand for cell capacity is low
compared to PHEVs and BEVs.
In 2017, sales figures for electric vehicles (PHEV
and BEV) rose to 1.2 million (33-36 GWh).
Almost 3.2 million electric vehicles were on the
world’s roads by the end of 2017. Sales figures
could rise to 1.6-1.8 million BEVs/PHEVs in
2018, creating demand of more than 50 GWh.
In terms of development in cell demand, the
market for LIBs through BEVs is by far the most
important. Should electromobility develop in
line with optimistic estimates, the
terawatt/hour (TWh) boundary for LIB cell
demand for electric vehicles overall could be
10 The bottom figure applies only to electric buses in China, the top figure for buses and commercial vehicles in China.
broken as early as 2025 to 2030
[Thielmann2017].
In the case of commercial vehicles (e.g. vans,
buses) and mobile work machines (e.g. forklift
trucks), dynamic developments similar to those
in the electric car segment can be expected for
LIBs, opening up an equally attractive growth
market. The batteries installed in commercial
vehicles can range between 50 and over 250
kWh or even considerably higher. Although
quantities are only a third of those for cars, this
market for LIBs could become equally large
given that the batteries have two to three times
the capacity.
Outside China, sales of electric commercial
vehicles such as delivery vans, post vans,
garbage trucks, trucks etc. is 50,000-60,000 and
causes demand of a few GWh. This is expected
to become much more dynamic in the next few
years.
Most battery cells for buses and commercial
vehicles are currently used in the Chinese
market. Since 2015, this market has been of a
similar size to the market for electric cars. Since
2014, the market has grown from just under 2
gigawatt hours (GWh) to around 11-13 GWh
(2015), 16-20 GWh (2016) and 20-24 GWh
(2017) [Takeshita2018, Yole2018]. Demand in
2019 is forecast to be 24-29 GWh.10 If this trend
continues, the Chinese market will have
switched completely to electric buses in the
next few years. Market forecasts anticipate a
Global LIB demand by segment (left: in GWh, right: by market share): The 3C market includes small-scale pouch, prismatic, and cylindrical cells up to size 18650. Demand in this segment is not taken into account in the further analyses — only LIB demand in electromobile and stationary applications. Large-scale pouches, prismatic cells and cylindrical cells of size 21700 are used there.
Source: Fraunhofer ISI [Thielmann 2017 based on various market studies [market studies 2013-2017, Avicenne 2018, Takeshita 2018, Yole 2018, etc.]].
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
2015 2016 2017 2018 *
Global LIB Demand by Segments (in GWh)
3C (portable) xEV (Cars)Commercial EV (CN Bus, Truck, else) E(motor)bikesMotive (else) ESS
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
2015 2016 2017 2018 *
Global LIB Demand by Segments (Share in %)
3C (portable) xEV (Cars)Commercial EV (CN Bus, Truck, else) E(motor)bikesMotive (else) ESS
MARKETS 11
sustained annual demand of 100,000-300,000
electric buses in China (10-30 GWh). However,
the Chinese government’s reduction in
subsidies for electric vehicle manufacturers
shows that there is no guarantee that this
market demand will remain as dynamic and
stable in the coming years.
Demand is now increasing in other countries,
too, and with it the prospect of an expansion in
e-mobility with lightweight and heavy-duty
commercial vehicles. This is an opportunity for
Chinese cell manufacturers such as BYD, CATL
etc. in particular to expand in markets outside
China.
Demand for electric bicycles (e-bikes) was 9
million (3-4 GWh) in 2017 [Thielmann2017].
Sales figures for e-scooters and e-motorbikes
are currently far below this, at 30,000 (0.5
GWh). However, an interesting market is
expected to arise here in the future with battery
capacities of 2 to more than 15 kWh.
LIB markets — stationary applications
Stationary storage devices are playing an ever
more critical role in energy supply, especially
given the expansion of renewable energies. In
regions with poor connections to grids,
autonomous systems are often the only way to
provide an energy supply.
Different market studies provide different
estimates of the demand for LIB cells for
stationary applications [Thielmann2017],
ranging from less than 2 to more than 5 GWh in
2017, with growth between 20 and 60 percent.
However, all the forecasts predict high growth,
11 UPS, insular solutions, grid stabilization, PV home storage, PV and wind parks for direct sale of renewable energies, personal use optimization, etc.
starting from a low market volume of less than
1 GWh before 2013.
The market is very diverse in terms of the uses
of off-grid and on-grid applications11
[Thielmann2015 a, c]. Demand for individual
applications such as grid stabilization could be
satisfied again in just a few years, while other
applications promise long-term demand.
All in all, there is a broad portfolio of energy
storage solutions for stationary applications.
Demand for LIBs stems from the replacement of
existing technologies (especially Pb batteries)
and the increasing demand for local storage
solutions. In the medium to long term, existing
storage solutions are expected to be put under
pressure or even pushed out altogether by the
falling cost of LIBs [Thielmann2015a].
However, the development of second life
business models could also lead to a flattening
in demand in the future. The grid connection
(V2G, G2V) of electric vehicles will also demand
a new and precise definition of stationary
energy storage systems (ESS).
LIB supply: production capacities
In order to make a reliable statement as to how
well producers can meet this demand, a
realistic estimate of global production capacity
is vital. From this, it will then be possible to
derive an indication of whether and when new
factories need to be built or, more precisely,
whether investment in a factory would be
worthwhile.
The installed global LIB production capacity for
electromobility, industrial and stationary
applications has been determined based on a
12 MARKETS
wide range of studies, press releases and
information from cell manufacturers
themselves (see figure on p. 13). These show
that 200 to 360 GWh could be accrued by the
end of 201812. An average of 100 GWh is
expected to be added in each of the next few
years [cellmanufacturers2018].
Comparison of LIB demand and supply: a
comprehensive view
To continue the comparison of LIB production
capacity and demand [Michaelis2016,
Thielmann2017], the figure on p. 13 compares
the cell production capacity announced by
August 2018 with global LIB demand.
In estimating demand, both the units actually
installed and those held in stock in factories or
by customers should ideally be taken into
account. If there is oversupply, customers’
warehouses remain empty and orders are
placed later. Where there is undersupply, orders
are often placed for more units than are
actually required. Demand is unrealistically
inflated, since orders may subsequently be
canceled.
Price development is a major factor in
determining how dynamic demand is. It has
long been the practice in the semiconductor
industry to study average sales prices (ASP).
These are closely linked to the costs of
production. Similar forecast models have now
also been developed in the battery industry
[Maiser2015, Michaelis2016, Thielmann2017].
12 Includes production capacities for large-scale pouch and prismatic cells as well as cylindrical (21700) cells. The 18650 cells from Panasonic installed by Tesla in recent years are also
Moreover, prices and willingness to invest are
also significantly influenced by developments in
the world economy as a whole.
Production capacity cannot be made fully
available in a short time; factories are “ramped
up” gradually. They cannot produce at full
capacity in the year in which production begins,
and may not begin at the start of the year
anyway. In order to take this ramp-up phase
into account in our chart, we have added a year
of offset to the announced start of production.
The time required from the construction of a
factory through to the quality certification of
production processes and products and full
operation varies from eighteen months for a
“copy and paste” factory to four years for a
factory with new production technology. Thus,
cell manufacturers can only react to fast-
changing demand with some delay. Reliable
forecasts are essential. Many manufacturers
therefore plan the development of their
factories in several stages right from the
beginning.
Based on the interaction of supply, demand,
and time-delayed reaction, we find typical
examples of the “pork cycle” that is familiar
from other industries.
The degree of utilization of the capacity of a
factory is never 100 percent. Once this figure
exceeds 85 percent on a sustained basis,
manufacturers tend to think about expanding
capacity. The rest serves as spare. When it
comes to actually used production capacity,
therefore, it is advisable to expect values only
up to 85 percent. In the case of the market for
LIB cells, which is seeing extremely dynamic
included. Small-scale pouch and prismatic cells and cylindrical cells for 3C applications are not included.
MARKETS 13
growth, cell manufacturers (particularly those
from China) are actually announcing further
stages of expansion at much lower levels of
capacity utilization.
Factories never produce only “good”
components. Well-established factories in the
semiconductor industry have a yield of over 90
percent. Some yields in battery production are
currently well below this. It is therefore also
advisable in our case to deduct at least 10
percent from the full capacity figure.
The quality of the cells is a further source of
uncertainty: Customers may have different
requirements and levels of acceptance
depending on the application. Depending on
the quality, cost, choice of cell chemistry and
size, not all the cells produced might be of
interest to all customers. Not every product can
be substituted by any other.
There are also regional factors, in particular
when high demand leads to growing logistical
challenges. In the future, cell factories will be
built closer to the sales
13 A utilization level of 85 percent was taken into account. Theaverage yield of today’s factories is assumed to be 90 percent. Gradual expansion announced by manufacturers and factoryramp-up are taken into account. The other effects are difficult or impossible to quantify and have not been considered.
market. As a backdrop to all this, there is also
sentiment in the industry and state measures
to attract and support business.
In the chart above, we have depicted both the
nominal factory capacity (blue and red solid
lines) and the more realistic values that take the
dampening effects described above13 into
account (dotted lines). The trend in demand is
shown in green, with a conservative, trend-
based and optimistic scenario in each case. If
the lines are above the green areas, there is
mathematical overcapacity; if they are below
them, production capacity is insufficient.
The red lines show the expansion of production
capacity in the basis scenario14. The blue lines
show the expansion, taking optional factory
expansions by established and new cell
manufacturers (new market participants) into
account.
LIB demand (excluding 3C applications) will
increase by more than 50 percent between
2017 (approx. 60 GWh) and 2018 (approx. 100
GWh). Demand between 2015 and 2018 did
indeed develop from the pessimistic scenario
(bottom green line) to the on-trend scenario
14 Basis scenario: production capacity planned by established cell manufacturers
LIB cells: Comparison of global demand for electromobility, industrial, and stationary applications (forecast from 2018, LIB demand does not take into account small-scale pouch, prismatic cells and cylindrical cells of size 18650 or smaller) with the existing and known planned production capacity (basis scenario, see also table) and published optional expansion plans from various manufacturers and new market players. Including empirical values for the capacity utilization and yield of factories (dotted curves) provides a realistic estimate of the extent to which production capacity can cover demand. Source: Calculations byFraunhofer ISI based on [cellmanufacturers2018].
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030
GWh
LIB Cells: Global demand for electromobility, industrial and stationaryapplications compared to productioncapacities 2010‐2030
demand trend capacity (established manufacturers) capacities (further expansion + newmanufacturers)demand optimistic production (established manufacturers) production (further expansion + newmanufacturers)
14 MARKETS
(middle green line) and is expected to remain
between the on-trend and optimistic scenarios
over the next few years. This would mean an
increase in demand from an additional 50 GWh
to 100 GWh annually from 2020.
The production capacity of established
manufacturers (red lines) covers this demand
until 2020 and, with increasing utilization, even
beyond. The further production capacity
expanded by established manufacturers will
then also be needed between 2020 and 2025. In
the years around 2025, new cell manufacturers
will ramp up and compete with established cell
manufacturers.
The table on page 15 shows the expansions in
cell production capacity planned or announced
for 2018 to 2030, listed by cell manufacturer,
the location of their headquarters, and the
planned production location. Due to the high
level of uncertainty regarding the extent to
which planned capacity will actually be built
and commissioned in the respective year,
minimum and maximum values are specified
for 2018 and 2020. This reflects the range of
information identified
[cellmanufacturers2018]. For 2025 to 2030, the
maximum production capacity announced is
listed.
The future expansion plans of CATL, BYD,
Panasonic, Samsung SDI and LG Chem show
that these leading cell manufacturers are
increasingly setting themselves apart from all
other market participants. Each of the “big
four” named above aims to establish at least 25
GWh of production capacity by 2020, and more
than 50 GWh in the years after that.
Panasonic’s15 long-term plans go as far as
capacity of almost 200 GWh. CATL is planning
15 Expansion by Tesla at various sites
16 CATL, LG Chem, SDI, SKI and probably BYD
to expand its capacities to up to 150 GWh in
China, Europe and through joint ventures. LG
Chem’s plans list a figure of 70 GWh in the
short term and more than 100 GWh in the
longer term. Including new joint ventures and
potential cell production in Europe after 2020,
BYD is planning to expand to 70 (to 80) GWh.
Mathematically, this would enable these four
cell manufacturers alone to cover global market
demand over the next few years.
By 2025, demand for LIB cells in Europe could be
between 100 and 200 GWh (conservative and
optimistic scenario). The on-trend scenario puts
demand at 150-160 GWh [Thielmann2017]. The
expansion plans of Asian and European cell
manufacturers touch 146-162 GWh after 2025.
Asian cell manufacturers16 plan to account for
76 to more than 92 GWh of this, while the
European manufacturers17 collectively
contribute up to 70 GWh. They could thus cover
a maximum of just under 50 percent of
demand. The production of cylindrical cells
(Northvolt and 20 GWh of the planned 34 GWh
by TerraE) will also serve growth markets that
go beyond the automotive industry (e.g. power
tools, e-bikes).
The number of cell manufacturers, currently
estimated at more than 100, is expected to
consolidate over the next few years, especially
on the Chinese market. Even today, some
Chinese manufacturers (e.g. Optimum) are
having to reduce or halt production due to the
reduction in subsidies for e-vehicles and the
stiff competition.
Comparing LIB sales with the existing
production capacity puts the average capacity
utilization of cell manufacturers worldwide
between 27 and 54 percent in 201718.
17 TerraE, Northvolt and smaller established Europeanmanufacturers
18 59-75 GWh demand for EV/ESS compared with 138-221 GWh production capacity
MARKETS 15
LIB cell production capacity in GWh for electromobility, industrial and stationary applications (large-scale pouch, prismatic cells, and cylindrical cells of size 21700) in 2018 and expansion announcements of established and new manufacturers up to 2020, 2025, and 2030 arranged by cell manufacturer, headquarters, and production location; basis scenario (min.) of existing and planned production capacity; manufacturers with <1 GWh of cell production are combined under “Others” and listed by country. Source: Fraunhofer ISI, based on [cell manufacturers 2018].
Cell manufacturer Headquarter Production location 2018 (min) 2018 (max) 2020 (min) 2020 (max) 2025 (max) 2030 (max)CATL China China 18 40 40 100 100 100BYD China China 16 28 60 80 110 110Lishen China China 10 15 17 20 40 40OPTIMUM China China 12 18 18 36 36 36時代上汽動?電池 (JV CATL und SAIC) China China 0 0 18 36 36 36National Battery Tech, Bejing China China 11,2 11,2 11,2 25,2 25,2 25,2Dynavolt China China 0 6 0 25 25 25Guoxuan High‐Tech China China 10,7 20 17 23 25 25BAK Battery China China 2 8 8 15 20 20Guoneng China China 4 8 4 20 20 20CNMPower China China 1,5 3 3 15 15 15Wanxiang (A123) China China 2 4 5 10 14 14CATL China Germany, Europe 0 0 0 0 14 14CALB (China Aviation Lithium Battery) China China 6 13,5 6 13,5 13,5 13,5EVE China China 7,5 9 9 13 13 13Coslight China China 5 5 5 12,5 12,5 12,5Tianneng China China 1,5 2,3 1,5 11 11 11Great Power China China 0,4 4 0,4 10 10 10Funeng Technology China China 0 10 0 10 10 10BYD& Changan (JV) China China 0 0 5 6 10 10Dongfeng Amperex (JV CATL & Dongfeng) China China 0 0 9,6 9,6 9,6 9,6BPP (Bejing Pride Power) to BAIC China China 0,31 0,31 0,31 7 7 7CENAT China China 1 5 1 5 5 5etrust China China 0 4 0 4 4 4Zhihang Jiangsu New Energy China China 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5 3,5Phylion China China 3 3 3 3 3 3Narada China China 2 2 2 2,5 2,5 2,5Wina Battery China China 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2DFD China China 1,9 1,9 1,9 1,9 1,9 1,9BYD China Europe 0 0China (others) China China 7 12 7 30 30 30LG Chem Korea Korea 10 12 18 18 18 18LG Chem Korea China 1 3 6 8 8 8 8LG Chem Korea USA 2,4 3 3 3 3 8LG Chem Korea Poland, Europe 1,25 5 15 24 24 24LG Chem Korea China 2 0 0 32 32 32 32Samsung SDI Korea Korea 2,8 2,8 5 5 5 5Samsung SDI Korea China 2,6 5,6 4 5,6 5,6 5,6Samsung SDI Korea Hungary, Europe 2,5 2,5 2,5 15 15 15SK Innovation Korea Korea 1,9 3 3,9 10 10 10SK Innovation Korea Hungary, Europe 0 0 7,5 7,5 7,5 7,5SK Innovation Korea China 0 0 0 7,5 7,5 7,5Korea (others) Korea Korea 1 1 1 1 1 1AESC Japan Japan 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2 2,2AESC Japan USA 4 4 4 4 4 4AESC Japan UK, Europe 2 2 2 2 2 2Lithium Energy Japan (LEJ) Japan Japan 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3 2,3Panasonic (18650) Japan Japan 7 7 7 7 7 7Panasonic Japan China 0 2,5 2,3 6 6 6Panasonic Japan Japan 1 1 1 3 8 8Panasonic‐Tesla 1 Japan USA 14 25 35 35 105 105Panasonic‐Tesla 2 Japan China 0 0 0 0 35 35Panasonic‐Tesla 3 Japan Europe 0 0 0 0 35 35Toshiba Japan Indien 0 0 0 1 1 1GS Yuasa Japan Hungary, Europe 0 0 0Japan (others) Japan Japan 1 1 1 1 1 1Farasis USA China 5 5 5 15 25 25Farasis USA Europe 0 0 0 0Boston Energy USA Australia 0 0 0 3 15 15Boston Energy USA USA 0 0 0 3 15 15Boston Power USA China 1,5 7 11 11 11 11JCI USA USA 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65 1,65Microvast USA China 2 2 2 15 15 15USA (others) USA USA 1 1 1 1 1 1TerraE Germany Germany, Europe 0 0 0 1,5 20 34Northvolt Sweden Sweden, Europe 0 0 0 8 32 32Saft (with Solvay, Siemens, Manz) France Europe 0 0 0 0Germany/Poland (Lausitz) Germany/Poland DE/PL, Europe 0 0 0 0Europe (andere) Europe Europe 2 2 2 4 4 4Energy Renaissance Australia Australia 0 0 0 1 1 1Reliance India India 0 0 0 0 25 25Exide & LeClanche (JV) India India 0 0 0 1 5 5Foxconn Taiwan China 0 15 0 15 15 15Energy Absolute Thailand Thailand 0 0 0 1 25 50Total World World 203 360 438 831 1185 1229
16 MARKETS
Hotspot China
In recent years, China has caught up with
previous leaders Japan and Korea in terms of
both LIB demand and production capacity. LIB
cell sales in China amounted to 38-44.5 GWh in
2017, corresponding to 60-65 percent of global
LIB cell demand for EV and ESS applications.
China is expected to maintain this large share
of demand over the next few years. The
planned expansion of capacity in China (figures
above) demonstrates the dominance of Chinese
cell manufacturers, who are currently
maintaining an around 80 percent share of
global production capacity in China and are
expected to continue to do so over the next few
years. The USA, Europe, and other countries will
only begin to establish greater production
capacity in around 2025 to 2030, reducing
China’s share to 60 percent.
Cell manufacturers from Japan and Korea are
attempting to win back their market shares in
the long term. Chinese manufacturers almost
completely cover the demand in their own
country (domestic market) themselves,
although Japanese (Panasonic), Korean (LG
Chem, Samsung SDI), and Sino-American
(Boston Power, Microvast) companies are also
expanding there. The market share of Chinese
manufacturers in China is therefore expected to
fall from around 70 percent now to around 50
percent in the future.
The maximum scenario considered here
assumes that all the announced capacity is
added. The expected consolidation process is
therefore predicted to increase the market
share of non-Chinese manufacturers.
As the market for electromobility and thus
demand increasingly diffuses to regions outside
China, the share of demand is expected to fall
from more than 60 percent today towards 40
percent. Until then, however, companies that
are expanding worldwide, such as CATL and
BYD, have an outstanding opportunity to put
the production expertise they have gained in
their home markets to use on the Chinese
export markets. The quality of Chinese cells is
already considered (almost) equal to that of
Japanese and Korean cells.
Production capacity by location (top) and by country of manufacturer (right) Source: Fraunhofer ISI
MARKETS 17
What does a location have to offer to be
suitable?
As the figure above shows, Japanese and
Korean cell manufacturers are increasingly
establishing sites in Europe and the USA,
following demand (i.e. the locations of the
OEM). Chinese manufacturers predominantly
serve the enormous and growing domestic
market, but are also trying to gain a foothold in
Europe. On the other hand, Japanese and
Korean manufacturers have set their sights on
the Chinese market.
After 2020, further cell manufacturers in other
regions of the world (such as India and
Australia) will also try to establish production
sites in line with local demand.
A consideration of demand and the potential
for reducing the cost of battery cells and packs
reveals how important it is for cells to be
produced close to the sales market.
A location close to the market reduces
transport costs (particularly given the GWh
scales that will be seen in the future) and
thus logistics costs.
Although energy and staffing costs only
account for a few percent of the cost of a
battery, they undoubtedly played a part in
the decisions made by LG Chem, SDI, and
SKI to locate to Poland and Hungary.
Infrastructure costs (land, buildings, etc.)
make up a large part of the initial
investment and have to be written off
through amortization. Business promotion
policies set up by countries, regions, districts
or cities are a crucial bargaining chip in
making their location more attractive to cell
manufacturers.
As well as simple economies of scale,
automation is an important tool for further
optimizing process steps, process quality, yield
and throughput. Cell manufacturers’ proximity
to suppliers and the supply chain, providing an
opportunity to stand out in terms of material
and process quality, can also influence location
decisions. This would be a good way for the
German mechanical engineering industry to
offer added value for Asian and European cell
manufacturers and to establish references for
the future.
Source: Fraunhofer ISI
RoW
KR
CN
JP
US EU
1
10
100
1000
1 10 100 1000
LIB Cell Production by Production Location vs. Headquarter of Producer (GWh, max announcements)
2018202020252030
Tota
l Pro
duct
ion
Capa
city
of C
ell P
rodu
cer
Production Ramp-up by foreign Cell Producer
Moving Production Locationto other Countries
Production Capacity at Location
18 MARKETS
Frugal innovation vs. full digitalization
The frugal innovation approach targets the
essential core function of a product. Less is
more. Unlike current practices in many fields, a
frugal product is characterized not by new,
additional functions, but instead by being a
simplified, less complex version. The idea is for
the product to offer the best possible benefits
for the price [Radjou2014], with a focus on
target group-specific or application-oriented
functions [Zeschky2010]. At the same time,
frugal innovation is based on a new idea or
invention that is implemented in the product,
service or process, is applied successfully, and
penetrates the market (diffusion) [Dörr2011].
Frugal innovation is predominantly used in
product design and applies to the battery itself.
From a mechanical engineering point of view,
frugal innovations affect the product system
and the machines and plants it contains.
Battery production has a very complex process
chain that demands understanding of
numerous relationships between processes,
structures, and properties, and the ability to
implement them in the process technology.
This challenge can be tackled with two
approaches that bridge the divide between
frugal innovation and full digitalization.
In line with the principles of Industrie 4.0,
attempts are being made at optimization
through connected production lines with
continuous data acquisition and artificial
intelligence. Full digitalization is enabled by the
latest hardware and software solutions, which
add greater functionality and intelligence to the
production system and the machines and
plants within it.
This generally results in increased complexity
and thus vulnerability to failure in the system.
The frugal innovation approach aims to reduce
this complexity — a goal that can be achieved in
various ways. In no way does it rule out the
targeted, effective use of highly developed
technologies in frugal products and solutions
[Hitech2018]. Industrie 4.0 solutions can thus
also be used in a targeted way for frugal
innovation.
In the 2018 roadmapping process, the topic of
overengineering has become a major focus.
Excessive process requirements often result
from ignorance of the process. Although they
have a negative impact on cost, they tend to be
accepted more than a product that appears
unsafe. The frugal innovation approach is the
opposite of this, but also demands sufficient
understanding of the process. Continuously
collecting and analyzing data in line with the
principles of Industrie 4.0 can make a major
contribution to this. Based on this enhanced
understanding of the process and tailored to
the issue at hand, additional yet useful
functions can be incorporated into the
production process or processes can be
simplified.
The aim of a fully digitalized and automated
production line is to reduce costs by increasing
efficiency. In contrast, frugal innovation is an
opportunity to simplify processes and increase
throughput at lower cost.
MARKETS 19
Cell formats: advantages and disadvantages of the various formats
Comparing the cell formats
The practical applications of lithium-ion cells
range from entertainment electronics to
commercial vehicles and the automotive
industry. This broad spectrum of applications
necessitates a high level of variance in both cell
size and cell format. As shown in the figure,
there are three main cell formats: the pouch
cell, the cylindrical cell, and the prismatic cell.
All these cell formats undergo similar process
steps in production. However, certain plants
have to be precisely tailored and optimized for
the relevant cell formats. Winding the
cylindrical cell is a core difference from the
stacking process for the pouch cell. Prismatic
cells can be either wound or stacked. As the
winding process currently has more
advantages, it is used as standard for prismatic
cells.
The differences between the cell formats make
it impossible to implement variability in series
production. Instead, cell manufacturers have to
focus on a single format.
Since vehicles only offer a limited amount of
space for installation, the volumetric energy
density is one of the most important technical
parameters for energy storage in xEV
applications. The more energy can be stored in
the space, the greater the vehicle’s range.
One of the crucial factors here is the ratio of
active and inactive materials in the different
cell formats at cell and module level. Their basic
geometry gives cylindrical cells the highest
volumetric energy density. However, a similar
energy density to that of small-scale lithium-ion
cells has been achieved in large-scale pouch
cells in recent years. At modular level, the
cylindrical cell loses some of its advantage over
prismatic and pouch cells due to the packing
density in some module designs.
It is difficult to compare the service life across
different cell formats, as it depends heavily on
additional factors such as the cell chemistry and
the load on the lithium-ion cell. The major
factors influencing the cell’s service life are the
calendar service life and the cycle stability. A
longer cycle service life can be achieved by an
appropriate cell chemistry design. Where aging
occurs due to cyclic load, the swelling of the cell
puts a strain on the active materials.
All of these cell formats are available in a wide
range of variants. The aim is always to adapt
the battery cell to the available installation
space and the way the battery system will be
used (HEV, PHEV, EV) in the best possible way.
While prismatic and pouch cells are designed
individually for each application case, cylindrical
cells are primarily installed in electric cars and
commercial vehicles in two standard formats —
18650 and 21700.
Overview of cell formats Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University
20 MARKETS
Comparison of cell formats
Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University
Category Pouch Cell Cylindrical Cell Prismatic Cell
Volumetricenergy density oncell level
Currently highestenergy density withcylindrical cell
Currently highestenergy density withpouch cell
Currently lowestenergy density of the threecell formats
Volumetricenergy density onmodule level
High energy densitysimilar to cylindrical cell
High energy densitysimilar to pouch cell
Currently lowestenergy density of the threecell formats
Lifetime Good Good Good
Housing Aluminium compound foil Mainly nickel-plated steel Mainly aluminium
Dimensions Variable Design
Efficient use of space
High packing density
Less flexibility to the pouch cell
Inefficient use of space
Low packing density
Less flexibility to the pouch cell
Efficient use of installations
High packing density
Strength Unstable housing Expands during
pressure build-up
High tightness High stiffness Mechanically robust Withstands a certain
internal pressure without deformation
High tightness High stiffness Lower mechanical
stability than the round cell
Thermalregulation
Good surface to volume ratio
Efficient temperature control
High-energy cells: low heat dissipation
Lots of volume compared to the surface
Appropriate modular concepts are needed to
address the wide range of different cells
available. Integrating functions like the cell
rigidity is crucial here.
Since high cell rigidity, alongside function
integration, is necessary for safe installation
and good workability, it is one of the core
requirements of automotive manufacturers.
Because they have the highest rigidity,
cylindrical cells have the advantage over other
cell formats here. A prismatic cell is
manufactured in a similar way to a cylindrical
one. After winding, the electrodes and
separators are flattened to form the prismatic
shape. As the pouch film does not provide
rigidity, a frame has to be added to pouch cells.
The thermal properties of all cells can be
managed well. The main differences lie in the
cooling effort needed and the options for heat
transfer. Pouch cells enable good heat
dissipation through the current collectors, thus
offering the best cooling performance. In
cylindrical cells, the heat generated in the core
during charging can only be dissipated via the
cell housing and cell lid to a limited extent. The
prismatic cell format has the same problem.
Prismatic cells are usually cooled via the base,
although cooling between prismatic cells would
also be conceivable. Heat dissipation via the cell
housing currently meets the requirements of
automotive manufacturers. The cell housings
offer good heat conductivity, with most of the
heat developing at the cell contacts. However,
increasing charging currents are expected to
lead to increased heat development, potentially
necessitating additional cooling performance.
Unlike the other formats, a stacking process is
needed for the production of pouch cells. If the
cells are laminated first, they can also be
wound. Production of cylindrical cells is
currently faster and more cost-effective due to
the roll-to-roll and winding processes. The
prismatic cell format can be either wound or
stacked. Its benefits lie in module assembly, as
tension is only possible using a tension rod.
Their larger number of cells make module
assembly with cylindrical cells more difficult.
No radial tension is needed, however, as barely
any change in volume occurs [Warner2014].
The 21700 cell format is currently being used
more for round cells. One of the best-known
examples is the collaboration between
automotive manufacturer Tesla and cell
manufacturer Panasonic. Other manufacturers
such as Samsung SDI also produce cylindrical
cells in this format [Samsung2018]. A switch
from 18650 to 21700 is noticeable throughout
the sector. The question arises of what
motivates manufacturers to switch cell formats
and the extent to which this will become the
new standard in automotive applications.
MARKETS 21
What are the possibilities of the new 21700 format?
The cylindrical 18650 cell shape was originally
developed for 3C applications and not designed
for the automotive sector in which it is
currently used. This resulted in the
development of the cylindrical 21700 cell
format. Thanks to its cost and availability, the
cylindrical format generally offers a low entry
threshold for all applications — especially
commercial vehicles, power tools and similar
applications.
Below is a comparison of the two cylindrical
formats and an assessment of to what extent
switching formats brings benefits in terms of
costs, technical performance parameters,
safety, service life, and more efficient
integration into the module.
Costs
In 2016, the costs at pack level in the Tesla
Model S, which uses the 18650 cell format,
were less than €160/kWh. With the
commissioning of the Tesla Gigafactory in
Nevada, USA, prices will fall further in the
future. Optimized production processes enable
the 21700 cells produced there to be offered at
lower cost than the cylindrical cells currently
available for mobile applications (see figure
above).
Through future process and material
optimization, the costs are expected to fall to
€130/kWh over the next few years, even at
system level [DNK2018a, b].
Technical performance parameters
The battery system’s capacity and thus its
volumetric energy density are of elementary
relevance when it comes to increasing the
range of electric cars. The 18650 format Tesla
installs in its model S has a gravimetric energy
density of 250 Wh/kg and a capacity of up to
3600 mAh [Piepenbrink2016, DNK2018a, b].
The 21700 cell format is also becoming more
robust, as the increase in the geometric
dimensions has increased the ratio of active to
inactive material [Piepenbrink2016].
Increasing the size of the cell enables the
gravimetric energy density to be increased by
20 percent to up to 300 Wh/kg. According to
Tesla CTO J.B. Straubel, the volumetric density
can even be increased by around 30 percent
compared to the 18650 cell, putting it at 820
Wh/l [Kurzweil2015, Lima2017]. Capacities of
up to 4800 mAh are achieved. It is fair to
assume that material and electrode
optimization has also contributed to this
increase.
Geometry of the cell formats (left) and cost comparison of the 18650 and 21700 cell formats (right)
Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University, based on [DNK 2018 a, b]
115
160
100
145
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Cost on cell level (€/kWh) Cost on module level (€/kWh)
18650 cell format 21700 cell format
18650 Cell 21700 Cell
22 MARKETS
Technical performance parameters of the cell formatsSource: PEM, RWTH Aachen University
360
630250
480
820300
capacity (10 mAh)
vol. energy density (Wh/l)grav. energy density (Wh/kg)
18650 cell format
21700 cell format
Safety
When it comes to use in xEV applications, the
safety of the lithium-ion cells is the top priority
and must be guaranteed at all times. The
situation becomes critical if the cell generates
more heat than can be dissipated by the cooling
system, as this can cause a thermal runaway of
the cell. To prevent his, the cell or module has to
be disconnected from the grid for a period, so
that the cell can discharge its thermal energy
via the cooling system without further strain.
The thermal energy dissipation here is much
more expensive than the thermal energy
generation in the cell. When capacity is
increased by 10 percent, the temperature rises
by up to 20 percent [DNK2018a, b]. A more
powerful cooling system is therefore required
for the 21700 format to ensure the required
safety level.
Service life
The development of new cell materials will lead
to a rise in the calendar service life of both cell
formats.
The cyclic service life is particularly relevant.
Due to the increased load, deeper cycles have
an accelerating effect on the aging process.
Ideally, the average SoC during use would be
around 50 percent. Deviations from this
accelerate aging [Ecker2014].
Achievable cycle figures for the 18650 cell
format are currently between 8500 (5 percent
cycle depth), 1500 (50 percent cycle depth) and
440 (100 percent cycle depth) [Ecker2014].
Estimates suggest that increasing the capacity
by 10 percent would reduce the cell’s cycle
service life by 20 percent and the feasible
charging rate by 30-40 percent [DNK2018a, b].
Due to the larger specific capacity of the 21700
cell format, individual cells do not have to be
charged as frequently as those of the 18650 cell
format. This means fewer charging cycles
during the period of use; the cycle depth of the
charging processes falls. With the same level of
use, a falling cycle depth can result from the
increased specific capacity of the cell, which
gives the electric car a greater range and thus
enables lower discharge per trip. As a result, the
SoC changes less in everyday use and the cell is
exposed to lower chemical and mechanical
loads. The service life of the 21700 cell format
in xEV applications is thus expected to be
higher than that of the 18650 format.
Integration into the module
The 21700 cell format is intended to address
the aforementioned trade-off between the
complexity of the battery system and the
advantages of cylindrical cells. Comparing
different battery packs from Tesla
demonstrates this. The battery system in the
Model 3 consists of 2976 lithium-ion cells in
21700 cell format, installed in 4 modules to
form a 50 kWh battery.
This is a significant reduction in cells compared
to the Model S (16 modules, total of 8256 cells
of the 18650 cell format integrated into a 100
kWh battery) [Teslamag2017].
If one assumes a linear correlation between the
capacity and the number of lithium-ion cells
used, switching to the 21700 cell format
reduces the number of cells by 28 percent. This
also causes a reduction in the peripheral
elements and assembly steps.
MARKETS 23
Conclusion
There are many advantages to switching from
the 18650 to the 21700 format for cylindrical
cells. The change of cell geometry enables the
capacity and the energy density to be increased,
while integrating the cells into the battery
system becomes easier. This results in a
significant cost reduction, which will help
electric cars make their breakthrough on the
mass market in the next few years.
In addition, thanks to many years of experience
in 3C applications, the production process for
the 18650 format is very mature and can easily
be applied to the 21700 cell format.
However, creating an efficient value chain to
manufacture and market the cells will be a
challenge. Questions remain about whether
other cell manufacturers will join Panasonic
and Samsung SDI in switching to the 21700 cell
format.
Many cell manufacturers have organized their
factories to produce the 18650 cell format for
the next few years. State subsidies and the
recommendation of a standard for cell formats
will also play a key role [DNK2018a, b].
It remains to be seen which developments will
occur for pouch and prismatic cells compared to
the 21700 format and which cell format will be
chosen by those automotive manufacturers
who currently prefer the prismatic or pouch
format — largely because they are easier to
assemble at module level.
The cylindrical 21700 cell format is a good
combination in terms of performance, safety
and costs, but does not perform as well as the
prismatic and pouch cells when it comes to
assembly and variability. Whether the cell
format becomes the new standard for
cylindrical cells largely depends on the success
of Tesla over the next few years.
24 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Product requirements and specifications
The central technical performance parameters
for electric energy storage devices are as
follows:
Gravimetric [Wh/kg] and volumetric
energy density [Wh/l]
Gravimetric [Wh/kg] and volumetric power
density [Wh/l]
Fast-charge capability in sizes
above 1 C (conventional <0.2 C)
Cyclic and calendar service life
Ambient conditions and tolerated
temperatures in [°C]
Safety expressed by a EUCAR level
Costs [€/kWh]
Other relevant criteria include the charging
capacity, the voltage stability during discharge,
the duration of a charging operation, and
degradation effects that lead to a reduction in
calendar service life. At a higher level,
specifications such as the environmental
compatibility of production, cost-effective and
environmentally friendly disposal and the
growing interest in re-manufacturing and the
component recycling associated with it are also
relevant factors.
The core issue is how to develop the energy
density of the lithium-ion cells further in order
to increase the range of electric vehicles and
thus make them more competitive compared to
those with combustion engines. For plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and hybrid
electric vehicles (HEV), the power density plays
a particularly important role. When it comes to
purely electric vehicles (EV), automotive
manufacturers’ (OEM) requirements regarding
the volumetric energy density have increased
significantly in recent years, as the dimensions
for installing the battery in the vehicle are
usually fixed and the energy density that can be
achieved at pack level is crucial to the range.
The battery capacity therefore can and must be
enhanced through improved volume utilization.
Developments and the experience gained
clearly show that lithium-ion cells provide a
platform technology whose development
potential is far from exhausted.
Performance parameters for applications in electromobility
Developments in the price of small-scale
lithium-ion cells, for example for consumer
electronics applications, show the potential for
optimizing the large-scale lithium-ion cells
currently used for mobile applications. Both
material innovations and the scaling effects of
mass production make this possible.
Currently around 250 Wh/kg, the gravimetric
energy density of the cylindrical cells is
expected to rise up to 350 Wh/kg in the future.
Large-scale pouch cells have begun to achieve
similar energy densities to small-scale lithium-
ion cells in recent years, as well as a similar
gravimetric energy density. The latest
generation of prismatic cells, however, only
achieves lower energy densities of around 200-
230 Wh/kg.
PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 25
Development of gravimetric energy density of LIB cells by cell format [Thielmann2017]
The gravimetric energy densities of the various
cell formats are expected to align in the future,
which is why a threshold of up to 350 Wh/kg is
also predicted for large-scale prismatic and
pouch cells (see figure). At the system level, the
energy density will fall by another 15 percent
for cylindrical, 8 percent for prismatic, and 16-
18 percent for pouch cells.
There are also currently large differences
between the volumetric energy densities of
small and large-scale lithium-ion cells (see
figure on page 26). Cylindrical cells are currently
at around 700-750 Wh/l and will achieve up to
1000 Wh/l in the future, while the expected
increase for prismatic cells is from 230-350
Wh/l (currently) to 800 Wh/l (in the long term)
and for pouch cells from 250-450 Wh/l
(currently) to 1000 Wh/l (in the long term).
Compared to the cell level, the volumetric
energy density at module level falls by 20-22
percent for the prismatic cell, 30-50 percent for
the pouch cell, and around 50 percent for the
cylindrical cell.
The relevance of the gravimetric power density
varies for the different drive trains. Unlike in
purely electric vehicles, where the volumetric
energy density and a high charging
performance are crucial criteria, for hybrid drive
concepts a high power output in the lithium-ion
cell is particularly relevant in order to enable
acceleration peaks.
The gravimetric power density at pack level is
currently 300-600 W/kg for BEVs, 500-1500
W/kg for PHEVs and 1000-2000 W/kg for HEVs.
If the other performance parameters rise, the
gravimetric power density of the lithium-ion
cells needs to at least stay at the same level.
The calendar service life varies in all types of
electric vehicle, as it depends heavily on the
load on the battery. A service life of 8 to 10
years is assumed today. Efforts are being made
to improve this to 10-15 years in the short term
and 15 to 20 years in the long term, in order to
achieve the duration of use of present-day
vehicles with internal combustion engines. The
cyclical service life of a lithium-ion cell is
specified by the number of cycles, in
combination with the discharge depth. The
assumed values are 1000-2000 charging cycles
at an 80 percent discharge depth for BEVs,
4000-5000 charging cycles at an 80 percent
discharge depth for PHEVs, and 15000-20000
discharge cycles at a 2 to 8 percent discharge
depth for HEVs. Rising fast-charge capability
also increases the load on the cell and thus the
requirements for the cyclic service life.
The power density takes ambient conditions
into account at a minimum temperature of -
20°C. This is around five times lower than the
gravimetric power density of the respective
type of electric vehicle at room temperature.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Wh/kg500
350
400
450
Literature data cylindrical cylindrical (min) cylindrical (max)Literature data prismatic prismatic (min) prismatic (max)Literature data pouch pouch (min) pouch (max)
26 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
Development of volumetric energy density of LIB cells by cell format [Thielmann2017]
The EUCAR level is used to estimate safety at
battery system and cell level. To achieve a
EUCAR safety level ≤4, the cell must be fracture-
proof, fireproof and explosion-proof. A loss of
weight, an escape of electrolyte (solvent and
salt) of more than 50 percent, and venting are
acceptable at this level. These essential safety
standards can be met through cell chemistry,
for example through the use of safe electrolytes
or “shutdown” separators, which prevent
further ion transport if the cell overheats.
As well as the cell chemistry, the design of the
lithium-ion cell, the battery modules and the
battery packs plays a crucial role. At cell level,
safety valves prevent excessive pressure within
the cell and thus cell explosion. At battery
module level, the power circuit can be
interrupted with thermal fuses to prevent the
cell from overheating. The construction of the
individual housings gives the cell mechanical
stability [Balakrishnan2006].
Studies show that the cell costs for small-scale
lithium-ion cells are already around €115/kWh
at cell level today. Costs are expected to fall to
less than €100/kWh in the next few years.
The manufacturing costs for large-scale
prismatic and pouch cells are currently higher
than this, at €150-200/kWh. However, just as
with the increasing energy density, it is to be
assumed that the various cell formats will
assimilate and that costs will thus fall to less
than €100/kWh by 2030.
Further processing of the lithium-ion cells when
assembling the battery modules and battery
packs increases the price by a factor of 1.3 to
1.5. Scaling effects in mass production will
reduce costs further. Future technologies
beyond lithium-ion cells will have to compete
with these significantly reduced costs.
Many of the predicted developments can also
be found in Fraunhofer ISI’s energy storage
roadmap [Thielmann2017], which also explains
the prospects for future battery technologies. In
line with the expected developments in cell
formats [Hettesheimer2017], the roadmap by
the German National Platform for Electric
Mobility [NPE2016] also shows that in the
future it will be possible to meet the OEMs’
expectations for improved batteries in terms of
both technology and cost with optimized
lithium-ion cells.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
Wh/l1000
Literature data cylindrical cylindrical (min) cylindrical (max)Literature data prismatic prismatic (min) prismatic (max)Literature data pouch pouch (min) pouch (max)
PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS 27
Performance parameters for stationary applications
Compared to mobile energy storage devices,
stationary energy storage devices cover a much
wider range of relevant storage classes,
extending from smaller local storage devices
under 10 kWh to large central storage devices
with multiple gigawatt hours
[Thielmann2015c]. It is therefore important to
know, even within a certain segment, which
specific application is involved. It is possible to
conduct a general classification based on the
field of application: energy or power storage
[Kaschub2017].
Power storage devices that have to absorb and
discharge large currents place particularly
tough criteria on the cyclic service life, while
energy storage devices that offer large storage
quantities need a long calendar service life.
For both types of storage it is generally
assumed that the requirements for costs will be
high and will need to be studied for all stages of
the product life cycle in order to calculate total
costs of ownership. Fulfilling the service life
requirements has a major impact on the level of
investment and operating costs. The efficiency
of an energy storage system also plays a major
role, as the energy stored needs to be fed back
into the electricity grid with as little loss as
possible in order to achieve sustainable energy
supply.
Significant application cases for stationary
energy storage include local PV battery systems,
peak shaving, direct sale of renewable energies,
control solutions, and multi-purpose design.
The state of the art for the reference technology
and its area of application is comprehensively
documented with regard to the storage
solution currently used in the roadmap by
Thielmann et al. [Thielmann2015c].
Due to further cost reduction, lithium-ion cells
optimized for mobile applications are also
becoming increasingly attractive in the
stationary segment. If the performance
parameters generally meet the requirements of
the stationary applications, they could be used
increasingly in this segment, too. “Second-use”
concepts are also being discussed in this
context [Fischhaber2016].
Requirements of battery manufacturers
Product requirements and the performance
parameters derived from these for high-energy
and high-performance applications are
documented in available sources and
incorporated in the roadmapping process.
Detailed specifications by battery
manufacturers for production technology are
often subject to NDAs and difficult to access.
The customer standpoint and its requirements
for mechanical and plant engineering were
provided by involving both battery
manufacturers and the automotive industry.
Further important input for the roadmap comes
from the content of discussions at international
events and from presenting the roadmap at the
VDMA roadshows in South Korea and China.
Cell production
Battery manufacturers continue to demand the
most cost-efficient cell production possible. The
next chapter describes ways in which
mechanical and plant engineering companies
can reduce costs while at the same time
maintaining the high quality standards for
stationary and mobile applications. The way to
do this is to stabilize production processes and
avoid overengineering by adapting the
machines to the relevant application case as
effectively as possible.
28 PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS
In Europe in particular, the focus is increasingly
on developing sustainable and energy-efficient
processes. These can be improved, for example,
by reducing solvent content and further
developing the drying and forming processes.
Customers also want to see greater precision in
manufacturing. Manual processes can be
replaced with tailored automation, thus
reducing waste and further decreasing costs.
Finally, higher energy densities help reduce cell
costs per kilowatt hour even more.
Battery safety is an equally crucial aspect. In cell
production, this is guaranteed by high quality
standards. As well as end-of-line inspection and
certified, standardized inspection criteria,
optimizing product and plant hygiene can help
improve safety in production.
Manufacturers are aware of the major
optimization potential offered by the
appropriate automation and digitalization of
factories and there is an increasing desire to
exploit this.
Module and pack production
Increasing production capacity is a central topic
in module and pack production. At the same
time, the requirements for the flexibility of the
production line are also rising. The
requirements for the contacting technology are
based particularly on the fast-charge capability,
as large currents have to be managed.
In connection with second life business models,
the battery also needs to be recyclable.
Statutory provisions and the lack of primary
sources of the crucial draw materials in
Germany are reinforcing this desire. There is
demand for dismantling technologies, while
options for maintenance or for setting up
battery servicing facilities are also being sought.
Ultimately, the battery is to become a “smart
product” — one that collects data about its own
manufacturing process and is able to pass it on
in later processing steps. Business models could
then be developed based on a data analysis. To
achieve this, mechanical and plant engineering
companies need to provide ways to
communicate data about the production
process with the product.
THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING 29
The solutions offered by mechanical and
plant engineering
Cost degression
We are aware from numerous other industries
such as semiconductors or photovoltaics that
increasing production volumes lead to a
reduction in costs through the corresponding
learning effects. It can be taken as verified by
empirical evidence that there is an exponential
relationship between product costs and
accumulated production volume. This
relationship is described by what are known as
learning curves. Studies of this kind have been
in existence for some considerable time with
regard to cost developments in consumer
batteries, but these learning curve effects can
also be applied to lithium-ion automotive
batteries [Hoffmann2014, Liebreich2015].
The learning factor (price experience factor,
PEF) describes the achievable cost reduction
resulting from a doubling of the accumulated
production volume. For small-scale consumer
battery cells, this factor is around 15 percent. In
the automotive segment, the cell prices for
large-scale prismatic and pouch cells were used
to determine the learning curve. This is also
around 15 percent, approximately the same as
for small-scale consumer cells.
Hoffmann’s learning curve from 2014, which is
based on less data, also resulted in a PEF of 15
percent for the large-scale cells. This update
corroborates this.
Forecasts (see “Markets” chapter) indicate that,
in a few years, large-scale cells will have caught
up with cylindrical consumer cells in terms of
cumulative production quantity and overtaken
them in terms of absolute capacity produced
(Wh). At a cumulative production quantity of
one terawatt hour, which will be reached
between 2020 and 2025, this means a cell price
of €100/kWh. An increase in the production
quantity to more than ten terawatt hours after
2030 will enable costs of €50-60/kWh. One
often hears the argument that material prices
will put the brakes on cost reductions in the
long term. However, although material prices
do dominate the total price, experience from
related industries such as photovoltaics shows
that material savings or alternative materials
are then used so that prices do not tend to level
off [VDMA-PV 2018]. Deviations from the PEF
can be caused by technological changes in the
long term or material shortages in the short
term.
Learning curve and price experience factor for small-scale Li-ion battery cells (left) and large-scale Li-ion battery cells (right) Source: Fraunhofer ISI based on [Pillot 2018, Takeshita 2018]
10
100
1000
10000
0,01 0,1 1 1000 10000 1000
LIB ce
ll pr
ice [$/kWh]
10 100Cumulative production [GWh]
Small-scale LIB cells (especially cylindrical cells)
1991
2020‐2025>2030
2018
PEF approximately at 15 %
10
100
1000
10000
0,01 0,1 1 1000 10000 100000
LIB ce
ll pr
ice [$/kWh]
10 100Cumulative production [GWh]
Large-scale LIB cells (pouch and prismatic cells)
2010
2020‐2025
>20302018
PEF approximately at 15 %
30 THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING
Technical innovations are not the only means of
managing cost degression. Better yields,
economies of scale, energy and resource
efficiency, and a higher degree of automation
all have their part to play and will be examined
in more detail below. Although the learning
curves shown relate exclusively to the battery
cells, the findings can be applied to the module
and system level, too.
Better yields
As material costs make up a large proportion
(up to 70 percent) of the cell cost, increasing the
yield is crucial to improving competitiveness
[Chung 2018, Kwade 2018 b]. Even if the speed
is improved, the yield needs to remain at least
the same — otherwise the advantage of
increasing throughput through process
integration and intensification would be lost.
In mature factories, the yield in the production
of Li-ion cells is around 90 percent [Brodd 2013].
Because the number of rejects from each
process step in production adds up, the number
of process steps is in direct correlation to the
yield. Costs can thus be lowered directly by
reducing unnecessary production steps.
Causes of reduced yield can include unstable,
non-robust production processes and the
resulting product deviations or defects (e.g.
deviations in area, edge elevation, positioning
errors, foreign particles). Further developing
and optimizing production processes, as
described in the red brick walls, can play a
crucial role in increasing yield.
One example of a cause of declining quality is
foreign particles. Their introduction can have
various causes. If implemented economically,
contamination control can play a significant
part in increasing yield and consequently in
reducing costs [Breger 2014].
When producing electrodes, it is crucial to
detect quality reductions in intermediates at an
early stage. This is the case when a defective
electrode is detected inline — e.g. using camera
technology — and removed from the production
process. Intermediate properties can be
monitored and process variance and reliability
assessed using inline measurement technology
in the form of quality gates at selected points.
The advantage that can be achieved by using
inline measurement technology needs to be
evaluated for each system individually, taking
into account the triggering of the quality signal,
the associated differentiation from rejects, and
the costs incurred [Schmitt 2008]. In addition,
analyzing measurement data can help to
identify interrelationships both inside and
outside the process. An accelerating effect is
therefore to be expected on the learning curve.
The impact of process parameters on the
quality of the intermediate can undergo
knowledge-based analysis and conclusions can
be drawn on the potential for optimizing
processes and products. For example, the
position, number and content of quality gates
can be adapted to enable an interactive and
self-optimizing control system for quality
management in cell production [Schnell 2016].
31
Economy of scale
The growing demand for LIBs will lead to an
expansion of production capacity. This
expansion can be implemented by increasing
either the number of machines (“numbering
up”) or the machine throughput (“scaling up”).
Scaling up helps to reduce costs significantly.
“Scaling effects are the cost savings that arise
for a particular production function as a result
of constant fixed costs when the output
increases. This is because, as the plant size
increases, the average total costs fall up to the
minimum optimum technical plant or company
size” [Voigt 2018]. In other words, when the
output is multiplied, the operating equipment
has not been simply multiplied too. A scale-up
can be implemented in various production
steps and is thus addressed in multiple RBWs.
Adapting the production steps to the
production capacity results in scaling effects in
battery production from an annual production
volume of just 200-300 MWh/a (see figure
above). Further increases have only an indirect
influence on the cost degression through
material costs saved, learning effects, and
innovations [Sakti 2015].
Consequently, scaling effects can be achieved in
Li-ion battery production not only at large
production sites with outputs of 35 GWh/a, but
also at smaller production sites with an annual
output of 1-1.5 GWh/a [Panasonic 2015].
Energy and resource efficiency
One of the core motivations for using batteries
in electric vehicles is to reduce CO2 emissions
and protect energy and resources throughout
the vehicle’s life cycle. However, producing
batteries — and especially producing cells —
requires energy-intensive processes. Coating,
drying, forming, and providing conditioned dry
room atmospheres are the most energy-
intensive process steps. Together, they account
for the majority of energy consumption in cell
production [Pettinger 2017].
From a business perspective, energy costs in
production are a significant factor that
accounts for up to 5 percent of the production
costs of a Li-ion cell [Schünemann 2015]. Energy
consumption in battery production is
particularly relevant from an environmental
point of view, as it is responsible for around 50
percent of the CO2 emissions during the life
cycle of a battery system [Ellingsen 2014].
On the other hand, the material accounts for up
to 75 percent of the costs of an Li-ion cell, so
there is plenty of motivation to achieve high
resource efficiency in production for economic
reasons alone [Schünemann 2015]. The key is to
minimize the production waste that accrues
throughout the process chain, e.g. through
ramp-up losses during coating and calendering,
or waste from assembly. Increasing the yield
also results in better resource efficiency.
Simulation of costs by annual production in MWh
Simulation of costs by annual production in MWh
Source: BLB based on [Sakti 2015]
THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING
32 THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING
The materials copper, cobalt, and nickel in
particular, as well as the solvents, also
contribute to different impact categories,
including eutrophication, human toxicity, and
biotoxicity [Ellingsen 2014].
Approaches to increasing energy and material
efficiency are interesting and necessary from
both an economic and an environmental point
of view. For the mechanical and plant
engineering industry, this means that resource-
efficient plants will become increasingly
attractive in the future as production capacity
grows. See RBW 10 for more detailed
information.
Another key factor in increasing energy and
resource efficiency is battery recycling [Kwade
2018 b]. This has the potential to have a
positive impact on the CO2 balance, costs, and
raw material supply of electric cars. In
particular, recycling could become the most
important source of raw materials in Europe,
which has little or no relevant natural resources
of its own [Miedema 2013]. In addition, the
boom in electromobility is expected to cause a
significant rise in used Li-ion batteries [Hoyer
2015]. A lot has been invested in researching
and developing efficient recycling processes in
recent years. More detailed information can be
found in RBW 16.
Higher degree of automation
Highly automated manufacturing concepts for
cost degression and quality enhancement are
being developed in a targeted way in battery
production, in order to continuously develop
lithium-ion batteries. Such concepts are shaped
by process intensification (shorter time frame),
integration, optimization, and substitution.
Fully automated individual processes are
already seen in industrial cell production
(assembly to final cell sealing) today. These are
usually arranged in a fixed chain in order to
achieve the lowest possible cycle times and
high throughputs.
The level of automation is closely linked to
digitalization. The aim is to increase product
quality and minimize waste in production
through intelligent manufacturing. This is
achieved using principles from Industrie 4.0,
such as cyber-physical systems, connected
processes, data feedback, and active machine
control based on measurement data.
Automation is closely linked to increasing
quality, which is examined in the next section.
Increasing quality
Quality has a direct impact on cost. In the
production process, increasing quality can help
improve yield and thus reduce costs, while also
leading to more premium products that attract
higher prices on the market. Cost reductions
that impact on the quality, on the other hand,
are counterproductive.
In volume production, measuring and testing
technology provides quality assurance in critical
steps of production. Increasing the degree of
automation and process reliability can also help
increase quality.
33
Measuring and testing technology
The manufacturing chain in battery production
involves complex interplay between many
different disciplines. The three cell formats and
the many different cell chemistries, some of
which are still in development, create
enormous variation in the manufacturing
processes. This results in many unknown
interrelationships between process and product
parameters. Combined with the large number
of process steps, this can lead to high rejection
rates. Consistent, intelligent measurement
technology throughout the process enables
early reaction and an opportunity to stand out
from the competition [Trechow 2018, Schnell
2016].
Integrating quality measurements into the
production process (inline measurement) and
the associated online analysis are extremely
helpful here. Quality-critical process steps and
sensitive product properties with low tolerance
ranges need to be identified. The process can be
optimized using quality monitoring devices and
appropriate adaptations to the product and
process parameters.
As a general rule, analysis methods need to
withstand ambient conditions. Stable control
loops can create various advantages in the
process:
Ability to react quickly through small control
loops
Stabilization of the production process
Increased quality
Cost reduction
In addition, the measurement technology used
should be non-destructive and contribute to
earlier error detection.
Quality assurance in complex process chains is
described in the figure above. First, the quality-
critical product and process properties need to
be detected and evaluated by relevance. FMEA
(failure mode and effects analysis) and DoE
(design of experiments) are common methods
for this [Westermeier 2013]. The table on page
35 shows quality parameters in cell production
and potential measurement processes. The
second step is to select measurement processes
and gather process data. Finally, the measured
data has to be analyzed. Ideally, this enables
new interrelationships between individual
production steps to be spotted
(machine/process-structure-property
relationships). The process parameters are then
adapted in a targeted way — the quality of the
LIB is enhanced, the waste rate reduced, and the
profitability of production increased. Processes
that follow the procedure described have been
developed by Schnell et al. for battery
production as a whole and by Kölmel et al. for
battery module and battery pack assembly, to
name but two examples [Kölmel 2014, Schnell
2016].
Level of automation
As a general rule, automated processes are less
vulnerable to errors than manual production
steps. This makes automation an important
instrument for improving quality and
minimizing waste. In general, the aim must be
to increase automation to a reasonable level
while also avoiding overengineering:
Procedure for quality assurance in complex process chains
Source: BLB, TU Braunschweig
Recognition of quality-critical product properties andprocess parametersFMEA & DoE
Collection of measurement dataSelection ofmeasurement methods
Evaluation of the data and recognition of newinterrelationships
Big-/Smart-Data analysis
THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING
34 THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING
Avoid disproportionate automation
Establish sensitive, flexible automation that
is easy to adjust
Link information processes
Intelligent production through the use of
learning systems
Automation enables the machine to be adapted
to potential fluctuations in quality and
measured process data to be analyzed using the
software. It is also possible to compare the
result of the process with the target quality,
showing which control variables in the process
need to be modified [Linke 2017]. If developed
further, this analysis process can potentially
connect all systems in a production line
together, since upstream and downstream
processes also have a direct impact on the
process in between.
Interfaces are used to provide information that
is important for further processing and quality
assurance along the process chain or for process
control. Standardizing these interfaces is one
challenge being faced at the moment (see RBW
15). Data mining and big data analyses enable
new connections between process and quality
parameters to be spotted, thereby allowing the
number of necessary quality controls to be
reduced.
Process reliability
A large number of factors influence the
performance of the battery cell in the
production process. Detailed knowledge of
parameters related to the product and
production and how these interact is essential
in order to improve the energy density, power
density, costs, cycle stability, and service life of
battery cells. Process reliability and robustness
need to guarantee consistent product quality
over a period of months and even years. As
described above, this is done by recording
quality-related plant and product parameters.
In order to increase process reliability,
downtimes of machinery and plants should be
kept to a minimum using predictive
engineering. Frequent downtimes often occur
while production is being established. These
need to be reduced to a minimum using the
mechanical engineering company’s learning
curve, combined with determination of the
machine/process-structure-property
relationship. Random downtimes that arise due
to wear during constant operation should
determine the type and scope of quality
controls. The difficulty with random downtimes
lies in identifying the parameters that are
relevant to process reliability and recording
them with sufficient accuracy. In order to
maintain process robustness despite wear,
control loops are needed to compensate for the
wear. Data mining in the production of LIB cells
enables suitable quality parameters to be
identified and tolerable fluctuation ranges to be
determined — without influencing cell
performance — through targeted parameter
variation along the process chain [Heins2017].
This creates the conditions for new product and
production strategies and higher-performance
battery cells that can be used as the basis for
active control of the production processes. In
the future, intelligent database systems will
make a significant contribution to process
reliability. These make it possible to optimize
batteries with regard to various criteria, detect
causal relationships, and define useful
tolerances.
35
Source: PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig
Importantquality parameters
Importantmeasurement methods
Elec
trod
e pr
oduc
tion
Mixing
Purity Slurry density Solids content Suspension rheology Carbon black agglomerate size
Microscopy, ICP Solids weigher, TGA Rheometer Laser diffraction
Coating Surface finish Wet layer thickness Edge geometry
Chrom. White Light Sensor, Camera Laser triangulation Camera
Drying
Material temperature Surface finish Coating thickness homogeneity Fractures in the material Weight distribution
Pyrometers Camera Laser triangulation Camera Infrared camera Area mass scanner
Calendering
Layer thickness and density/porosity Surface roughness Fractures in the material Weight distribution Pore size distribution
Laser triangulation Reflectometer Measurement of refractive index Camera Area mass scanner HG Porosimeter (off‐line)
Slitting / Separating
Burr quality Geometry of the cutting edges Metallic foreign particles Deformation of the microstructure
Chrom. White Light Sensor, Camera Laser triangulation Ultrasonic sensor Camera
Cell
asse
mbl
y
Winding / Stacking Positioning Foreign particle concentration
Laser triangulation Camera
Contacting
Contact resistance Mechanical stability Weld seam quality
Resistance measurement Short‐circuit test Weld seam monitoring,
current measurement
Insertion & sealing Electrical insulation Tightness
Is measured after electrolyte filling
Electrolyte filling
Tightness Electrical insulation Electrolyte temperature
Pressure test, optical coherence tomography
Insulation measurement Temperature sensor
Degassing & sealing Tightness Pressure test, optical coherence tomography
Form
ing
and
agei
ng
Forming Cell internal resistance Capacity Cell temperature
Calculation Temperature sensor
Ageing Self‐discharge of the cell Measuring the open circuit voltages
THE SOLUTIONS OFFERED BY MECHANICAL AND PLANT ENGINEERING
36 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
Challenges and the required technological
breakthroughs (red brick walls)
Red brick walls: an overview
Because a large part of the added value created
by battery cells, modules, and packs is
generated in the production process, it is this
area that requires the most investment
[Kampker2015a]. In Germany, only battery
module and pack assembly are currently
established on an industrial scale; cell
production only takes place in smaller pilot and
research systems. The large number of
alternative technologies means great diversity
in battery production lines [Heimes2014]. At
the same time, each individual production
process involves various interlinked
technologies [Kwade2018b]. In the
roadmapping process, this manifests itself as
significantly greater challenges in cell
production than in module and pack
assembly.19 However, cell production also offers
higher sales potential.
In the roadmapping process, challenges are
identified for the entire process chain based on
existing and future requirements. The required
technological breakthroughs (red brick walls)
are then derived from this.
To provide a clearer overview, the red brick
walls are assigned to various key topics along
the process chain: electrode production (1), cell
production (2), overarching fields of electrode
and cell production (3), battery module and
pack assembly (4), and overarching topics that
affect the entire process chain (5).
19 See also [Kwade2018b] “Current status and challenges for automotive battery production technologies”
The foundations for the quality of the cells are
laid in electrode production. This is reflected in
the red brick walls identified. Reliable
monitoring can form the basis of stable
processes and thus an increase in efficiency. It is
also important to increase throughput and
minimize costs in electrode production. Coating
and drying offer particular potential for this.
The red brick walls identified in 2016 as
affecting cell production remain relevant today.
The stacking process, electrolyte filling, and
forming are particular bottlenecks in the
production process. Higher levels of automation
and quality improvements promise to minimize
waste and enhance efficiency. The red brick
wall regarding separation remains in place. The
key here is to prevent relevant contamination or
to detect it through reliable monitoring. The red
brick wall relating to “efficient production of
cell housing” covers optimizing freedom from
leaks, the deep drawing process of the pouch
cell, and the challenge of saving material and
avoiding redundancy in the cell housing, which
was first discussed in 2016.
Optimizing film handling is an overarching
topic for electrode and cell production.
Widening the films to improve throughput and
creating thicker coatings and thinner films to
optimize the energy density will demand new
solution approaches in the future. Recognizing
interrelationships between process and quality
parameters is also becoming increasingly
important for the entire cell production process,
including electrode production. This is the only
way to successfully avoid overengineering.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 37
In European production, there is an increasing
focus on sustainability in terms of resource and
energy efficiency. In this roadmapping process,
we have addressed these two points as
separate red brick walls.
Battery module and pack assembly requires less
investment than cell production, but the
process alternatives are heavily concept-
dependent [Kampker 2015 b]. Line suppliers
offering solutions for battery module and pack
assembly are already enjoying success in
Germany today. The various form factors and
the lack of standards provide both a great range
of options and various challenges. Initial
solution approaches come in the form of
flexible production [Maiser 2016]. In addition,
more efficient production of battery module
housings needs to be achieved to deal with the
significant cost pressure. Here it is important to
think outside the box and develop new battery
module and pack concepts that can be
implemented at lower cost with regard to
production. The red brick wall for contacting
technology addressed in 2016 remains in place.
Fast-charge capability and the handling of
larger currents that goes with it demand high-
voltage connectors suitable for mass
production.
Overarching issues for the entire battery
production process include interface
standardization and the development of a
working circular economy.
As in the previous two roadmaps, 16 red brick
walls (RBW) have been identified and revised to
reflect the current state of the art in
technology.
Comparing the red brick walls from 2018 with
those from 2014 and 2016 shows the changes
that have occurred.
In the following chapters, the 16 red brick walls
for future battery production are discussed in
detail. Basic principles and challenges are
described and possible solutions that would
allow the red brick walls to be broken through
are listed.
Although the success of a process technology
depends primarily on the point in time at which
a breakthrough of all red brick walls is achieved,
individual suppliers of production equipment
always face the question of cost and benefit.
This is the reason behind the portfolio matrix
introduced in 2016. In this update, too, it serves
as the basis for assessing the red brick walls
identified in 2016 from today’s point of view
(see chapter “Assessment of red brick walls
from 2016”).
An estimate of the cost and benefit is provided
for each of the new or updated red brick walls
from 2018 in the respective chapters. It is based
on the assessment of the red brick walls
identified in 2016, discussions in the workshop,
and expert interviews.
38 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
Grand challenges
The term “grand challenges” was introduced in
2014. These represent the core challenges to
which all the red brick walls developed can be
traced back.
Increasing throughput through scale-up or
speed-up is the first grand challenge. Many
working steps in battery production have not
yet been fully designed for automated high-
volume production but have a high potential
for automation. In order to meet the demand
for batteries as it increases in the future, the
throughput time of the production process
must be significantly reduced.
Process stability and high yields are the second
grand challenge. In comparison with other
industry sectors, battery production is still
subject to high reject rates of 5-12 percent
[Brodd 2013]. In view of the high material costs
of a battery cell and the consequential costs of
faults, this is a primary cost driver. An increase
in process speed can have a negative effect on
process stability. Plant technology optimized to
demand, quality-optimized handling, and
interfaces in the production cycle that are
standardized and suitable for mass production
will allow higher speeds while at the same time
delivering process stability and lower reject
rates.
The third grand challenge is sustainability in
battery production. The phrase “green
production”
relates to environmentally friendly and safe
processing of raw materials throughout the
production process and the processing and use
of environmentally friendly and safe materials.
It also means energy and resource efficiency in
production. A useful addition to this is the
circular economy. This concept ensures that as
much battery raw material as possible is fed
back into battery production and not converted
into other waste products which are left to
decay. Particularly in Europe, the question of
climate-neutral or CO2-neutral production is
becoming ever more important in view of
increasingly stringent environmental
regulations. A combination of efficient
production processes, resource-saving
production, and sustainable value chains
creates an opportunity for battery production to
play a pioneering role, while achieving
significant cost advantages at the same time.
All three of these grand challenges aim to
increase quality while reducing costs, and will
serve as the benchmark for manufacturers and
suppliers of production technology. Related
sectors such as the semiconductor, display, and
photovoltaic industries have succeeded in
meeting this challenge over a period of years or
decades. In order to enable competitive
production, the quality of production processes
needs to rise even further. For this purpose, the
numerous reciprocal effects between process
parameters, raw materials, and environmental
conditions must be sufficiently analyzed,
understood, and optimized.
The greatest challenges for battery production and their relationship to the identified red brick walls
Grand Challenges
RBW: 5, 6, 7, 9, 13
RBW: 11, 15
RBW: 1, 3, 4, 12 RBW: 10, 16
RBW 2, 7, 8, 13, 14 RBW: 2, 7, 8, 13, 14
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 39
2018 — assessment of red brick walls from 2016
Scientists, mechanical and plant engineering
companies, and battery manufacturers have
assessed the red brick walls defined in 2016 in
order to update them from today’s point of
view. The criteria used were the cost-benefit
ratio and the relevance for the customer sector.
It is important to note that none of the red brick
walls was classified as less relevant compared
to the assessment from 2016. Most gained in
relevance, with just a few red brick walls
assessed as being between unchanged and
more relevant.
The descriptions below pay most attention to
those red brick walls whose assessment has
changed significantly since 2016.
In electrode production, this applies to
homogeneity and tolerance definition, as well
as the red brick wall on the separation process,
which is assessed as being significantly costlier,
but with unchanged to higher relevance. The
benefit is in the central range. This may be due
to the need to introduce monitoring methods.
The homogeneity and tolerance definition of
electrode production, on the other hand, is
assessed as being less costly. The expertise
gained over the last few years has a noticeable
effect here.
Considering the two red brick walls in housing
production, it is noticeable that the benefit of
efficient production is only seen in the central
range, while the cost is slightly higher. This
estimate is similar to that of intelligent design.
Both RBWs are assessed as having only average
benefits. In the discussion, it became clear that
the processes are already very highly developed.
Potential for increasing speeds is seen in the
hardcase cells in particular, while the deep draw
depth is crucial in the deep drawing process for
the pouch cells. The relevance of both red brick
walls for housings is seen as unchanged or
increased.
Forming saw the only significant change in the
field of cell finalization. The benefit of forming
was estimated as high, as in previous years, but
the cost was significantly higher. The RBW on
forming was thus assigned the highest cost of
all. Fundamental research on forming the solid
electrolyte interface was a particular topic of
discussion. The high energy and investment
costs of the process are another crucial
influence on cost.
There were only slight changes in the
overarching topics. Positive developments
include the current status of cost reduction in
clean and drying rooms with falling costs and
the development of a circular economy with an
increase in benefit. The benefit of the long-term
forecast also rose, although the assessment of
standardization barely changed and continues
to carry the highest benefit of all the
overarching topics.
History of the development of the red brick wall assessment
VDMA initiated the roadmapping process for
battery production equipment in 2012. In
recent years, more expertise has been acquired
and approaches have changed. Some topics
have moved more into the spotlight, while
others have become less important. These
developments are described in this chapter
using selected examples.
40 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
Throughput/quality in electrode and cell
Increasing throughput and quality in battery
production has been a key part of the
challenges for battery cell production since
2014.
Even then, increasing speed and throughput
were identified as elementary components of
optimization, especially in the process steps of
mixing, coating, stacking, electrolyte filling, and
forming. Increasing speed was assessed as
being of high relevance once again in 2016. At
the same time, quality became more important
in the discussions. As a general rule, attempts
should only be made to increase speed if the
quality can remain consistent or improve.
There has been a greater focus on quality in
2018. Minimizing waste and thus increasing
efficiency is sometimes seen as more
productive than increasing the speed of the
process. According to the latest assessment,
there is often insufficient understanding of the
interrelationships between the processes and
the product and quality properties.
The topic of detecting interrelationships /
avoiding overengineering has thus been made a
new red brick wall for 2018. Defining useful
tolerance ranges is connected to this. The
required quality must be guaranteed. However,
uncertainty about interrelationships often leads
to the definition of excessively narrow
tolerance ranges, causing unnecessary costs.
Widening the web width of the films as a
further way to increase throughput in electrode
production is considered under the “film
handling” red brick wall in the 2018 update.
The topic of calendering has been added to the
challenges in 2018, largely due to the need to
switch to new materials. This will require fast
recording of the material/process-structure-
property relationships in order to create the
optimum functional structures for the
application. This process would also be directly
affected by a widening of the film webs.
Comparison of RBWs for 2016 and 2018
Source: PEM, RWTH Aachen University
2016
RBW 1a: Mixing - speed increase
RBW 1b: Coating, drying - speed increase
RBW 2: Electrode production - homogeneity and tolerance definition
RBW 3: Separation - contamination in process step
RBW 4: Stacking/winding - increasing speed
RBW 5: Foil handling - thinner foils with thicker active materials
RBW 6a: Housing production - intelligent design
RBW 6b: Housing production - efficient production
RBW 7: Cell assembly - optimizing freedom from leaks
RBW 8: Electrolyte filling - speed and quality
RBW 9: Formation - safe and faster process
RBW 10: Contacting - handling higher currents
RBW 12: Clean rooms and drying rooms - reducing costs
RBW 13: Circular economy - 100 percent recycling
RBW 14: Standardization - interfaces and digitalization
RBW 11: Long-term forecasting - statements concerning service life
2018
RBW 1: Mixing - reproducible manufacturing and reliable monitoring
RBW 2: Coating, drying - increasing throughput and reducing costs
RBW 3: Calendering - increasing efficiency
RBW 4: Separation - quality and reliable monitoring
RBW 5: Stacking - increasing speed
RBW 6: Electrolyte filling - increasing speed and quality
RBW 7: Forming and resting time - safer and faster process
RBW 8: Cell housing production - efficient production
RBW 9: Film handling – Thinner/broader films with thicker coatings
RBW 10: Sustainability - energy and resource efficiency
RBW 11: Detecting interrelationships and avoiding overengineering
RBW 12: Contacting - handling larger currents
RBW 14: Module/pack housing production - efficient production
RBW 15: Standardization - interfaces, digitalization, and Industrie 4.0
RBW 16: Circular economy - 100 percent recycling
RBW 13: Flexible production - modular and with flexible quantities
Legend: Update New
Predecessor 2016
RBW 1a, 2
RBW 1b
RBW -
RBW 2, 3
RBW 4
RBW 8
RBW 9
RBW 6a, 6b, 7
RBW 5
RBW 9, 12
RBW 11
RBW 10
RBW 6a, 6b, 7
RBW 14
RBW 13
RBW 6b
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 41
Battery housing
Deep drawing and sealing of pouch films and
plastic pack housing production were addressed
in 2014. The topics of prismatic and cylindrical
cell housing production were added in 2016.
Plastic housing was no longer the focus of
consideration.
In 2018, the focus is on efficient production of
the battery housing, which includes cell,
module, and pack housing. The quality and the
speed of production are addressed in particular.
The various formats result in different
challenges.
Sustainability
The topic of sustainability in battery production
has been discussed in various red brick walls in
previous years. Due to the growing importance
of the topic, especially in Europe, a separate red
brick wall was formulated for it in 2018.
Standardization/flexibility
In 2014, the focus lay on the topics of line
integration in cell production and
standardization at module level. In 2016, the
limelight moved on to interfaces and
digitalization. Line linkage and control panel
monitoring in particular have been addressed in
research and implemented in practice. Industrie
4.0. has generally become a central topic in the
public domain and was discussed more
extensively in the 2016 update.
With the help of smart data for increasing
quality and analysis of interrelationships, it is
one of the fundamental topics in the 2018
update, too. Classic standardization, which it
was hoped would counteract the wide diversity
of variants, has generally taken a back seat to
increasing flexibility — clearly demonstrating
that standardization cannot be expected in the
near future. Contemporary solutions therefore
demand a high degree of flexibility in the
production plants; see also RBW 13.
Contacting
The topic of contacting was first defined in
2016 in the form of a new red brick wall.
Further developing the available contacting
processes was the main focus. The
development of high-voltage cells and battery
manufacturers’ demands for improved charging
capabilities has led to an increase in relevance
since 2016. 2018 has also seen a desire for
flexible contacting processes that adapt to the
cell size. This has been included in the
considerations.
Energy density
Increasing the energy density of Li-ion cells for
mobile applications is one of battery
manufacturers’ top goals. As a result of this
development, coatings on the cells are
becoming thicker and substrates thinner. Film
handling was thus considered a red brick wall
for the first time in 2016.
Film handling remains relevant in 2018. The
aspect of film widening in order to increase
throughput (see above) has been added to the
red brick wall.
42 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
Cost-benefit portfolio comparison 2016 and 2018
Red brick walls from 2016: RBW 1a: Mixing — speed increase (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 1b: Coating, drying — speed increase (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 2: Electrode production — homogeneity and tolerance definition (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 3: Separation — contamination in process step (assessment 2018: unchanged to more relevant) RBW 4: Stacking/winding — increasing speed (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 5: Foil handling — thinner foils with thicker active materials (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 6a: Housing production — intelligent design (assessment 2018: unchanged to more relevant) RBW 6b: Housing production — efficient production (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 7: Cell assembly — optimizing freedom from leaks (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 8: Electrolyte filling — speed and quality (assessment 2018: unchanged)RBW 9: Formation — safe and faster process (assessment 2018: unchanged to more relevant)RBW 10: Contacting — handling higher currents (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 11: Long-term forecasting — statements concerning service life (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 12: Clean rooms and drying rooms — reducing costs (assessment 2018: more relevant) RBW 13: Circular economy — 100 percent recycling (assessment 2018: more relevant)RBW 14: Standardization — interfaces and digitalization (assessment 2018: more relevant)
Legend: Estimate RBW 2016 in 2018 Estimate RBW 2016 in 2016 Change compared to 2016
Source: VDMA roadmapping workshop 2016 and 2018
low
med
ium
hig
h
Ben
efit
Effort
high medium low
RBW1a
RBW1b
RBW2
RBW1a
RBW3
RBW1b
RBW2
RBW3
low
med
ium
hig
h
Ben
efit
Effort
high medium low
RBW9
RBW7
RBW8
RBW9
RBW10
RBW10RBW
7 RBW8
low
med
ium
hig
h
Ben
efit
Effort
high medium low
RBW11
RBW12RBW
13
RBW12
RBW14
RBW13
RBW14
RBW11
low
med
ium
hig
h
Ben
efit
Effort
high medium low
RBW4
RBW4
RBW6a
RBW6b
RBW5
RBW6a
RBW6b
RBW5
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 43
Red brick walls 2018 in detail
On the basis of the estimates of RBWs from the
year 2016 already presented, workshops, expert
interviews, and joint discussions were held to
develop the revised RBWs described below.
In order to visualize and analyze forecast
technological development paths, a milestone
diagram with “routes” running parallel in time
is used.
The diagrams that follow feature only battery
manufacturer requirements for which no
production solutions currently exist — by
definition, these are the red brick walls. In the
interests of clarity, a milestone diagram was
prepared for each red brick wall. The present
state of the art of production technology for
volume production is the starting point “2018”
in the milestone diagram.
Four symbols are used to represent milestones
in the development path. They can be seen in
the figure on this page. The circle represents the
process technology currently used. The hexagon
represents need for research or research
projects. Rectangles with rounded corners are
used to indicate pilot plants or demonstrated
solutions. Technologies suitable for large-scale
production are indicated by a rectangle with
sharp corners.
The milestone diagram is supplemented by a
graphical representation of the improvement
potential in the target system for volume
production that would result when the red brick
wall is overcome. This is a simplified
representation of the evaluation criteria by
which each process technology was measured
in the roadmapping workshops. This roadmap is
limited to three categories that cover the target
system: “Time” indicates an increase in process
speed, i.e. a reduction of execution time.
“Quality” refers to a reduction in the reject rate
or improvements to the product properties,
such as the performance parameters or the
service life. Investment and/or operating costs
are compiled under “Costs.”
The information in the top right of the chart
shows whether the respective red brick wall is
an “update” compared to 2016, is “new,” or has
remained “unchanged” since 2016. The term
“battery manufacturers” implies electrode and
cell manufacturers and the producers of battery
modules and packs.
Within production research and the red brick
walls listed in this roadmap, there is already a
large number of research projects that are
examining or have examined unanswered
questions in battery production. You can find a
detailed overview at the end of the “Red brick
walls” chapter.
Symbols used to represent milestones in the development path
State of the Art Technology
Mass Production Technology
Pilot plants, concrete solutions
Research Projects / Research Approach
Symbols in the Development Path
44 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 1: Mixing — reproducible manufacturing
and reliable monitoring
Basic principles
The first stage in battery cell production is to
mix and disperse the powdery starting
materials in order to create a suspension that
can be used for coating. This consists of various
active materials, inactive components
(conductive carbon black, conductive additives,
bonders), and a solvent. The objective of mixing
is to mix and pre-structure the powdery
components homogeneously. The dispersion
process then serves to distribute this powder in
the solvent and to solubilize the conductive
carbon black particles in a targeted way, in
order to achieve defined power and energy
properties [Kwade 2018 b].
Challenges
Fully automated production processes, high
efficiency, a high degree of process integration,
and knowledge of interrelationships are
essential for the competitive mass production
of electrodes. Reproducible, robust production
processes that are stable and unaffected by
physical conditions such as humidity in the long
term must also be guaranteed. In addition, it
must be possible to process new (active)
materials in existing plants wherever possible.
For example, fibrous additives and carbon
nanotubes will be used as conductive additives
in electrode coating in years to come. Nickel-
rich active materials are also comparably
sensitive to moisture, placing new
requirements on the process.
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 1: Mixing — reproducible manufacturing and reliable monitoring
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Potential solution approaches for reducing the mixing duration include continuous, process-integrated production of the suspension and linking withthe coating process. Reducing the inactive materials can help increase efficiency. However, neither approach can be permitted to impair quality oryield. Monitoring the quality parameters is important in order to find links to the later cell properties.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 45
Solution approaches
Comprehensive process and product
monitoring is needed in order to remain
competitive. This includes recording machine,
process, and product parameters for control, as
well as inline detection of production errors.
Incoming goods, intermediate, and final
product inspections must still be conducted.
These are intended to ensure adherence to the
final product requirements and low variance in
the later cells with regard to electrochemical
parameters.
In the mixing and dispersion process, the
conductive carbon black particle size and the
viscosity are useful quality criteria. Machine and
product parameters include the energy input
and the temperature of the suspension.
In both continuous and batch operation,
optimized process management in mixing and
dispersion can maximize the quantity of
suspension produced per time unit and
minimize the time and energy needed, without
impairing the product quality.
Reducing the solvent content may also be
relevant to the mixing process in the future.
Continuous dispersion processes such as the
extrusion process are a useful approach.
Extrusion enables lower solvent contents and
offers an opportunity to achieve higher
throughputs while maintaining the same
quality. Both integration of inline quality
control and direct connection with a coating
system become easier. In principle, it would also
be possible to coat the accumulator directly
after the extruder, without a coating system.
Various strategies for suspension production,
such as adding the various components at
different locations along the extruder screw,
can be achieved with the help of extrusion.
These are necessary for the targeted
combination of power and energy density.
For new kinds of fibrous additive, new
formulation strategies have to be established
with the existing plant technology. For
example, the additives can be dosed into the
suspension after dispersion and homogenized
at low intensities.
In order to prevent cathodic active materials of
the new generation, which are particularly rich
in nickel, from being damaged by high moisture
levels, it may be necessary to conduct
dispersion in drying rooms in the future. If
powder coating processes are used, there is no
need for wet dispersion at all. Only powder
pretreatment and homogenization (mixing) is
required here in order to solubilize conductive
carbon black particles, apply them to the active
materials, and mix them homogeneously with a
thermoplastic bonder.
Cost/benefit assessment
Continuous mixing and dispersion processes
are generally considered very relevant for the
future, as the advantages described mean that
they offer high benefits at average costs.
Extensive process integration and system
interconnection do create higher costs, but the
benefits are significantly higher as a lot of time
can be saved. Process and product monitoring
create average to high costs, depending on the
parameters being observed. However, it enables
critical quality parameters to be checked as
early as the dispersion process and starting
materials, so that the final cell requirements
can be adhered to reliably. As this improves the
waste rates and efficiency of these process
steps, the benefit can be considered very high.
The most important parameters for monitoring
are the particle size, suspension homogeneity,
viscosity, and temperature.
Adapting existing processes to new kinds of
(active) material does not involve high costs in
terms of plant technology, as only the
formulation strategy has to be adapted.
Depending on the desired property of the cell,
the benefit of such materials can be very high.
46 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 2: Coating, drying — increasing throughput
and reducing costs
Basic principles
In the coating process, the suspension is applied
to a substrate continuously or intermittently
using an application tool. The industry standard
today is slot die coating. Typical values for the
wet layer thickness are between 200 and 250
μm. With multiple application nozzles, the
coating width can be up to 1500 mm.
Drying is the production process that
determines the feasible coating speed. Around
1-2 minutes serves as a reference value for the
drying duration, depending in particular on the
layer thickness, the solid content of the
suspension, and the solvent used.
This means that the throughput speed is
fundamentally restricted by the drying system.
Circulation dryers in combination with IR dryers
are generally used today [Kwade 2018 b].
Depending on the plant concerned, the top and
bottom of the film are coated either
simultaneously or, most commonly today,
sequentially.
For one-sided coating, support rollers can be
used instead of air bearings at the start of
drying. These enable more stable web guidance
for the still-wet layers. In simultaneous two-
sided coating, contact between the wet/damp
coating and the support rollers must be
avoided. This requires an airborne or vertical
dryer. Preventing cracks in the coating material
and minimizing bonder migration to the layer
surface are further requirements for the process
[Kwade 2018 b]. This can occur if the layers dry
unevenly or too quickly. Temperature profiles
with different zones are used to achieve the
gentle drying required.
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 2: Coating, drying — increasing throughput and reducing costs
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
2020
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Lower solvent content Dry coating
Optimized coating widthOptimized application
tools
DryingUp to
40 m/min
Coating width 1500 mm
Update
Dwell timein the dryer1-2 min/m
Quality influences
Multiple use ofdrying line
Simultaneous double-sided coating
incl. drying
Alternative drying processes
Optimized coating anddrying process
Materials research
Increase energyefficiency, shorten drying dwell time
R&D-programmes
A lower solvent content in the coating enables a higher throughput; long drying zones are not required. Drying plays a huge role in determining the speed of coating. If coating is sped up, however, optimum application stillneeds to be guaranteed. An aqueous coating adds complexity to the processes.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 47
Challenges
In order to reduce process costs, simultaneous
coating of both sides is highly relevant. This
places tough requirements on the positioning
accuracy of the application tool and the
substrate. The edge quality and high web
speeds must still be guaranteed. In addition,
stable web guidance of the coated films must
be achieved without support rollers in the
drying process.
Another approach is to reduce the solvent
content, all the way to dry coating. This enables
significant savings in investment and operating
costs, but also demands adapted or alternative
process solutions for layer application. Further
challenges come as a result of the trend
towards thicker coatings and thinner films, as
well as wider films. These challenges are
discussed in more detail in RBW 9 “Film
handling.”
Solution approaches
Significant costs can be saved in the drying and
coating process by shortening the time spent in
the drying process. This is the objective of
efforts to produce suspensions with higher
solids contents. For this process, this means
that the application tools in the coating
systems need to be adapted to process highly
viscous suspensions. Where no solvents are
used at all, the process is known as dry coating.
Already achieved successfully on a laboratory
scale, it uses powder instead of a suspension.
Using hot calenders, this powder is pressed into
a film that is then applied to the substrate
directly or indirectly using a lamination process.
PVD coating is an alternative approach. A lower
proportion of solvent would increase the
importance of the coating process compared to
the drying process.
Intensive material research will be necessary in
order to reduce the proportion of solvent and to
be able to implement dry coating (DryLIZ,
LoCoTroP projects as shown in table on page
76). The survey partners expect dry coating to
be suitable for the mass market from 2025.
Another solution for reducing the time spent in
the coating process is simultaneous double-
sided coating. The top and bottom of the
material must have identical structures in order
to guarantee precise edge geometry and
coverage on both sides. These requirements
become even stricter if the coating width is
increased in order to raise throughput; see also
the RBW regarding “Film handling.”
Speeding up the drying process would also be
desirable. One conceivable solution would be
multiple use of drying zones in order to reduce
investment and energy costs. What is meant
here is “initial drying” of the first side, allowing
support rollers to be used for transport
purposes. After the second side has been
coated, the complete drying of both sides can
be carried out simultaneously. The
development of new drying processes, such as
laser drying, could also help to optimize the
process and reduce costs. Significantly more
efficient energy input allows energy
consumption to be halved compared to
conventional drying ovens [Hawelka 2015].
Cost/benefit assessment
The cost of optimizing the coating process is
estimated as medium to high, while the benefit
is high. Increasing throughput is playing an ever
greater role in battery production and can
reduce its costs considerably. Medium cost is
estimated for the feasible adaptation of the
application tools to a mass low in or even free
from solvents. Due to the large variety of
possible processes, optimizing the drying
process involves higher costs.
48 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 3: Calendering — increasing efficiency
Basic principles
Continuous roller compression is known as
calendering. In this process, the particles of the
porous coating are transferred through
compression and shear forces. The electrical
percolation paths and mechanical polymer
bonder connections (solid phases of the
electrodes) that become established after the
coating dries are broken up. The particle-
particle and particle-bonder contacts are
reestablished and the final pore structure
distribution is defined [Kwade 2018 b].
Essentially, the compression process finally
defines all the central electrode properties, such
as the energy and power densities, the cycle
stability, and structural and electrical properties
that determine the electron and ion transport
processes.
Central process parameters used as control
variables include the gap width and the line
force to be applied.
The feed zone of the compression rollers and
thus the intensity of the compression process
per time unit are defined by the web speed, the
roller diameter, and the electrode geometry
(width and thickness). Large roller diameters are
associated with gentler compression processes.
Increasing the roller temperature can influence
the deformation of the bonder polymer and
reduce the line force needed. This enables a
reduction in electrode deformation due to
mechanically induced residual stress on the
interface to the substrate.
Time
CostsQuality
Target system Update
2020
Tempered calendering
Speed 100m/min
Optimized calendering process
Precision+/- 1μm
Thick coatings
Process control
Optimized calendering tools
Higher roll width
Quality influencesin-line analysis
Dry coating
Further processingwith 6σ quality
R&D-programmes
2018
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 3: Calendering — increasing efficiency
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Understanding of the process, and especially of process-structure-propertyrelationships, is essential in order to create the optimum system design (e.g. for thicker electrodes, dry coating). Interdependency with other process stepsmust be taken into account. Inline quality controls can be useful here. The keyis to use compression to increase the energy density while maintaining a goodcharging performance (electrical vs ionic conductivity).
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 49
Challenges
The required layer thickness accuracy of
+/- 1 μm, which is often continuously
monitored inline using laser triangulation,
presents a tough challenge. It is even more
crucial, however, to ensure uniform
electrochemical
properties through uniform layer structures and
thus homogeneous electron and ion flow
densities in the electrodes. Compression is
therefor becoming increasingly important in
large electrodes.
Understanding the process interdependencies
with the upstream drying and wet mixing
processes is important in order to enable a
statement to be made on the electrode per-
formance after calendering. The degree of
dispersion of the conductive carbon black has a
direct impact on the layer structure that can be
achieved. There is thus a direct link to the
charge transport and the line force intake of the
electrode.
Mechanical properties of the electrodes — such
as their adhesion to the substrate, layer
homogeneity, formability, elasticity, and
residual stresses, which change significantly
during calendering — are also relevant to the
cell’s service life and the processing properties
in cell construction.
The links described are generally to be applied
to the material-process-structure-property
relationships. Components of the electrode
coating and their starting structure from drying
are to be understood as the material. The aim is
to be able to set up optimum functional
structures for application more quickly for new
materials.
Solution approaches
Knowledge of material-process-structure-
property relationships is crucial to getting the
optimum out of a cell. This is the only way to
achieve the highest possible energy densities
and fast-charge capability at the same time.
The process can also be adapted to new
material and cell generation types more quickly
and economically.
Equipping the calendering systems with more
and improved inline measurement technology
can play a key part in this. It is made possible
through continuous line force recording and
analysis, which can be done using integrated
measurement systems and direct measurement
of the real gap dimensions.
Another central topic is increasing the diameter
and width of the rollers while retaining a con-
sistently high degree of accuracy, in order to
enable thicker layers of high-capacity electrodes
to be compressed gently. As part of maximizing
throughput and in order to achieve higher ener-
gy densities at battery system level, electrode
web widths of > 500 mm can be expected.
These are coated in 3-4 strips (i.e. substrate
widths > 2 m). At very high compressions,
calendering intermittent coatings can minimize
the risk of stress fractures significantly.
Cost/benefit assessment
Further developing the material-process-
structure-property relationships involves
significant costs, particularly in terms of time,
but the benefit is high. Increasing the
instrumenttation of the plants can accelerate
development, or even make it possible where
this would not otherwise be the case. The
urgency of increasing throughput in the
calendering process depends on the increases in
throughput in the upstream coating and drying
processes that are achieved in the medium
term.
Interdependency of material and mixing processes — the disperse electrode structures — with the calendering process Source: BLB
50 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 4: Separation — quality and reliable
monitoring
Basic principles
During separation, individual anode, cathode
and separator sheets are separated from the
electrode/separator coils. This can be done by
stamping with shear blades or by cutting with
lasers. The stamping process already offers very
clean cut edges, although the quality falls as
the tool becomes more worn.
Laser cutting maintains a consistent cut edge
quality, while the high flexibility of the laser
guidance also makes a change in shape
possible. One disadvantage of separation using
laser cutting is the local heat build-up and the
different speeds at which the coating and
substrate evaporate, potentially causing
damage [Schmitz 2014].
Filter technologies and predictive maintenance
are already being used to prevent
contamination with foreign particles and to
detect wear in the cutting tool at an early stage.
This enables countermeasures to be taken in
good time. A positive side effect of this is a
longer service life for the tools.
In laser cutting, extraction of the gases and
microparticles formed is a way to minimize
contamination that can impair quality.
Processing speeds in stamping are up to 0.2 s
per sheet. Laser cutting achieves up to 1200
mm/s, leading to a production duration of
around 0.5 s per sheet, depending on the
geometry being cut. Regardless of this,
however, the gripping and handling process of
the electrode and separator sheets is always the
time-limiting factor when separating [Kampker
2015 a].
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
18
Update
2020
Laser cutting:extraction of
particles(filter)
Stamping: predictive
maintenanceMonitoring Quality
assurance
Contaminationdetection
Further development of
technology
Tolerance windowsand cause-effect
relationshipscontamination
removal
Inline process cleaning
Avoidance of quality-relevantcontamonation
No qualityinfluencing
contamination
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 4: Separation — quality and reliable monitoring
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Because of their size, residues that arise in the separation process can cause short circuiting in the cell. The particle size varies in different separationtechnologies. Filter techniques and predictive maintenance of the tools arealready optimizing quality today. These techniques require furtherdevelopment and will need to be complemented by further processes andappropriate quality measurements.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 51
Challenges
Contamination that impairs quality can arise
from resublimation of material on the cut edge
during laser cutting, flaking of the coating due
to burr formation during stamping, or loose
particles on the active material. Such
contamination can cause lithium plating in the
lithium-ion cell. In the worst-case scenario, this
can lead to damage to the separator and short
circuiting. Avoiding contamination is thus a
general challenge. In addition, reliable quality
assurance can reduce waste in production
significantly.
Solution approaches
Quality measurement enables companies to
accurately check the cut edge quality and sheet
surface. Providing such quality assurance
requires the development of suitable
monitoring systems with reliable waste
detection. High-resolution optical systems that
can identify the tiniest particles on the surface
are essential for this, enabling the quality of the
cut edges to be assessed and wear on the tool
to be recognized early. Adopted from related
industries, innovative inline surface inspection
processes using imaging offer an opportunity
for further process optimization. With the help
of technology transfer, they are being applied to
battery production and further developed in
research projects.
Optimizing extraction in laser cutting is
necessary in order to prevent the resublimation
of particles on the cut edge. Filter technology
that can be adapted to the particle size is
already available on the market. However, the
trend towards thicker coatings is making it
difficult for the laser cutting process to become
established. Increased layer thicknesses
demand higher energy input. Evaporation at the
cut edge increases, causing increased
contamination [Schmitz 2014].
Another approach is to clean the electrode
sheets after separation. This must not change
the properties of the cell materials, and the
additional cost must be worth it financially for
the cell manufacturer. CO2 snow-jet cleaning, in
which contamination is removed in dry form
and without residue using carbon dioxide, is
another solution. Its advantages include good
automation capability and the option of
continuous operation. However, its use depends
on the temperature and material compatibility
of the carbon dioxide with the coated substrate.
In general, it is important to research and
validate the tolerance windows and
interrelationships in order to avoid
contamination that impairs quality.
Cost/benefit assessment
Since separation has a significant effect on the
later cell performance, its benefit is considered
high. Introducing reliable monitoring methods
offers an opportunity to increase quality and
reduce waste. Lower levels of contamination
due to an improved cutting process or
appropriate quality assurance measures result
in an increased service life for the lithium-ion
cells. One challenge lies in the high cost of
implementing the measurement technology
and the establishment of the required
understanding of the process.
52 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 5: Stacking — increasing speed
Basic principles
Different assembly processes are used to
produce lithium-ion cells, depending on the cell
format. Pouch cells are usually produced in a
stacking process; cylindrical and prismatic cells
through winding. Stacking can take the form of
individual sheet stacking, bi-cell stacking, or Z-
folding. In individual sheet stacking, the
separator, anode, and cathode are placed on top
of one another alternately. In Z-folding, the
separator is unwound from the coil and the
individual electrodes are placed alternately
between the separator, e.g. using vacuum
grippers.
Laminating the individual sheet electrodes to
the separator before Z-folding can speed up the
process considerably [Kwade 2018 b].
During winding, the separator band and
electrode bands (anode and cathode) are
wound onto a core, which is then used to create
a jelly roll.
The cycle times that can be achieved depend
heavily on the electrode design and the
production technique used. Cycle times of less
than 1 s per sheet can be achieved in Z-folding
and individual sheet stacking. In winding,
continuous operation means that speeds of less
than 0.1 s per sheet are possible. The stacking
process has to compete with these process
speeds.
Progress has been made in terms of both speed
and stacking accuracy since 2016. The use of
camera systems enables precise positioning of
the electrode and separator sheets.
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2020
Single sheetstacking
Z-folding
Continuous materialprocessing
New grippertechnologies
Knowledge of process-product
relationship
Alternativestacking process
Industrial stacking
Reduction of handling
operations
Inline processmeasurement
technology
Robust intermediate products of electrode
and separator (e.g. lamination)
Stacking process<< 1 second
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 5: Stacking — increasing speed
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
The stacking process is much slower than the winding process and constitutes one of the bottlenecks in cell assembly. Benefits include production ofelectrode-separator assemblies that are suited to the material. The speed can be increased by combining processes or reducing pick-and-place operations.However, this cannot come at the cost of positioning accuracy, cleanliness orgentle material handling.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 53
Challenges
Since stacking is one of the time-critical
processes on the production line, it can easily
become a bottleneck. As well as increasing
throughput, tough requirements have to be
met in terms of positioning accuracy,
cleanliness, and gentle material handling. The
quality of the stacking process has a huge
impact on the cell performance later on.
As it takes place in a dry room, the electrostatic
charge on the components makes handling
difficult in terms of optimizing quality. It is
important to prevent electrodes that are stuck
together being gripped at the same time.
Another challenge comes in the form of foreign
particles that can get onto the films through
the handling system.
Solution approaches
When optimizing the stacking process, it is
necessary to focus on developing new gripper
technologies and gaining a better
understanding of the relationship between the
product and the process. The problem of
electrostatic charging can be solved by
contactless handling systems. Quasi-
contactless grippers that are suitable for the
mass market and air systems are thus gaining
in relevance. Air-guided handling using flow
effects is a promising technology, as it
guarantees an efficient and streamlined
process.
Another research approach is the use of robust
intermediates from electrode-separator
assemblies. The electrode sheets can be
laminated onto the separator, for example. This
intermediate step reduces the number of
stacking processes needed per lithium-ion cell
and counteracts the formation of folds and
kinks in the electrodes. Because lamination
necessitates an additional step in the cell
assembly process, this solution needs to pay off
economically in particular or be necessary due
to new materials.
More sensitive materials can undoubtedly make
stable semi-finished products necessary in
production.
Research plants must be used to test
alternative stacking technologies and the
conventional production process for the further
processing of robust intermediates and
ultimately integrate them into an industrial
application. Together with existing
technologies from the fields of inline process
measurement technology and knowledge of
continuous material processing, these can help
to accelerate the stacking process.
The effects of the processes on the individual
materials need to be investigated, as the
market introduction of future cell generations
may influence the production process of
stacking and winding. Stacking electrodes with
solid electrolytes can increase the complexity of
the production process.
Cost/benefit assessment
Since stacking the electrode-separator
assemblies is one of the bottlenecks in cell
production, the benefit of reducing the process
duration is assessed as high. The cost it incurs is
also high. The handling methods are currently
reaching their limitations, making it essential to
develop alternatives and make them suitable
for mass production. The use of stable
intermediates needs to prove itself against the
conventional production processes and could be
an alternative in the future, especially for
sensitive materials.
54 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 6: Electrolyte filling — increasing speed
and quality
Basic principles
Filling the lithium-ion cell with electrolytes is
one of the most time- and quality-critical
production processes in cell assembly. Due to
their porosity, the electrodes have a large area
which must be fully wetted by the electrolyte
liquid. Areas that are not wetted cannot
exchange charges and are thus inactive. Filling
in a vacuum is currently a common method. To
do this, a vacuum is created in the lithium-ion
cell, so that the electrolyte can penetrate deep
into the pores of the separator and active
material and a reaction between the electrolyte
and water in the air can be prevented. As the fill
level increases, the pressure is equalized to
counteract foam formation.
20 Lithium hexafluorophosphate
In addition, the process is repeatedly
interrupted to allow the foam to subside.
Wetting is conducted simultaneously.
Due to capillary forces, this causes microscopic
wetting of the pores in the active materials and
separators. These steps are repeated until the
lithium-ion cell is sufficiently wetted and
sufficient electrolyte has been applied.
Challenges
The standard electrolytes with LiPF620 used to
fill the cells are highly flammable and form
hydrofluoric acid on contact with water. This
acid attacks the cell components and reduces
their service life significantly [Korthauer 2013].
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2025
Filling and Wetting > 1h
Alternativefilling
technology
Environmentalconditions
Pressure filling
DosingProcesses
Alternative materials
Development of measurement
methods
Process know-how
Optimized filling and wetting process
Separatorswith better
wetting
Process sequence: Pre-
filling
Fast, reliable process
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 6: Electrolyte filling — increasing speed and quality
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Foam formation and even wetting of the material are critical to quality. The material properties of the separator and electrodes influence the filling process. The overriding objective is to shorten the filling and wetting time, while also guaranteeing the cell performance regardless of the cell design. This will require close cooperation between mechanical engineering and material development.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 55
In addition, the formation of foam during the
filling and wetting processes is largely
responsible for the long process time, which can
be more than an hour for some cell types (large
prismatic cells with jelly roll).
The filling and wetting processes are primarily
influenced by the electrolytes and separators
used and the contact angle. Measuring the
filling progress reliably and continuously
adapting the process to this present a
challenge.
Solution approaches
Various approaches could be used to optimize
this process. The development of alternative
filling technologies, such as an optimized
dosing process, the use of rolls for pouch cells,
or simply shaking the lithium-ion cell, could
improve wetting. Another approach is to
research the influence of the ambient
conditions — temperature and pressure — on
foam formation and the wetting duration and
to then derive suitable process conditions.
Reducing the process time using alternative
process management is also conceivable.
Options would include implementing pre-filling
or filling into the lithium-ion cell from multiple
points, based on the fill level. Another approach
involves the use of laminated valves — a
solution for simpler process management.
The development of alternative separator
materials and surface structures is less relevant:
Although they have a large influence on foam
formation and wetting duration, their
properties are driven by the product and
technology as well as the process. New
separators, electrodes, and electrolytes
primarily need to meet the rising demands on
cell safety or the technical requirements for
implementing high-voltage cells of 5 volts.
Using additives in electrolytes can lead to lower
foam formation and/or improved wetting. The
development and use of solid electrolytes
would make the classic electrolyte filling step
entirely obsolete.
However, cells with solid technology are not
expected to be ready for series production in
the next ten years.
The filling time has already been reduced since
2016. A significant improvement in the
duration and reliability of the filling and
wetting process should be achieved by 2025.
Because the wetting process is so long,
optimizing this production step is becoming
increasingly relevant.
As well as adapting the process and material,
new measurement processes will also need to
be developed and integrated in order to enable
process monitoring that is suitable for the mass
market. Analysis contributes to a better
understanding of the processes and
interrelationships and is essential for
optimizing the throughput in cell production
and the quality of the lithium-ion cell. It is
important to develop methods that monitor the
fill level and especially the degree of wetting
during the process. Key process parameters
include the cell temperature, the fill pressure,
the mass flow, the impedance, and the weight
and density of the lithium-ion cell.
Cost/benefit assessment
The benefit of increasing quality and
throughput in the filling process is high, as the
process is time- and quality-critical. By reducing
process times, especially in wetting, costs can
be reduced significantly and waste can be
minimized through quality-optimized filling.
This involves increased costs, as it requires the
integration of inline measurement processes
and intensive material development in order to
achieve this objective using innovative
separator materials and surface structures.
56 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 7: Forming and resting time — safer and
faster process
Basic principles
During forming, the battery cells are charged
and discharged with increasing currents on a
cyclical basis for the first time. The solid
electrolyte interface (SEI) is formed. It is perhaps
the most important parameter in the lithium-
ion cell and has a significant impact on its
safety and service life.
The process parameters are recorded in flow
charts. Multiple lithium-ion batteries are always
formed simultaneously on one station.
Increased safety standards must be adhered to
in order to counteract the increased fire hazard
this presents. Mechanical and plant engineers
essentially follow two concepts. In the shelf
concept, the battery cells are contacted and
stored on shelves. In the chamber concept, on
the other hand, the battery cells are contacted
on a modular goods carrier and then pushed
together into a chamber for forming.
Contacting is performed using contacting pins,
which guarantee a reliable connection and low
transitional resistance. Forming takes around
24 hours and plays a crucial role in determining
the service life and safety of the lithium-ion cell.
The objective is to reduce the duration
significantly and to increase energy efficiency,
while retaining the same level of performance.
The subsequent resting time for the lithium-ion
cells is solely for quality assurance purposes. It
involves storing the lithium-ion cells for several
weeks, during which regular cell voltage
measurements are taken. The self-discharge
rate can then be used to predict the service life
of the lithium-ion cell. Because of these long
resting times, a lot of capital is tied up in the
required storage facilities, goods carriers, and
the lithium-ion cells themselves.
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2020
Mechanical process
a few minutesChemical process
24 hours
testing peripheralprocesses
Pilot plant for formation tests
Reduction of rejectsin industrial
processes
Shortened forming process in mass
production
Pilot plant for temperature control
Alternativeprocess control
Software stability Influence ofmech. pressure
C ratesoptimisation
Causes of energylosses
Forming < 3 hrs,Reduction of the rest
period
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 7: Forming and resting time — safer and faster process
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
There are various approaches for shortening the process time in forming and aging in order to counteract the large capital commitment. Aging here is only for quality assurance purposes and is consequently called the resting time. It must not be allowed to negatively influence the service life. Problems in process management can lead to the rejection of entire cell batches.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 57
Few significant improvements for the mass
market have been made since 2016, so
relevance for battery manufacturers remains
high. The challenge lies in conducting further
research into the interrelationships and the
chemical processes during the SEI formation.
Challenges
The most significant challenge in forming lies in
researching the unknown connections between
the process parameters regarding the
formation of the SEI. There is also an increased
risk of a channel failure on a lithium-ion cell.
Occurring due to contacting problems or
unstable software, this can damage an entire
batch.
Further potential cost savings could come from
improving energy efficiency, as forming
systems have high connected loads in
permanent operation. Energy losses during
forming therefore need to be reduced. The
concept of using the energy released during
discharge of a lithium-ion cell to charge another
cell is already in use [An 2016].
Solution approaches
Handling of the lithium-ion cells can be
improved through alternative process
management. The lithium-ion cell is on a goods
carrier, which is then transported to a pre-
installed connection to a contacting unit in
order to prevent cable wear. Another option
would be to group lithium-ion cells in order to
further simplify handling processes. These
goods carriers could be installed together in a
modular goods carrier (multi-cell or a smart-
designed cell/tray combination). The risk of
losing the entire batch of lithium-ion cells must
be minimized through improved contacting and
software stability.
Researching the interrelationships that are
responsible for forming the SEI could reduce the
time needed for forming significantly, while
maintaining the same levels of quality and
safety.
It could even improve the long-term
performance. The temperature and mechanical
pressure are considered the decisive factors in
the forming and resting time. Forming at high
temperatures leads to faster and more even SEI
formation, which increases the capacity of the
graphite electrode when the cell is
subsequently cyclized at room temperature
[Bhattacharya 2014]. Storage at higher
temperatures during the resting time enables
processes within the cell to be accelerated, so
that quality defects can be detected more
quickly and/or reliably. Cyclization at higher
temperatures leads to a fall in cell performance,
as the cell resistance increases with further
growth of the SEI [He 2018].
The development of new forming strategies
offers great potential. “Pre-forming” the
lithium-ion cells is conceivable here. To do this,
new flow charts would have to be created with
optimized C-rates that are tailored to the cell,
based on simulations and experiments. Another
approach aims to use additives that accelerate
chemical reactions, thus reducing the time
needed for forming. To ensure that a high-
quality SEI is also formed, the electrolyte
composition needs to be adapted precisely to
the graphite anode [Buga 2006].
Cost/benefit assessment
The benefit of reducing the process duration in
the forming and aging of lithium-ion cells is
very high, as both process steps tie up a lot of
capital. It will be extremely difficult to reduce
these costs, as intensive research into
interrelationships is needed.
58 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 8: Cell housing production — efficient
production
Basic principles
As electromobility spreads, demand for
batteries is growing fast. This also increases the
relevance of cell housing production. Potential
approaches to scaling up to mass production
are based on different technologies for the
different housing types.
The level of maturity of the production
processes for cell housing also differs by cell
type. For example, the production strategies for
prismatic and cylindrical cell housing are
fundamentally based on deep drawing or
extrusion molding of sheet metal. In pouch
cells, an aluminum composite film is processed
by deep drawing. These processes have been
further optimized for the production of
prismatic cells in recent years. Progress has
been made in production speed and process
accuracy.
Challenges
If they are to meet the cost pressure expected
over the next few years, the production
processes currently used in housing production
and their quality assurance will need to become
more efficient. There is a need to implement
production of new geometries and to increase
the efficiency of the production process further
by minimizing stamping grid and other waste.
In addition, the workability of the aluminum
composite film in the deep drawing process and
the cell sealing present the main challenges in
pouch cell production.
These requirements are further reinforced by
the trend toward larger cell formats, which
makes process management in housing
production more complex. For pouch cells in
particular, the deep drawing process currently
reaches its limits at 12 mm (6 mm per half
shell).
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2022
Deepdrawing5-6mm
Automotive industryPresses
Change of geometries / structural integration and safety
improvement
Alternativegeometries
Plants for the production of larger
cell housings
Alternativematerials
Increasedproduction speed
Improved deep drawing / pressing
Better volume & surface ratio andreduction of inactive components
Design flexible plant
technology
Mass production
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 8: Cell housing production — efficient production
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Due to the high cost pressure, efficient production is playing an ever more crucial role for the cell housing. In order to enable production for the massmarket, costs need to be reduced and material and redundancies saved. Optimizing the deep drawing and pressing processes in production could make a significant contribution to this.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 59
The sealing face needs to become larger and
the bonding techniques more complex for
larger cells. Electrolyte leakage would make it
impossible to use a battery cell whose
components were significantly harmful to
health or the environment.
Protection in the form of leak testing is
evaluated very heterogeneously, as it comes
with high costs. Leakages should be prevented
through sufficiently reliable processes in
production.
In general, the focus must be on developing
systems to produce larger cell housings on the
one hand and, on the other, on increasing
production speed and reducing restrictions on
established processes.
Solution approaches
First, technology transfer of production
techniques from related sectors, such as high-
speed pressing, could be beneficial for cost-
effective production for the mass market.
Integrating these new technological
approaches will make it possible to develop the
production processes more quickly.
In the deep drawing process of the Al half shells
for pouch cells, parameter studies and the
establishment of a deep understanding of the
process could be productive. It is important to
prevent the film from tearing or thinning when
the deep draw depth is increased. Alternative
production processes for pouch cells must
therefore also be considered.
As well as optimizing the existing process
approaches, there is currently great potential
for research and development in the field of
alternative housing materials and geometries.
Producing cell envelopes from new material
combinations would unlock potential in
structural integration and for an improvement
of the inherent safety of the later battery pack.
The mechanical strength of the cell housing can
also be increased by using alternative cell
geometries.
In pilot plants, the development of new
geometries with an improved volume-to-
surface ratio enables costs to be reduced and
the energy density of the lithium-ion cells to be
increased through a reduction in inactive
components.
Approaches involving design-flexible plant
technology, which enables the production of
different cell sizes that can be very relevant
depending on the cell manufacturer’s business
plan, can also be tested.
Cost/benefit assessment
Housing production plays a less important role
than other red brick walls in battery production.
The approach of further increasing efficiency
must be seen as feasible in the context of cell
housing, as excellent progress has already been
made in cylindrical cells.
However, the establishment of new housing
materials and geometries offers greater
potential. It is also possible to increase the
system reliability further by integrating sensors
into the battery cell envelope, allowing
information recorded directly in the cell to be
transmitted to the battery management
system. This leads to medium benefit and
slightly reduced cost for assessing the efficient
production of cell housings. The benefit is
expected to increase in the next few years due
to rising quantities and increased pressure of
competition.
60 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 9: Film handling
Basic principles
The way the films are handled is an essential
factor for the quality and costs of the Li-ion
cells. This red brick wall addresses various
process steps, from coating in electrode
production to stacking and winding.
Challenges
Future developments in particular could
present new challenges in film handling. On the
one hand, increasing the coating thickness
while also making substrates and separator
films thinner could enable higher energy
densities. On the other, widening the film with
multi-layer coating could effectively increase
throughput.
Uncoated substrates with a minimum thickness
of around 6 μm (copper) or 12 μm (aluminum)
can currently be used in the production process.
Existing guidance technologies will need to be
optimized and new, alternative handling
options developed for thinner films with thicker
coatings.
The film must be tensioned in order to prevent
folds and kinks from forming due to its non-
rigidity; however, tears must be avoided at all
costs. Particularly in sequential coating and
drying, deflecting the web to pass through the
drying zone a second time is a challenge.
Increasing the film widths requires tensioning
in both the longitudinal and transversal
directions. This affects web guidance in coating,
drying, calendering, and slitting.
There are varying requirements for film
handling during the various production steps
through which the cell passes. First, during
coating, it must be ensured that the thickness
of the active material layer applied remains
constant across the entire width and length of
the substrate. This includes high demands on
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2025
Rollerguides
Foil width up to
1500mm
Thicker coating
Materials research(Quality)
Increase in energy density
Wider/thinnerfoils
Stacking/winding ofthin separators
Optimizedweb guiding
Alternativehandling options Handling of
flexible foils
Non-contact grippers or air
systems
Handling stablesemi-finished
products (lamination)
Quality-optimizeprocesses
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 9: Film handling
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Both handling thin films with thicker coatings and film widening have an influence on quality and production time. Contactless grippers or air systems are potential solutions for handling non-rigid components. Applying the separators directly is another approach.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 61
the precise positioning of the hanging film.
Alternative drying processes such as laser
drying and NIR drying also place tough
demands on film guidance. For calendering, it is
important to find parameters that offer
optimum quality for the thick layers and low
waste. When slitting and separating the
electrode sheets, the biggest challenge in film
handling lies in controlling the web tension.
This needs to remain constant even as material
is removed. The remaining film is subjected to
high loads, but it is essential to prevent tearing.
In stacking, this largely affects the gripping
process.
Solution approaches
Alternative handling options will need to be
developed in order to ensure optimum quality
in film handling. Techniques could be adopted
from industries that process non-rigid
materials, such as the paper, semiconductor,
and solar industries. Quasi-contactless grippers
or air systems for web guidance can also be
developed further and prepared for the mass
market. For contactless systems, the effects on
the film caused by the continuous load, such as
particle erosion and the influence of fluid
media, need to be investigated. Damage to the
active materials must be avoided at all costs.
In winding, excessively small winding diameters
can cause the active material to flake off. As
well as simply increasing the core diameter of
the jelly roll, particularly gentle handling of the
materials could help stabilize the process as
coating thicknesses increase.
The use of semi-finished products that allow
stable handling, for example of laminates from
separators and electrodes, is another potential
solution. The objective of lamination is to
strengthen the films and reduce handling
operations.
Arguments against this solution include the
additional process step involved and the fact
that using adhesives and bonders during
lamination increases the proportion of inactive
materials. From a technical point of view,
attempts should therefore be made to achieve
lamination with a low content of additional
materials. If lamination is viewed from an
economic perspective, maximum speed and
simultaneous lamination of both surfaces is
desirable.
Cost/benefit assessment
Optimized film handling is a great benefit for
battery production, as it affects all production
steps right up to inserting the electrode-
separator assemblies into the cell housing. Cell
performance can thus be increased and waste
minimized through particularly gentle and
precise handling.
The trend towards thicker coating layers,
thinner substrates, and wider films is making
handling even more important. The cost is
estimated as medium. Some handling methods
could be adopted from related industries.
However, continuous improvement of
production processes can also help optimize
handling.
62 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 10: Sustainability — energy and resource
efficiency
Basic principles
Batteries play a key role in reducing the
environmental impact of mobility technologies
both today and in the future. Battery cell
production in particular is responsible for a
large proportion of the cradle-to-gate
environmental impact of a battery system and
thus of an electric vehicle. Discussions often
focus on the CO2 emissions that arise from the
large amount of energy needed to extract raw
materials and produce battery cells. A battery
capacity of 1 kWh produced in the standard
global value chain results in 125 kg CO2.
Further effects in other environmental
categories and the social impact also need to be
taken into account in order to clearly define the
sustainability of battery production.
Challenges
The key drivers of the environmental impact of
conventionally produced batteries are the
process steps of coating/drying and forming, as
well as cell construction using systems to
ensure a dry room atmosphere. The materials
used in batteries are often mined and
extensively treated under environmentally and
socially critical conditions. This applies
particularly to the production of cobalt, nickel
and copper. A large proportion of the energy
and environmental impact of these critical
materials comes down to their mining and
treatment. Material losses and waste in the
production of battery cells therefore play a part
in increasing the cumulative environmental
impact of the battery system. Material-efficient
production with reliable processes can
therefore play a significant role in enhancing
sustainability in battery production.
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
New
2025
Sensors,data
processing,Software
Standardizedvaluationmethods
Energetictransparencyand efficiency
Live or shop-floorLCA for
production
Material- and energy-efficient
production
Energy-efficientproduction processes
Integratedsoftware solutions for sustainability
Sustainablematerials
Production without critical materials(e.g. solvent-free)
Alternativeproduction processes
Reduction of rejectsin all processes
(e.g. via Q gates)
Increasesustainability
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 10: Sustainability — energy and resource efficiency
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Approaches for sustainable production are targeted particularly at increasing material and energy efficiency in battery production and the upstream chains, as well as the use of less critical materials in batteries. The environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) is the basis for assessing the effects on the environment and society and needs to be harmonized for batteries.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 63
The ultimate challenge facing battery producers
lies in assessing the contribution of their own
production to the LCA uniformly across the
sector and passing on realistic information to
customers and authorities.
Solution approaches
A life cycle assessment (LCA) is crucial to
reducing the environmental impact of batteries.
A project by Agora Verkehrswende [Agora 2018]
is currently examining the climate footprint of
electric cars.
The spectrum of strategies also includes
approaches such as searching for and
developing alternative materials, increasing the
material and energy efficiency of battery cell
production, and developing recycling processes
and technologies.
In order to reduce material and energy
consumption successfully, transparency must
be created regarding the material and energy
flows in production. The energy hotspots can
then be optimized using alternative processes
or process management. One concrete strategy,
for example, is the development of a solvent-
free electrode production process that could
help to decrease the environmental impact of
the cell production phase by reducing the
quantity of toxic solvents and the energy
needed during the electrode drying process. A
higher level of automation in cell construction
can also minimize the moisture that enters the
drying room. As well as process innovations,
systemic approaches to improving energy
efficiency in battery production by making use
of the different temperature levels of the
processes are also promising. At factory level,
the CO2 footprint can be reduced through the
use of renewable energies.
The life cycle assessment (LCA) method is used
to gain transparency about the environmental
impact of the individual processes.
Transforming this into a dynamic assessment
method that accompanies production — a live
LCA — can contribute to a continuous
improvement process. Demonstrators are
currently being developed at BLB and still need
to be transferred into integrated software
solutions. The dynamic assessment methods
can also be used to realistically assess any
trade-offs, such as between solvent-free
coating and the longer subsequent drying time
it results in.
In terms of the life cycle, the environmental
impact of battery systems is influenced by a
huge range of parameters — not only during
battery production, but throughout the supply
chain of the materials needed, their use, and
their recycling. BLB is currently developing
specific software models and modeling
approaches in order to record and assess this
variability. Integrating modern data and
visualization approaches makes it possible to
gain valuable insights into the causes and
dependencies of the various environmental
effects and thus to develop technical solutions
to support product development.
Cost/benefit assessment
Implementing the solution approaches has a
medium to high benefit for different
stakeholders, while the costs are varied. The
implementation of process innovations often
means developing new plant concepts and is
thus associated with high costs and medium to
high benefit. The development and
implementation of LCA processes bring with
them medium cost and high benefit.
Continuous collection, processing, and analysis
of data in the process and supply chain can also
be used for other issues, such as process
optimization, bringing high benefit that
justifies the high cost.
64 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 11: Detecting interrelationships and
avoiding overengineering
Basic principles
Compared to other highly mature technologies,
the battery is a relatively complex product
involving various specialist disciplines. Its
production demands an understanding of
electrochemistry, electronics, mechanics,
process technology, and production technology.
This complexity is directly reflected in battery
cell production, which currently suffers from an
above-average waste rate. The result is
unexploited potential in relation to both
process efficiency and process stability with
regard to optimizing the production chain.
Tapping this potential demands a deep
understanding of the interrelationships and
connection between individual process steps in
battery production and their later application in
the product. Each production step has
individual process parameters that directly
influence the quality of the intermediates and
the final battery cells. Insufficient process
monitoring in just a single production step can
result in enormous loss of quality. Identifying
these quality-critical production steps and their
essential control variables is one of the key
challenges in efficient process design. In-depth
knowledge of the process is fundamental in
order to avoid overengineering both in general
and within process monitoring, while still
accounting for uncertainty in the process. In
addition, insufficient knowledge of the process
and high quality requirements tend to result in
tolerance ranges being set tightly. Definition of
useful tolerance ranges can prevent
unnecessary costs.
Challenges
It is important to distinguish between the
identification of critical process control
variables in pilot plants and their later
monitoring in actual series production. During
analysis in the pilot phase, the aim is to monitor
all detectable measured variables so that they
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 11: Detecting interrelationships and avoiding overengineering
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
New
2020
Individual plant quality
criteriaAdapted
process quality
Demand-optimized tolerance definition
Validation inpilot plants
Tolerance windows and
quality influences
Product-optimized system precision
Verification ofinterrelationships
(data mining)
Quality influencesand interactions
Inline measuringmethods
Acquisition of all process parameters
(Big Data)
Dependencies within the process
chain
Identification ofdetectable quality
criteria
Comparison ofvarious process
technologies
Efficientprocess
accuracyManufacturers‘requirements
Machinebuilders‘solution
R&D-programmes
A deep understanding of the interrelationships between cell production andthe product is required in order to avoid overengineering. Each step inproduction has individual process parameters and disturbance variables, which influence the quality to differing degrees. In order to detect interrelationships between the production process and the later cell performance, data has to be collected (big data) and analyzed (data mining).
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 65
can be selected and reduced to a minimum
later when the system is scaled to series
production. By reducing investment and
operating costs, this would have a direct effect
on the cost-effectiveness of volume production
while guaranteeing consistent product quality.
Solution approaches
The only way to establish the process
understanding needed is to conduct systematic
analysis of the existing process chain and the
associated quality parameters. This
comprehensive process observation can then be
used as the basis for linking the
interrelationships of the process steps and the
process as a whole. Identifying the critical
control variables and the associated process
variables demands the comprehensive process
monitoring described and thus the collection of
an extensive body of data.
The true value of these observations lies not in
the data collection itself and its continuous
monitoring during series production, but in its
analysis and the knowledge gained from this.
This approach of systematically processing
large quantities of data is also known as data
mining. Typical approaches always include the
individual fields of data classification,
segmentation, prediction, dependency analysis,
and deviation analysis. Processing and
analyzing large quantities of data enables its
interrelationships and the process connection
behind it to be identified using specially
developed methods.
This approach of comprehensive process
analysis is already being implemented in
individual pilot and research systems, although
these analyses usually focus on optimizing or
establishing new technologies within an
individual process step.
The rest of the process chain is not taken into
account, or only to a limited extent, enabling
few conclusions to be drawn about how the
individual process steps interact — even though
this is important in order to define useful
tolerance ranges. The objective should be to
integrate these analyses into the context of the
production chain and thus transfer the already
significant understanding of the individual
steps to the production process as a whole.
Cost/benefit analysis
Evaluating the process as whole, as an interplay
of the various production technologies of the
individual process steps, is the only way to
assess the respective technological maturity.
Determining these connections creates the
basis for estimating potential, which is of
interest with regard to process integration into
future production lines and the process
adaptations and monitoring methods this will
require. Exploiting the potential of tolerance
definitions for individual systems is particularly
essential for the optimized planning of
production plants.
By taking into account the critical process
control variables and disturbance variables
identified as well as the resulting quality impact
on intermediates and end products, it is
possible to limit process monitoring to essential
measured variables. Such a needs-oriented
plant design can help further increase the
profitability of a plant investment. Deep
process understanding comes with high benefit
and medium to high additional cost.
Comprehensive process monitoring already
exists in pilot plants. Connecting the datasets
can contribute to plant scaling.
66 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 12: Contacting — handling larger currents
Basic principles
The demand for increased battery pack voltages
in the battery system stems from the goal of
increasing the energy and power density while
achieving faster charging cycles. Central
contacting systems or busbars are currently the
industry standard. Contacting is usually
achieved through laser welding or laser
bonding. Alternatively, the connections can also
be made using screws or ultrasonic bonding. An
overview of the various contacting processes
with their advantages and disadvantages can
be found in “Der Montageprozesse eines
Batteriepacks” [Kampker2015b].
Challenges
Contacting the individual components presents
a big challenge. The increased currents that
flow through the battery module mean that
current collectors for reducing the transitional
resistance have to be enlarged to provide more
area for the contact. Dynamic load in cars also
results in a significant mechanical load. The
costs of material defects can be reduced by
optimized contacting technology. In addition,
the contacting technology needs to prevent
high heat input, which can lead to brittleness in
the contacts, and guarantee good material
locking of the components. The surface of the
contact must also display only low isotropic
electrical resistance.
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2020
Handling
Alternativecontacting
technology for high-voltage connectors
Interrelation-ships
Laser bondingWire
Bonding(ultrasound
Laserwelding
Mechatronic and thermal
interrelationships
Flexible contactingprocesses for
different cell types
Enlargement ofthe joining area
AlternativeContact method
High-voltageconnectors suitablefor mass production
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 12: Contacting — handling larger currents
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Increasing voltages in packs are creating enormous challenges for contacting technology. In order to handle high currents safely, current collectors areinevitably becoming larger, making contacting more complex. Cell connectorsare also subject to additional load due to dynamic loads in cars. Optimizedconnection technology can help reduce the costs of material defects.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 67
As a crucial factor in the service life of the
battery system, optimization of contacting is to
be achieved by 2020. Faulty contacting can
cause short circuiting in lithium-ion cells and
thus damage the battery system. Wear on the
contacts must therefore be minimized.
Solution approaches
Improvement of existing processes or the
development of new ones is necessary in order
to achieve a contacting method for high-
voltage connectors suitable for mass
production. Laser bonding is a very promising
option here.
Developing alternative contacting processes
can also help in gaining knowledge of and
performing inline analysis of mechatronic and
thermal interrelationships, enabling the quality
of the connection to be assessed directly. If the
integration of inline measurement technology
pays off, this could replace quality control after
contacting.
The later use of the lithium-ion cells also needs
to be taken into account in the further
development of contacting. As described in the
“Product requirements and specifications”
chapter, the requirements for stationary
storage devices differ from those of an
automotive application.
Given the second-life use of automotive cells as
stationary storage devices, contacting
technology faces major challenges — especially
when the contacts are welded and there is a
permanent connection. This would then have to
meet the minimum requirements of both
applications, otherwise the cells cannot be
replaced.
The development of flexible contacting
processes for different cell formats is very
relevant to the variant-flexible production of
battery modules and packs, as it can eliminate
retooling times and downtimes.
Adapting the contacting tool can even be a
good idea in a production facility that only uses
one type of lithium-ion cells, if it helps to
shorten process times or enhance quality.
Cost/benefit assessment
Fast-charge capability and increasing the
system voltage of the battery system will play
an ever more important role in the future, so
this red brick wall must be considered highly
relevant. Contacting processes for high-voltage
application that are suitable for mass
production are essential for this, so the benefit
is also high.
The cost involved in developing existing
contacting processes is estimated as being
lower than that of researching new
alternatives. In general, developing new
solutions comes at a high cost.
68 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 13: Flexible production — modular and
with flexible quantities
Basic principles
Prismatic, cylindrical, and pouch cells are
currently installed in battery modules and
systems. The geometries and properties of
these cell types are fundamentally different. As
the number of electric vehicles increases, so
does the number of different battery modules
and systems represented on the market. Given
the exponential increase in electric vehicle sales
and the higher production volumes this
necessitates, a higher level of automation in
module and system production is becoming
increasingly economical.
However, it is a different story for other mobile
applications such as commercial vehicles,
bicycles, and power tools. Despite the much
lower production volume, the number of
variants is many times larger than that of
electric vehicles. The most flexible production
possible in terms of variants and quantities,
while maintaining high cost-effectiveness, is
becoming increasingly important in the field of
module and system assembly in particular. As
well as plant and automation planning, the
design of a flexible production concept includes
aspects of logistics, technical building
equipment, and IT-supported organization
processes within production.
Challenges
Flexible module and pack production presents a
wide range of challenges. One significant issue
lies in how to organize the flexible production
processes themselves so that they can react to
changed production volumes, for example as
part of a scale-up. Beyond individual processes,
systemic flexibility is also a significant
challenge and requirement facing machine and
plant manufacturers. This includes the ability of
the entire system to react to changes and to
produce and assemble a huge variety of module
formats and pack variants within the system.
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
New
2025
Productionof one cell
format permachine
Replacingmonotonous works /Pick to light systems
Flexible machines, systems, IT systems
and TGA
Modular solutions for systems and TGA
Modular interfaces at IT level
Quantity flexibleproduction process
Flexible automation technology
Alternative concepts to intralogistics
Semi-automatedproduction
Use traceableproducts
Variants flexibleproduction
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 13: Flexible production — modular and with flexible quantities
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
The number of different cell formats and chemistries will continue to grow. Inmodule and pack production in particular, it is necessary to react to this with flexible concepts. Flexibility includes scaling (scale-up or modification of the production equipment) as well as flexibility relating to variants, processes, and quantity. Modular concepts for machinery, plants and technical building equipment support flexible production.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 69
Flexibility thus needs to be embedded in
logistics, organizational and information
technology processes as well.
Solution approaches
The predominant approaches aim to design
flexible plants, processes, production systems
and even entire factories. As production
volumes are expected to rise significantly over
the next few years, a level of automation that
increases in line with this could bring many
advantages. It is also useful to be able to cater
for both very small batches and mass
production in a single plant.
Even in smaller production facilities, semi-
automated processes and human-robot
collaboration enable both routine and creative
assembly work to be usefully combined in a
single station.
System assembly is particularly suited to the
use of human-robot collaboration. Human
skills, such as experience, improvisation, and
the combination of human senses, are
combined with the strengths of robots such as
precision, strength, and repeatability. As well as
guaranteeing the safety of the people working
there, the benefits can be used to achieve the
quantities needed and flexibility in production.
The high-quality design of the products and
increasing productivity this brings has a positive
impact on the competitiveness of battery
production. At the same time, human-robot
collaboration can guarantee production that is
flexible in terms of both variants and quantity.
The challenge of the traceability of
intermediates can be solved using appropriate
track and trace systems. Innovative traceability
solutions, such as identifying intermediates
with RFID tags, can also be adopted from other
sectors. “Matrix production” is a systemic
approach for increasing flexibility that has
already been implemented by automotive
manufacturers in initial pilot projects in vehicle
assembly. At the heart of matrix production are
an intelligent product and a self-controlling
production organization within a scalable
network of flexibly designed production cells.
This is in contrast to approaches that aim to
reduce the complexity of the product, largely
through standardization processes.
Harmonizing the battery modules means that
the range of variants only arises at the end of
the production process. This reduces the need
for flexible production.
Cost/benefit assessment
The cost of introducing semi-automated
processes, human-machine collaboration, and
track and trace systems in battery production is
estimated as medium, as existing technologies
are already successfully in use in related
industries. Due to the higher-quality products
and increase in productivity and flexibility this
brings, the benefit is high.
70 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 14: Module/pack housing production —
efficient production
Basic principles
The standard design of battery module and
pack housings consists of two structural
components that form the frame. The first
structural component encloses multiple Li-ion
cells, combining them as a battery module. The
second structural component brings together
multiple battery modules and further system
elements in the battery pack and is then
installed in the car.
There is therefore great interdependency
between vehicle development and the design of
the housing, which has to be adapted to the
installation space available in the car. In order
to increase the energy content of the battery
pack, the volumetric energy density must
always remain the same or increase — unless
the increase in gravimetric energy density
cancels it out. As well as using cell chemistry, it
can therefore be equally useful to reduce the
proportion of housing components used.
Challenges
The structural components have to be adapted
to the respective cell format and the individual
design of the car, which demands extremely
high flexibility from the assembly systems.
Some of this high cost can be covered by
modular systems and the use of standard
components.
State-of-the-art technologies for connecting
structural components include bolting,
adhesion, and welding of the individual
elements. Together with contacting the
components, this limits the speed of production
in battery module and pack assembly. The
adhesion joining technique should be
considered with care given its implications for
remanufacturing, treatment of used battery
modules and packs, and second life
applications. In addition, integrating functions
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 14: Module/pack housing production — efficient production
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2022
Welding Screwing
GlueingModularsystems
Material savings / lightweightconstruction
Alternativegeometries
Optimized system design
Materialreduction
Lightweight construction
expertiseOptimized housing
forms with constant safety
Alternativematerials
Integrateddesign across
all levels
Joining interfaces
>100 housingsper minute
Manufacturers‘requirements
Machinebuilders‘solution
R&D-programmes
In order to cater for the needs of mass production, it is important to produce batteries with a higher energy density, to save material and redundancies, to increase capacity, and generally to become more cost-efficient. The development of an optimized system design by integrating functions into thehousing can aid this process.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 71
into the housing structure of the battery
module or pack is playing an increasingly
important role. The first manufacturers are
already installing temperature sensors in the
battery module, in order to detect and switch
off individual lithium-ion cells in the case of
overload or to cool them via the housing
structure.
However, few specific customer requirements
that could be integrated into new battery
module and pack designs are known. Some
functions are also covered multiple times in the
individual system levels (sealing, temperature
control, etc.). Here it is important to weigh up
whether this redundancy is necessary from a
safety point of view. Simplification could save
costs, while the resulting installation space
could be used to increase the energy density.
Another conceivable option would be to expand
the functions of the battery modules, for
example to include crash safety functions.
Solution approaches
The aim is to increase the production volume of
battery housing. This will demand the
development and testing of alternative
structural elements that continue to guarantee
the safety of the battery pack. One approach is
attempting to save material by transferring
expertise in lightweight construction from
other sectors, thus reducing the weight of the
system and its material costs.
The integration of hybrid components, such as
metal-polymer hybrids, is already widespread in
this context and can help to optimize current
system structures. Costs could be further
reduced by researching innovative alternative
materials that can be installed in battery
module and pack housings alongside metals.
Existing modular systems offer additional
potential for optimization. Improving flexibility
for the respective purpose can thus be a cost-
effective alternative to individually tailored
system designs. The targeted reduction of
redundant sub-functions offers significant
potential for reducing material and production
costs here.
Automating the handling of battery modules
and lithium-ion cells in battery module
assembly can also reduce assembly costs and
process duration further. Challenges come from
the large diversity in battery module housings,
which are processed in variant-flexible
production facilities. Research plants are
already addressing the necessity of flexible
assembly systems using various approaches.
Integrating additional functions into an
intelligent battery module or pack housing can
lay the foundation for a more efficient design of
the system as a whole. For example, integrating
temperature sensors makes it possible to
control the cooling capacity in a targeted way.
This can counteract the effects of accelerated
aging of the battery storage system caused by
non-homogeneous system temperatures.
Measures for monitoring the state of health of
the individual cell, recording the usage
histories, and checking the structural integrity
of the individual cells are also possible. The
more functions are integrated into the
structural components, the greater the
demands placed on the plant technology, as
handling the structural components with
integrated functions becomes more complex. It
is therefore always important to find a
compromise between functionality and
production cost.
Cost/benefit assessment
This RBW is seen as having medium benefit. The
potential for automation can be used to make
production more efficient and increase
throughput. However, the large number of
variants of battery modules and packs is a
problem. Modular systems and harmonization
of variants could help with this, but are often
not in the interests of the individual
manufacturers and are thus difficult to
implement.
72 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 15: Standardization — interfaces,
digitalization, and Industrie 4.0
Basic principles
The production of lithium-ion cells involves a
large number of different (continuous and
discrete) production processes and required
technical building equipment, demanding
different disciplines and competencies.
Machinery and plants from different
manufacturers are generally used when
constructing production lines and entire
factories. Even in the future, it is improbable
that a complete factory will be delivered by only
a single supplier. The various suppliers use
different strategies and technologies to
construct their production plants. This results in
a very heterogeneous construction of the
measurement and control technology, in turn
resulting in a wide variety of different
communication interfaces and technologies for
data collection and in the field of machine-to-
machine communication. Unlike in cell
production, turnkey providers are more
common at the module/system level.
Industrie 4.0 instruments can also play an
important role in implementing variant
flexibility. See RBW 13.
Challenges
The wide variety and heterogeneity of the
interfaces presents industrial data collection
systems with the huge challenge of being able
to serve all communication interfaces. As well
as the production plants themselves, there are
inline and offline measurement processes,
which record information about the structure
and physical, chemical, and electrical properties
of the battery intermediates and the final
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2025
Smart Fabsfor various roductions
Interfacesolutions(OPC UA)
Crosslinkingtechnology
(IoT, IIoT)
Comparison of variousprocess technologies
Influences and interactions via
data mining
Standardization and process control at all
sensible points
Integratedmeasurement, data
mining, big data,smart data
Identification of critical(measurement) parameters
Developing atechnological
standards
Process knowledge
Adaption ofmeasurement
technology
Line integration
Provision ofstandardized data
interfaces
Industry 4.0in battery production
ustry 4.0-capable systems
(ERP, MES, SCADA)
Industry 4.0Factory
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 15: Standardization — interfaces, digitalization, and Industrie 4.0
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
The number of production technologies and the fragmented value chain structure lead to numerous interfaces. Industrie 4.0 technologies link the process chain and support quality and efficiency (smart data). Standardizationof the interfaces creates potential. In addition, Industrie 4.0 offers importantinstruments for implementing the flexibility required with a high level ofautomation.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 73
battery cells for characterization. Many of the
offline measurement processes record
significant information about the quality of the
intermediates and have to provide it to the data
information system in an appropriate format.
The variety of different data sources results in a
need for standardized interfaces, both for
machine-to-machine communication and for
recording inline and offline measurement
processes. The objective is to largely minimize
the superfluous costs for connecting the plants
and the measurement technology to the data
collection infrastructures by 2025, limiting the
processes to those that add value.
In addition, the use of approaches in the
context of Industrie 4.0 (e.g. the establishment
of cyber-physical production systems) offers
further potential for improving battery
production. A particular focus here is the topic
of big or smart data for improving quality and
productivity by analyzing interrelationships.
This demands not only a measurement
infrastructure that works across all processes
and successful communication between all
plants in all process steps, but also a stable
network infrastructure for data transfer and
correct preparation and compilation of the
data. Given the wide variety of formats at
module/system level and the heterogeneity of
the production systems at cell level, this
presents a further challenge.
Solution approaches
In order to overcome the great heterogeneity of
the production processes, a standardized
machine-to-machine communication interface
needs to be defined and provided for every
production system.
The OPC Unified Architecture (OPC UA) data
exchange standard ensures communication
regardless of manufacturer and platform,
enabling inter-system data exchange between
machines from different manufacturers. VDMA
already has numerous initiatives that enable
member companies to use OPC UA as the
standard interface for Industrie 4.0
applications.
Based on work already conducted in other
areas, this is now to be tackled for companies in
battery production. Standardization simplifies
line integration to SCADA (Supervisory Control
and Data Acquisition) and MES (Manufacturing
Execution System) systems and offers battery
manufacturers the transparency they need by
providing important data in real time, e.g. on a
production control station. These standardized
communication interfaces also demand the
design of an appropriate network infrastructure
that supports the connection of the plants and
sensor technology and makes it easier to collect
the data.
Building on this, creating an interface to data
administration and analysis systems is hugely
important. To this end, the structures and
forms of the data to be collected must be
defined.
As a result, automated data mining methods
and algorithms can be integrated into the data
administration and analysis systems. It thus
becomes possible to form key performance
indicators along the entire production chain.
These can be used to speed up decision-making
processes at all levels of a company and
increase productivity in production.
In particular, the seamless expansion of
measuring technology into all relevant
individual steps, especially through the
intelligent use of transfer and holding times,
would create complete transparency for
processes and thus increase the speed of
process improvements.
Cost/benefit assessment
The large number of stakeholders involved
means that the standardization process comes
at a high cost. Even beyond the confines of
particular battery producers, however, the
approaches help to improve understanding of
the product and processes, resulting in a high
benefit.
74 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
RBW 16: Circular economy — 100 percent
recycling
Basic principles
Developing recycling strategies for batteries is
the only logical conclusion to the principle of
sustainable future energy use through
emission-free sources. Forecasts show that the
first batteries from automotive applications will
reach the end of their service life in 2020. From
2035, enough lithium is expected to be in
circulation to cover the majority of demand
from secondary sources [Rennhak 2012].
However, few people are currently aware that
secondary raw materials can be of high quality.
The aim is to establish an effective circular
economy by 2025, in which more than 90
percent of the materials are retained in
circulation.
The basic conditions needed to achieve this goal
are already in place and European companies
are leading the way in the development of new
recycling concepts.
Challenges
Two central tasks are crucial to the future
development of the circular economy. Firstly,
attention must be paid to recyclability right
from the design stage of the cell, battery
module, and battery pack. Secondly, business
models need to be developed for economical
recycling or second-life uses of the batteries.
Meeting these challenges is highly relevant for
battery manufacturers.
In addition, lithium-ion battery recycling is
driven not only by economic aspects, but by
political ones too. The EU Directive 2006/66/EC
states that a minimum of 50 percent of battery
waste must be recycled, regardless of its
purpose. In Germany, recycling is becoming
more and more relevant, as the country’s own
sources of primary raw materials are extremely
limited, making it dependent on others. The
main focus is on cobalt and lithium, but there
could also be shortages of nickel in the future.
Time
CostsQuality
Target system
2018
Update
2020
Mechanicalseparation processes
Chemicalseparation processes
Thermal separationprocesses
Large-scale recycling plants
Automateddisassembly
Decision model for further use of the
components
2nd-Life Businessmodels & waste
management
Pilot plantsDesign forRecyclability
Further development of the recycling process
New valuecreation and process
chains
New Materials
Circulation economy
>90%
R&D-programmes
Source: VDMA, PEM at RWTH Aachen University, BLB and TU Braunschweig based on Phaal 2003 b
RBW 16: Circular economy — 100 percent recycling
Legend: State of the art Research approaches/projects Pilot plants, concrete solution approaches Technology suitable for mass production
Recycling on a commercial scale is expected to boom in around 2020. Technical processes have to enable metal recycling of almost 100 percent. Remanufacturing and second life concepts support a circular economy. Theaims of such recycling must be to recover the separator, electrolyte, and active materials and to maximize the specific capacity that can be achieved.
Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required 75
The greatest challenge currently facing
automated disassembly is the wide range of
variants in the battery cells and battery module
and pack systems presently in use. As well as
automation, tough requirements also apply to
the separation of the individual raw materials.
Thermal and mechanical separation processes
already enable recovery of the most valuable
metals (e.g. nickel, cobalt, copper). However, the
costs involved in recovering the electrolyte and
separator using existing separation processes
are prohibitive.
Solution approaches
First, the battery must be discharged during
disassembly from the battery modules and
packs, so that peripheral components can then
be treated. In the lithium ion cell recycling that
follows, the valuable metals such as cobalt,
nickel, and copper are today usually recovered
using pyrometallurgical processes. Today,
lithium is still usually bound into slag and
reused as a construction material. The aim is to
return lithium to the production process, too.
The different cell chemistries have different
metallic values, which have an impact on the
profitability of recycling. Efforts are being made
in research to increase the achievable recycling
rate to more than 80 percent of the battery
[Kwade 2018 a]. As well as recovering raw
materials, recycling individual components such
as the module housing is also conceivable.
The recycling process must be considered right
from the design stage of the battery
components. “Design for recyclability” is one of
the central topics of research. By adapting the
cell design, it is possible to simplify the
recycling process and thus optimize material
recovery.
However, the requirements for installation
space and performance hinder this
development. Modularization, substitution of
adhesives, and a reduction in battery module
voltage are all conceivable, but run counter to
the current development. Collaborations
between the OEMs and mechanical and plant
engineering companies need to be set up here
to drive the development of a recycling concept
and new second life business models.
A decision-making model that can assess the
quality of returned batteries needs to be
developed for battery treatment and recycling.
This would make it possible to reuse end-of-life
batteries from automotive applications in
stationary applications and could delay the
point at which a circular economy becomes
relevant. Processes could be adapted and
economic feasibility ensured. However, there is
currently a lack of business models for
implementation. One central field of research is
looking at ways to increase resource efficiency
in lithium-ion battery cell production
sustainably across all phases of the life cycle.
Cost/benefit assessment
An intact circular economy enables the raw
materials that are irreplaceable for battery
production to be handled in a sustainable and
responsible way. Economical recycling can also
reduce the large proportion of the battery cell
price made up by raw materials. There are
already very promising approaches to raw
material recovery. These now need to be
implemented in recycling systems suitable for
the mass market. However, the cost is the only
decisive factor in any concept or business
model.
76 Challenges and the technological breakthroughs required
Project Brief description Research institutes / lead managers Period RBW
LiBaMA Automatic LIB module assembly Johnson Controls Advanced Power Solutions GmbH 2013-2015
14
utoSpEM Automatic handling for reliable and economical Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) 2012-2015
14
tCon Function-integrated high-current connectors for battery modules using cost-optimized production
Fraunhofer Institute for Material and Beam Technology(IWS)
2013-2015
12
tMan Research, development, and integration of an innovative, scalable, and modular battery management
em
Leibniz University Hannover 2010-2013
14
Increasing resource efficiency in the life cycle of LIBs through remanufacturing
Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen
2016-2019
16
enchBatt Benchmarking and evaluation of the performance and costs of high-energy and high-voltage lithium-ion batteries compared to post-lithium-ion technologies
University of Münster (WWU) Helmholtz Institute Münster (HI MS) Jülich Research Center (FZJ)
2016-2018
10
ell-Fi Acceleration of electrolyte take-up through optimized filling and wetting processes
Institute of Machine Tools and Production Technology(IWF) at TU Braunschweig
Institute for Machine Tools and Industrial Management(IWB) at Technical University of Munich
ster
2016-2019
6
berKMU² Development of an online platform that supports producer SMEs in identifying cyber-physical systems and thus resolving the weak points in production
FIR e.V. at RWTH Aachen University Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering
(WZL) at R
2016-2019
15
ion Data mining in the production of LIB cells Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig 2015-2018
11, 15
tRec Demonstration plant for cost-neutral, resource-efficient processing of used lithium-ion batteries from
IME Process Metallurgy and Metal Recycling at RWTHAachen University
2012-2016
16
Development of a camera- and ultrasound-based sensor and diagnosis system (coating process)
Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University
Power Electronics and Electrical Drives (ISEA) at RWTH
2016-2017
2
Efficient forming strategies for increasing the service life, reliability, and safety and reducing costs
Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies andSystems (IKTS)
MEET battery research center at the University of Münster Technical Universi
2016-2018
7
LIB Increasing the energy and material efficiency through the use of extrusion and laser drying technology (electrode production LIB)
Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University
University of Münster ter at the ster
2016-2019
1, 2
Researching measures for increasing the material and process efficiency in LIB production along the entire value chain
Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University
ster
2018-2019
4, 9
aBat Solid cathodes for future high-energy batteries University of Münster, Institute for Anorganic andAnalytical Chemistry
2016-2019
3
Flexible assembly concepts for modular-based battery ems
Battery LabFactory and TU Braunschweig (BLB, IWF) 2014-2016
13
EBEL High-energy battery with improved electrolyte-separator assembly (HEBEL) of ceramic
FAU Erlangen, Institute of Chemical Reaction Engineering 2009-2012
9
High-energy materials processed in a cost-efficient and environmentally friendly way
Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig ster
2017-2020
1
ghEnergy Production of high-capacity, structured electrodes KIT, Institute of Production Science TU Braunschweig University of Ulm, Institute of Stochastics Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-
Württemb (ZSW)
2016-2019
2
A Integrated components and integrated design ofenergy-efficient battery systems
Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits KIT — Institute for Applied Materials — Applied Materials
2013-2016
14
Intensive subsequent drying of components for lithium-ion cells in discontinuous drying ovens
TU Braunschweig Landshut Universit
2018-2020
2
Innovative substrate materials for optimizing the current collectors of electrical storage devices
Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University
Welding and Joining Institute (ISF) at RWTH Aachen
2017-2019
12
Suhl Continuous suspension production Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig 2016-2019
1
A-Li-Bat-clin
Life cycle assessments of the LithoRec II and EcoBatRec atteries
Oeko-Institut 2012-2016
16
fe Development of cost-efficient and safe LIBs German Aerospace Center (DLR) Helmholtz Institute (HIU) and University of Ulm Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-
Württemberg (ZSW)
2014-2016 /2016-2018
10
Research projects relating to red brick walls 77
Project Brief description Research institutes / lead managers Period RBW
LiOptiForm Power-electronic optimization of forming devices for LIBs
Zwickau University of Applied Sciences, Faculty ofElectrical Engineering
Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies andems (IKTS)
2016-2018
7
LithoRec II Recycling of lithium-ion batteries from electric vehicles TU Braunschweig MEET battery research center at the University of Münster
2012-2015
16
LiVe Production and targeted nanostructuring of electrode structures for high-performance lithium batteries
Process Metallurgy and Metal Recycling (IME) at RWTHAachen University
Institute for Particle Technology (iPAT) at TUBraunschweig
University of Duisburg-Essen FAU Erlangen-Nürnberg Giessen University Leibniz University Hannover ster
2009-2013
2
LoCoTroP Low-cost dry coating of battery electrodes for energy-efficient and environmentally friendly production processes
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering andAutomation
Landshut University of Applied Sciences TU Braunschweig
2016-2019
1.2, 10
iBZ Development of a multi-functional intelligent battery cell
Technical University of Munich Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Systems and Device
Technology
2015-2018
8
ULTIBAT Multi-scale models and model reduction processes for predicting the service life of lithium-ion batteries
University of Münster University of Ulm Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics
2013-2016
7
ultiDis Multi-scale approach for describing the carbon black digestion in the dispersion process for process and performance-optimized process management
Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Mechanical
Process Engineering and Mechanics (MVM) Institute for Applied Materials — Materials for Electrical
and Electronic En
2016-2019
1
NeW-Bat New energy-efficient recycling of battery materials Fraunhofer Institute for Silicate Research 2016-2019
16
ekobatt 2020 Ecologically and economically produced LIBs for “Battery 2020”
Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg, Ulm
2016-2018
10
ptiFeLio Optimized design and production concepts for the production of lithium-ion battery housings
Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology KIT — Department of Mechanical Engineering — wbk Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-
Württemb (ZSW)
2014-2017
8
ptilyt Development of bespoke separator-electrode systems for optimized electrolyte filling of LIBs
Fraunhofer Institute for Ceramic Technologies andems (IKTS)
2014-2017
6
ptiZellForm Acceleration and energy-related optimization of cell forming
Production Engineering of E-Mobility Components (PEM)at RWTH Aachen University
elenia — Institute for High-voltage Technology andElectrical Energy Systems
arch center
2016-2019
7, 11
ProKal Process modeling of the calendering of energy-rich electrodes
Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig Technical University of Munich, iwb University of Münster (WWU), Institute for Physical
Chemistry (MEET)
2016-2019
3
ProTrak Production technology for the production of lithium-ion cells
TU Berlin, Faculty V — Mechanical Engineering andTransport Systems — Institute of Machine Tools andFactory Operation
Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems (ISE)
2012-2015
4
Roll-It Investigation of the connection between cell properties and moisture; depiction in a calculation model
TU Braunschweig Karlsruhe Institute of Technology — Institute of Thermal
Process Engineering
2016-2019
2
im2Pro Multi-level simulation of product-process interdependencies
TU Braunschweig — Institute of Machine Tools andProduction Technology
2016-2019
5, 11
-PROTRAK Separator coating as part of the “production technology for LIB manufacture” project
Fraunhofer Institute for Silicon Technology (ISIT) Battery LabFactory (BLB) and TU Braunschweig
2013-2014
3
TACK Fast stacking for the mass production of low-cost, safe lithium-ion cells and the further development of electrode and separator materials
Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research Baden-Württemberg (ZSW)
Fraunhofer Institute for Chemical Technology Bavarian Center for Applied Energy Research
2018-2020
5
empOLadung Optimization of charging processes of a lithium-ion battery with particular attention to temperaturebehavior
Offenburg University of Applied Sciences 2018 7
opBat Development of temperature-optimized batterymodules with instrumented cells
Fraunhofer Institute for Industrial Mathematics 2013-2016
14
Research projects relating to the red brick walls
78 THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING?
The lithium-ion batteries of tomorrow —
what will the future bring?
The central developments in energy storage
technologies beyond lithium-ion batteries (LIBs)
were discussed intensively in the first
“Roadmap for Battery Production Equipment”
[Maiser 2014] and its 2016 update [Michaelis
2016]. Since this updated roadmap also focuses
on optimized lithium-ion batteries, the high-
energy lithium-ion batteries considered at the
heart of this roadmap will now be used as the
starting point for a brief examination of the
indicated and potential alternative technologies
of the future. The information is based largely
on [Thielmann2017].
Lithium-ion technologies
High-energy lithium-ion batteries
As technology for high-energy LIBs develops,
the cell components will gradually change.
Starting from the lithium-ion batteries
currently established on the market, indications
suggest the future use of high-energy active
materials and ultimately lithium metal anodes,
which could be made possible by solid
electrolytes, as well as high-energy cathodes.
Evolutionary development and the co-existence
of lithium-based battery technologies is
expected.
On the cathode side, nickel-rich materials (NMC
811) are currently being tested for electric
vehicles that will be on the roads from 2020.
Higher nickel contents are difficult in terms of
safety and producibility. As long as the
challenges of electrolyte availability and service
life are overcome, high-energy NMC could enter
the market from around 2025. High-voltage
spinels still face challenges in terms of
electrolyte stability and manganese leaching.
Despite the cost saving through the lack of
cobalt and the higher voltages than standard
NMC (622), the energy density cannot be
increased to the level of HE-NMC. Alongside
this, the electrode structure and layer thickness
are already being improved today — a process
that will continue over time. Aqueous
processing of cathodes, as is currently standard
for anodes, remains the subject of research. The
approaches described would demand only small
adjustments to production.
Graphite is currently the most commonly used
anode material and is expected to play a role for
the foreseeable future. The layer thickness and
structure are always adapted to the optimum
values. Si/graphite composites with a silicon
oxide content of between 2 and 5 percent are
already being used today to increase capacity.
Nano-Si/C materials with a silicon content of 5
to 20 percent could enter the market in the near
future, although they have not yet entered the
testing process. Higher silicon contents may
become attractive, depending on how the
energy density of the cathodes develops. To
utilize these, there is a particular need for the
development of suitable electrolytes and
technologies that can inhibit irreversible side
reactions.
The efficiency of lithium-ion cells is over 90
percent and is largely determined by the cell
format and the cell chemistry. High battery
efficiency contributes to the energy efficiency of
mobile applications and can thus improve their
energy footprint.
THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING? 79
Solid batteries
The trend towards lithium metal anodes goes
hand in hand with the development of solid
batteries (with polymer, hybrid, and ceramic
solid electrolytes). The aim of technological
development is solid batteries with a lithium
metal anode and a very thin electrolyte layer,
which enables high energy densities. Many of
the safety risks of lithium-ion batteries stem
from the use of flammable or explosive liquid
electrolytes. Material-specific constraints, such
as the solubility of different cations and the
limitation of the voltage window accessible for
electrochemical reactions, are connected to the
properties of the organic solvents currently
used.
The use of solid electrolytes, which make solid
batteries possible, can break through these
limitations and improve potential performance
parameters of the batteries. However, some
questions in production technology still remain
unresolved. Delivery structures and processes
need to be established. Full-ceramic electrolytes
in particular promise high benefits for electric
cars, but could demand even longer
development times than polymer materials.
Solid systems are thus not expected to become
established in xEV applications until after 2030,
after which they will spread across the market.
Applications in the consumer and electronics
markets or niche applications are conceivable
before that.
Polyanionic/LMFP-based batteries
Among the polyanionic cathode materials for
LIBs, phosphate-based materials are particularly
suitable alternatives to the established coating
oxides. However, the performance parameters
are comparable with or worse than those of
conventional chemistries. Non-reliance on
cobalt is the key driving force behind the
development of phosphatic Fe and Mn-based
cathode materials (LMFP). Other advantages
include improved safety properties in some
cases, which can lead to savings in the battery
management system (BMS). LFP-based cells are
used commercially today, including in the
automotive sector. However, they are under
increasing pressure from NMC-based LIBs with
higher energy densities. LMFP could change this
and help improve the energy density compared
to LFP.
Fields of application could include industrial
sectors such as logistics. In forklift trucks, LFP-
based batteries are already increasingly being
used instead of Pb batteries. These batteries are
generally considered suitable for applications in
which safety and resistance to charge cycles are
a major focus. A key challenge lies in reducing
the production costs, which currently remain
high. Upscaling would be required to enable the
(low) resource price to be reflected in the
manufacturing costs.
Beyond lithium-ion technology
Alternative battery technologies with higher
energy density?
Based on the performance parameters (usually
gravimetric and volumetric energy density and
resistance to charge cycles) of alternative
batteries, it is clear that the energy throughput
(the product of the energy density and
achievable cycle number) does not improve
compared to LIBs or the future optimized high-
energy Li-based or Li solid batteries, even with
technologies with initially higher achievable
energy densities. Measured against the current
requirements of electromobility applications,
most alternative battery technologies must be
classified as unsuitable in their current state of
development.
80 THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING?
However, many of these technologies offer
added value regarding their costs and resource
availability and are thus seen as potential
options for stationary (ESS) or special
applications from today’s point of view. Li-S
batteries, for example, can be used in flight
applications.
Batteries with conversion materials
“Conversion materials” (e.g. lithium-sulfur,
lithium-air) is an umbrella term for many
different materials with very high specific
capacities, but often with unsuitable potential
for use as anodes/cathodes in lithium-based
batteries. Material combinations with high
energy densities are theoretically conceivable.
Research is currently being conducted into
material design and nano-scaling of the
materials. Challenges come from the changes in
the particle volume, which cause a short service
life and low resistance to charging cycles. No
processes have yet established themselves in
production and further components will require
adaptations (electrolyte, cell design).
Sodium ion batteries
Sodium makes up 2.6 percent of the Earth’s
crust, while Na2CO3 costs less than a tenth of
the price of Li2CO3 (carbonate). Sodium ion
batteries (Na-IB) would thus be a low-cost
alternative to LIBs. As the patent landscape is
not as densely populated, it could present
better opportunities for beginning production
of the materials and batteries. The host
materials for Na-IBs are similar to those for LIBs
(coating oxides, phosphates). Only the ion size
of sodium means that graphite cannot be used
as an anode material. One possible alternative
is hard carbons, although at 250-300 mAh/g
their gravimetric capacity is lower than that of
graphite. Choosing the anode material is
therefore a challenge. The lower intrinsic
density of sodium-based compounds due to the
ion size results in a lower energy density
compared to LIBs. Otherwise, their development
runs in parallel to that of LIBs, but with a delay
and with performance parameters that are 20
to 30 percent lower. The cost of research and
development is also comparably low, as
production solutions can be adopted from LIBs
(drop-in).
Metal-sulfur (Me-S) batteries
Elementary sulfur displays good
electrochemical activity with different metals
(Me) and is able to receive two electrons per
sulfur atom. Due to its good availability and low
extraction costs, the element is considered
highly interesting for future storage
applications. Such materials used as cathodes
have a theoretical capacity of 1672 mAh/g if
fully converted. However, sulfur and metal
polysulfides are poor electronic conductors,
meaning that sulfur has to be functionalized in
carbon or other conductivity structures for
practical applications. The reduction potential
compared to Li, Na and Mg metal anodes is 2.1
V against Li/Li+, around 1.4 V against Na/Na+
and 1.6 V or 0.8 V against Mg/Mg2+, resulting
in theoretical gravimetric energy densities on
the material side of more than 2000 Wh/kg for
Li-S and more than 1000 Wh/kg for Na-S and
Mg-S. The weakness of such systems lies in the
good solubility of metal polysulfides in many
organic solvents that serve as the basis for
electrolytes. This causes break-down of the
cathode as cyclization progresses. Transport of
the dissolved ions to the anode causes the cells
to self-discharge (shuttle effect). Using solid
electrolytes can help solve this problem.
Metal-air/O2 batteries
Metal-air/oxygen batteries are currently the
subject of fundamental research. There is now
THE LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES OF TOMORROW — WHAT WILL THE FUTURE BRING? 81
broad agreement that commercialization will
not be possible in the near future. Various steps
in the redox reaction are still too poorly
understood to prevent the effects of
degradation. It is not yet clear whether metal-
air systems can be manufactured at
competitive prices, as the materials to be used
have not yet been decided and the use of a wide
range of additives may be necessary. There are
challenges at every level, from the material to
the system design.
Redox flow batteries
Pilot plants and small series for redox flow
batteries (RFB) have been in place for a while
already. The comparably low energy densitiesonly permit stationary applications (e.g. peak load buffers). The economic feasibility, which
results from the costs for the energy taken from
storage during the service life and application
period (LCOE), is crucial to the further
development and spread of RFBs. 5-10 ct/kWh
would need to be achieved in the medium to
long term. Challenges lie in increasing the
service life and reducing manufacturing costs.
Lead-carbon batteries (PbC)
PbC batteries are a further development of the
well-established lead-acid batteries, so no
disruptive changes are expected in terms of
price or energy density. The advantages of PbC
batteries lie in the increase in power density
compared to lead-acid batteries and the fact
that the electrode structure enables them to be
used and stored in a semi-charged state. This is
essential for buffer applications (e.g. solar or
domestic storage) in particular.
A price advantage compared to LIBs is also
expected in the long term. They display
excellent compatibility with current lead-acid-
based applications (drop-in). Challenges lie in
the design of the negative electrode and the
production engineering.
Other electrochemical storage devices
Organic batteries and organic cathode
materials are another storage technology. Their
implementation requires no transition metals
and very different synthesis processes. Batteries
like this could potentially be extremely low cost.
However, the non-availability of suitable
electrolytes and lack of resistance to charging
cycles present challenges. All in all, it is
important to note that the lack of suitable
electrolytes is very often a barrier to the
utilization of alternative battery technologies
and materials. The challenges are diverse,
affecting fields as varied as
chemical/electrochemical stability, corrosivity,
and solution properties.
82 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION
Conclusions and
recommendations for action
Conclusions
This update confirms the trend of previous
versions. Market penetration of
electromobility continues to grow, bringing
with it rising demand for lithium-ion batteries
(LIB). Global demand for LIB cells in 2017 was
100 to 125 GWh, with 60 percent of it going to
mobile applications alone.
The rapid expansion of cell production
capacity, especially in China, underscores the
dynamic worldwide situation in impressive
fashion. Should electromobility develop in line
with optimistic estimates, the terawatt/hour
(TWh) boundary for LIB cell demand for
electric vehicles overall could be broken as
early as 2025 to 2030. While globally relevant
cell manufacturers still come almost
exclusively from Asia, production facilities are
increasingly being placed where demand
arises: Asia, America and increasingly Europe,
close to the seats of the largest vehicle OEMs.
As a result, the dynamic markets of
electromobility and LIB production present
great business opportunities for global
German mechanical and plant engineering
companies. Their high innovative strength and
strong focus on customer needs will ensure
that the transition to alternative technologies
such as electromobility continues. Related
sectors have already proved this in impressive
fashion.
Constraints of the roadmap
Differences in requirements on the user side,
the varying stages of development of the
technologies for electrical energy storage, and
the wide variety of process technologies
involved demand clearly defined procedure
parameters for generating roadmaps. These
parameters were formulated back in 2014 and
maintained for this 2018 update.
Focus on LIB technology
The most promising battery technology from
today’s point of view remains LIB technology.
The roadmap centers around large-scale cells
for high-energy applications, although high-
power cells for 48 V batteries will also
increasingly become a focus. Production
research requires technologies which are
ready for series production. Optimized LIBs up
to generation 3 will, from the present-day
point of view, represent the central technology
for the next 10 to 20 years. It is for the
production of these optimized LIB cells that
global capacity will be built up in the coming
decade. Production technology here is
upwards compatible in the area of LIB
generations 1 to 3.
Focus on production technology
In the roadmap, the focus is on production
technology based on a fundamental revision
of the technological state of the art and a
study of the complete process chain, from
material preparation to pack assembly. It is
important to assess all production solutions
with regard to their relevance for large-series
production.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION 83
Study period up to 2030
To allow comparability with the previous
roadmaps, a study period up to 2030 has been
defined. Any study which went beyond this
period would be speculative or could at best
take the form of scenarios. This is also the
period in which optimized large-sized LIBs are
expected to reach full maturity.
Defined roadmapping process
We have taken the roadmapping process
widely used in the semiconductor industry and
applied this to battery production. The
requirements of battery manufacturers define
immovable target corridors for which
mechanical engineering companies will
attempt to develop and offer solutions. In
cases where, from the present point of view,
these do not exist, this method will cause
technological barriers, the so-called “red brick
walls,” to emerge. These can be used to derive
very specific requirements for research and
development during the study period.
Involvement of key actors
The results of this present roadmap are based
on the discussions in the workshops held and
the evaluation of questionnaires and expert
interviews. As the roadmapping process has
shown, once a certain point been reached, it is
advisable to bring all the actors concerned
around a single table, in particular as precise
specifications for production parameters are
not sufficiently available in the public domain.
These were discussed as a starting point with
the manufacturers and research institutes
concerned.
The differences in view between the varying
“travel routes” (users, battery producers, the
mechanical and plant engineering industry,
and research) were covered by the 2014
roadmap that was taken as a starting point.
Starting point for mechanical and plant
engineering
Intelligent production technologies are a key
tool that can help achieve the urgently
necessary reduction of the costs of batteries
for electromobility and stationary energy
storage. The German mechanical engineering
industry stands out here with its strong
specialization and contributes its experience
with other industries and with digitalization
(Industrie 4.0). Asian players continue to profit
from the exchange of information gained in
many years of supplying equipment for
factories for consumer batteries. The
requirements for the production of large-sized
batteries for use in electromobility or in the
field of stationary applications are, however,
also high for them. The obstacles described in
the roadmap apply to all market participants.
Specifying the need for research
Roadmapping is an iterative process. The aim
of this new edition of the roadmap is to reflect
once again on and revise the results from the
2016 update from the point of view of the
present day. The concrete need for research in
the mechanical and plant engineering industry
has been described for 16 core areas. Relative
to 2016, four new areas have been identified
and twelve areas have been revised and
expanded to include new data.
84 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION
Recommendations for action
Take a planned approach to the need for
research
Broad-based sensitization of all actors
throughout the battery production value chain
and potential private and public investors is
needed in order to approach the need for
research identified in the roadmap in a
targeted and sustainable way. Close
cooperation between industrial partners and
research facilities will be essential in this. The
German Federal Ministry of Education and
Research (BMBF) supports measures such as
“Batterie 2020” and the “ProZell cluster” are
already addressing important topics [ProZell
2016].
In addition, joint industrial research allows in
particular smaller companies from the
mechanical engineering industry to acquire
basic knowledge in the pre-competitive phase,
thus creating the conditions for new ideas.
VDMA’s successful E-MOTIVE network forms
an ideal platform for this with its Power
Transmission Engineering Association, in
which representatives of the automotive
industry, mechanical and plant engineering,
and a large number of research institutes work
together.
Production research creates the basis for
establishing competitive cell production and is
the key to process innovation and the
development of unique selling points (USP).
References and USPs provide the ideal basis
for the European battery manufacturing
industry to position itself in this future field
sustainably for the long term and to become
more attractive as a solution partner
worldwide.
There is a concrete need for research for the
mechanical and plant engineering industry in
order to improve production technology,
particularly in the following cases:
Creating learning effects: Planning the factory
capacities of the future requires careful study
of many aspects, including the requirements
regarding the cells to be produced (cell
chemistry, cell format, costs etc.). Plants and
production technology must be continuously
optimized in order to achieve cost-effective
and sustainable implementation. This helps
speed up the ramp-up phase, increase
production throughput, increase quality,
minimize rejects, and, at the same time, take
into consideration the interplay between
factors such as supply, demand, level of
utilization, and trends in terms of costs and
prices. Optimized production technologies
should therefore be used in order to generate
learning effects quickly.
Scale-up of processes: As cell factories grow in
size, this is a key way to reduce costs. It is an
alternative to numbering up, in which the
number of lines is simply increased. To achieve
this, however, the process technology must be
appropriately optimized. Process stability and
quality must be ensured even with a high
throughput and the understanding of
processes must be continuously expanded.
Studying new system technologies:
Producibility and series maturity are crucial to
the success of new materials and processes.
The mechanical and plant engineering
industry must be involved in the development
of new products and technologies from an
early stage. Technological development for
LIBs is currently seeing a change in cell
components, moving towards lithium-based
high-energy materials and, in a few years, to
solid batteries with Li-metal anodes and high-
energy cathodes.
From today’s point of view, optimized LIBs will
be the central technology for at least the next
ten years. Despite this, it is already important
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION 85
today for the mechanical and plant
engineering industry to address the process
engineering-related characteristics and
challenges in the production of enhanced LIBs.
Alternative system topologies: The primary
aim of alternative system topologies at
module-pack level is to maximize the battery
pack fill level and thus to increase the energy
content. This is principally possible through
reducing the proportion of housing
components, function integration, and
standardized modular systems.
Avoiding overengineering: Building up process
expertise in a targeted way can allow
interrelationships to be tapped. This requires
comprehensive process monitoring and
collection and analysis of an extensive set of
data. This approach of systematic processing
of large quantities of data is also known as
data mining. Each step in production has
individual process parameters.
In order to define useful tolerance limits, it is
important to understand the extent to which
the respective process influences the quality of
the intermediates and the final battery cells.
The most sensible solution from both a
technical and an economic point of view must
be reached.
Sustainable battery production: Within the
scope of alternative mobility technologies and
the transition to alternative energies, batteries
play a key role in decreasing the impact on the
environment, especially when it comes to
reducing the CO2 footprint. The production of
battery cells including the raw materials and
materials involved is responsible for the
majority of these environmental effects.
A life cycle assessment is essential in reducing
these. Increasing the material and energy
efficiency of production and developing
recycling processes and technologies are
important ways to reduce the environmental
impact of production.
Increase international competitiveness
Delivering competitive solutions
internationally demands references and USPs.
Developing these requires research into
production. European machinery and plants
impress in terms of their innovative strength
and efficiency in total cost of ownership
studies and sustainability. In order to offer
services cost-effectively, understanding of the
cost of individual process steps and in the
product life cycle as a whole must be
improved.
86 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION
Create access to large-series production
Direct participation in large projects is the only
way for manufacturers of production
equipment to gain experience in volume
production. It is particularly important to work
directly with manufacturers. The expansion of
global cell factories in the next 10 years will be
carried out almost exclusively by Asian players
from Japan, South Korea, and China.
Production locations will, however, be shifted
to all world regions (Asia, America, and
Europe). Export business enables the
mechanical and plant engineering industry to
gain an insight into production operations
overseas and thus to recognize important
technological requirements and develop
appropriate solutions. As the market grows, a
strong and sustainable bond between the
small number of Asian cell manufacturers and
the German mechanical and plant engineering
industry will become ever more important and
make the difference between success and
failure.
Create conditions that stimulate innovation
and investment
Production research is the key to the
innovations that are essential in making
battery manufacturing a success. At the same
time, implementing new approaches in series
production demands a certain willingness to
take risks.
Instruments that minimize investment risks
are particularly important here. This is the
source of the demand for the following
conditions:
Introduction of tax support for research
General degressive depreciation to allow
amortization of significant depreciation
in plant value due to economic and
technical developments in the first few
years
Pre-competitive, broad-based industrial
joint research
Collaborative research with transfer
services to promote a broad culture of
innovation
Stabilize the roadmapping process
Roadmapping is a dynamic and iterative
process. VDMA Battery Production has
stabilized the dialog with this new edition and
will continue to actively drive forward the
implementation of the roadmapping process
begun with the first roadmap in 2014.
APPENDIX 87
Appendix
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96 APPENDIX
List of workshop participants, evaluation by questionnaire or interview
The following companies and organizations took part in the roadmapping workshops organized in Reutlingen by
VDMA Battery Production and/or the subsequent evaluation exercise by questionnaire or interview. We thank them
for the fruitful discussions!
ACI AG
Battery LabFactory Braunschweig (BLB)
Bosch Rexroth AG
Brückner Maschinenbau GmbH & Co. KG
BST eltromat International GmbH
Coherent -Rofin GmbH
Continental AG
Custom Cells Itzehoe GmbH
EAS Batteries GmbH
F&K Delvotec Bondtechnik GmbH
Fraunhofer Institute for Manufacturing Engineering and
Automation (IPA)
Fraunhofer Institute for Systems and Innovation Research
(ISI)
GEBRÜDER LÖDIGE Maschinenbau GmbH
GOEBEL Schneid- und Wickelsysteme GmbH
GROB-WERKE GmbH & Co. KG
Groz-Beckert KG
Hedrich GmbH
IAV GmbH
Industrie-Partner GmbH
IPR-Intelligente Peripherien für Roboter GmbH
Kampf LSF GmbH & Co. KG
KUKA Industries GmbH & Co. KG
Liebherr-Verzahntechnik GmbH
Litarion GmbH
Mahle GmbH
Manz AG
MARPOSS GmbH
Maschinenbau Kitz GmbH
Maschinenfabrik Gustav Eirich GmbH & Co KG
mkf GmbH
RWTH Aachen University Chair of Production Engineering
of E-Mobility Components (PEM)
RWTH Aachen, Laboratory for Machine Tools and
Production Engineering (WZL)
SCHILLER AUTOMATION GmbH & Co. KG
Schuler Pressen GmbH
SCHUNK GmbH & Co. KG
SICK AG
Siemens AG
SMC Deutschland GmbH
teamtechnik Maschinen und Anlagen GmbH
Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Joining
and Welding Technology (IFS)
TerraE Holding GmbH
thyssenkrupp System Engineering GmbH
TRUMPF Laser- und Systemtechnik GmbH
TU Braunschweig, Institute for Particle Technology (iPAT)
TU Braunschweig, Institute of Machine Tools and
Production Technology (IWF)
VDMA Battery Production
Viscom AG Vision Technology
VITRONIC Dr.-Ing. Stein Bildverarbeitungssysteme GmbH
VOLKSWAGEN AG
VON ARDENNE GmbH
WEISS GmbH
Zeltwanger Holding GmbH
ZSW (Center for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research
Baden-Württemberg)
The participants of the 2018 workshop “Roadmapping for Mechanical and Plant Engineering.”
Photo: Manz AG
VDMABattery Production
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