E
Ancient and Historical CeramicsMaterials, Technology,
Art, and Culinary Traditions
Schweizerbart Science Publishers
Robert B. Heimann Marino Maggetti
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sMaterials, Technology,
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sMaterials, Technology,
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sArt, and Culinary Traditions
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sArt, and Culinary TraditionsArt, and Culinary Traditions
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sArt, and Culinary Traditions
eschweizerbart_xxx
Ancient and Historical Ceramics:Materials, Technology,
Art, and Culinary Traditions
Robert B. Heimann and Marino Maggetti
With contributions by Gabriele Heimann and Jasmin Maggetti
With 303 fi gures and 47 tables
Schweizerbart Science Publishers Stuttgart 2014
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With 303 fi gures and 47 tables
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With 303 fi gures and 47 tables
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sRobert B. Heimann and Marino Maggetti
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sRobert B. Heimann and Marino Maggetti
With contributions by Gabriele Heimann
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sWith contributions by Gabriele Heimann
and Jasmin Maggettipage
sand Jasmin Maggetti
With 303 fi gures and 47 tablespa
ges
With 303 fi gures and 47 tables
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R. B. Heimann and M. Maggetti: Ancient and Historical Ceramics: Materials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions
Authors: Prof. Dr. Robert B. Heimann, Am Stadtpark 2A, 02826 Goerlitz, Germany. E-mail: [email protected]. Dr. Marino Maggetti, University of Fribourg, Dept. of Geosciences, Earth Sciences, Chemin du Musée 6, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland. E-mail: [email protected]
We would be pleased to receive your comments on the content of this book:[email protected]
Front cover: See this volume, page 406: Figure 18.4. White pottery bu with carved geometric pattern emulating cast bronze. Shang dynasty, Anyang. 16th–11th centuries BCE. Height 25 cm. © Collection of the Imperial Palace Museum, Beijing, China. The use of this image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)and attributed to user Rosemania (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_shang_white_pottery_pot.jpg; accessed Jan 21, 2012).
ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907
© 2014 by E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart, Germany
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart
Publisher: E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller) Johannesstr. 3A, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany [email protected] www.schweizerbart.de
∞ Printed on permanent paper conforming to ISO 9706-1994
Typesetting: Satzpunkt Ursula Ewert GmbH, BayreuthPrinted in Germany by DZA Druckerei zu Altenburg GmbH, Germany
This publication has been supported by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL
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ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7
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ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907
Sample
Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907
© 2014 by E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart,
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© 2014 by E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart,
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Germany
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Germany
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval Sample
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, Sam
ple
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Sam
ple
recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Sample
Verlagsbuchhandlung, StuttgartSample
Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart
This publication has been supported by
Sample
This publication has been supported by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL
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CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL
page
s with carved geometric
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s with carved geometric centuries BCE. Height 25 cm.
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s centuries BCE. Height 25 cm.
© Collection of the Imperial Palace Museum, Beijing, China. The use of this image is licensed
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s© Collection of the Imperial Palace Museum, Beijing, China. The use of this image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (www.creativecommons.org/
page
sunder the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)and attributed to user Rosemania (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_shang_
page
slicenses/by/2.0)and attributed to user Rosemania (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_shang_
eschweizerbart_xxx
Preface
Ceramics play a major role in the understanding of ancient societies, both because they were the first man-made material and because, if only in the form of pottery shards, they have a very high survival rate in archaeological contexts. A starting point for the study of ancient ceramics is the reconstruction of their life cycle from the procurement and process-ing of the raw materials, through their forming, decoration and firing, to their distribution, use and reuse. Reconstruction of the life cycle is then followed by its interpretation in order to obtain a better understanding of the people associated with the ceramics. Such a study requires a holistic approach, taking account of the fact that production, distribution and use are firmly embedded within the wider environmental, technological, economic, social, political and ideological context. Thus, close collaboration among archaeologists, histori-ans and physical scientists is essential for success in such studies.
The present book, because of the very wide range of topics, both scientific and cultural, that are covered, represents an extremely valuable contribution to our understanding of the role that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics, together with a discussion of the mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics particu-larly when in use as cooking pots. The reader is then taken through the historical develop-ments, production technologies, physical properties, and stylistic attributes associated with individual groups of ceramics used in preparation, serving and storage of food. Although, as the authors admit, the coverage cannot be exhaustive, it is unusually wide ranging both geographically, covering much of Europe, the Near East, the Far East and the Americas, and chronologically, spanning the period from more than 10,000 years ago up to the 18th cen-tury AD. In considering production technology, the authors include information provided by contemporary treatises such as those by Abu ‘l Qasim at the beginning of 14th century AD and Cipriano Piccolpasso in 16th century AD, reports by contemporary travellers such as Marco Polo in 13th century AD and Père d’Entrecolles in 18th century AD, and in the case of the production of European porcelains, surviving contemporary documentation. In addi-tion, full use is made of phase diagrams in explaining the mineralogical changes occurring during firing of the different types of porcelain. Finally, a unique feature of the book is that the last section of each of the thirteen chapters on specific ceramic types provides a descrip-tion of the culinary traditions associated with the region and period. A selection of ancient recipes is included for some of which modern versions are provided and tested, with the finished product being photographed and presumably consumed.
In terms of readership, I believe that this book will be valued and enjoyed by both the gen-eral reader with at least some scientific knowledge, and by students of archaeology, art history and archaeometry working at all levels. For the former, by including information on production technology and the potential culinary uses of the ceramics, the book will sup-plement the standard histories of ceramics, such as World Ceramics edited by Robert
Sample
that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-
Sample
that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-
Sample
duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and
Sample
ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics,
Sample
their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics, together with a discussion of the mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics particu-
Sample
together with a discussion of the mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics particu-larly when in use as cooking pots. The reader is then taken through the historical develop-
Sample
larly when in use as cooking pots. The reader is then taken through the historical develop-
Sample
ments, production technologies, physical properties, and stylistic attributes associated with
Sample
ments, production technologies, physical properties, and stylistic attributes associated with individual groups of ceramics used in preparation, serving and storage of food. Although, as
Sample
individual groups of ceramics used in preparation, serving and storage of food. Although, as the authors admit, the coverage cannot be exhaustive, it is unusually wide ranging both
Sample
the authors admit, the coverage cannot be exhaustive, it is unusually wide ranging both geographically, covering much of Europe, the Near East, the Far East and the Americas, and
Sample
geographically, covering much of Europe, the Near East, the Far East and the Americas, and chronologically, spanning the period from more than 10,000 years ago up to the 18
Sample
chronologically, spanning the period from more than 10,000 years ago up to the 18tury AD. In considering production technology, the authors include information provided
Sample
tury AD. In considering production technology, the authors include information provided by contemporary treatises such as those by Abu ‘l Qasim at the beginning of 14
Sample
by contemporary treatises such as those by Abu ‘l Qasim at the beginning of 14AD and Cipriano Piccolpasso in 16
Sample
AD and Cipriano Piccolpasso in 16
Sample
as Marco Polo in 13Sample
as Marco Polo in 13thSample
th century AD and Père d’Entrecolles in 18Sample
century AD and Père d’Entrecolles in 18of the production of European porcelains, surviving contemporary documentation. In addi-Sam
ple
of the production of European porcelains, surviving contemporary documentation. In addi-Sample
tion, full use is made of phase diagrams in explaining the mineralogical changes occurring Sample
tion, full use is made of phase diagrams in explaining the mineralogical changes occurring during firing of the different types of porcelain. Finally, a unique feature of the book is that Sam
ple
during firing of the different types of porcelain. Finally, a unique feature of the book is that the last section of each of the thirteen chapters on specific ceramic types provides a descrip-
Sample
the last section of each of the thirteen chapters on specific ceramic types provides a descrip-
page
sancient ceramics is the reconstruction of their life cycle from the procurement and process-
page
sancient ceramics is the reconstruction of their life cycle from the procurement and process-ing of the raw materials, through their forming, decoration and firing, to their distribution,
page
sing of the raw materials, through their forming, decoration and firing, to their distribution, use and reuse. Reconstruction of the life cycle is then followed by its interpretation in order
page
suse and reuse. Reconstruction of the life cycle is then followed by its interpretation in order to obtain a better understanding of the people associated with the ceramics. Such a study
page
sto obtain a better understanding of the people associated with the ceramics. Such a study requires a holistic approach, taking account of the fact that production, distribution and use
page
srequires a holistic approach, taking account of the fact that production, distribution and use are firmly embedded within the wider environmental, technological, economic, social,
page
sare firmly embedded within the wider environmental, technological, economic, social, political and ideological context. Thus, close collaboration among archaeologists, histori-
page
spolitical and ideological context. Thus, close collaboration among archaeologists, histori-ans and physical scientists is essential for success in such studies.
page
sans and physical scientists is essential for success in such studies.
The present book, because of the very wide range of topics, both scientific and cultural, that
page
sThe present book, because of the very wide range of topics, both scientific and cultural, that are covered, represents an extremely valuable contribution to our understanding of the role pa
ges
are covered, represents an extremely valuable contribution to our understanding of the role that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-pa
ges
that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-pa
ges
duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and pa
ges
ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics,
page
s
their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics,
eschweizerbart_xxx
VI Preface
Charleston (1981). For the latter, it will be invaluable because its range goes far beyond that of the, in some ways, comparable volume on Ceramic Masterpieces by David Kingery and Pamela Vandiver (1986). Furthermore the range and depth of information provided is such that many chapters will be read with interest by scientists who themselves have researched extensively into the production technology of ancient ceramics.
On a personal note, three chapters that I found particularly interesting are those on Roman earthenware (Chapter 10), Medieval and early German stoneware (Chapter 11), and Prehis-toric New World pottery (Chapter 17). The Roman earthenware chapter concentrates on the production of the high class Roman tableware, Terra Sigillata, and provides valuable discus-sions on the properties of the moulds into which the vessels were thrown, the factors deter-mining the reflectivity of the high gloss surfaces, the operation of the kilns in which the vessels were fired, and the logistics and scale of production and distribution. The German stoneware chapter describes both the products of the Rhineland region from their begin-nings with unglazed stoneware in 8th century AD through to the salt-glazed wares starting in the 13th century AD and reaching their peak during the second half of the 16th century AD, as well as stonewares from Saxony and Silesia in the east of Germany. A highlight for me of the New World chapter is the section on Mississippian culture pottery, tempered with mussel shells, that was produced along the Mississippi valley from about 800-1500 AD. In view of the potential problem of the destructive power of lime blowing that occurs with shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The mechanism by which lime blowing can be avoided through the addition of common salt (NaCl) to the clay is then fully explained, and whether or not the problem of lime blowing was avoided in the case of Mississippian pottery by the intentional addition of small quanti-ties of salt is considered.
Both authors are mineralogists by training. One (RBH) has researched into both ancient and modern ceramics, with his interest in and understanding of ancient ceramics undoubtedly gaining significantly as a result of his long-time collaboration with the Canadian guru of technological studies of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin. In contrast, the other (MM) has spent a major part of his career undertaking research and supervising PhD stu-dents in the field of ancient ceramic technology and provenance. Thus, the authors are very well qualified to produce a book that makes an extremely valuable and, through its inclu-sion of history, technology and culinary practice, a unique addition to the currently availa-ble literature on ancient ceramics.
Michael TiteOxford, UK
References
Charleston, R.J. (ed.) (1981). World Ceramics – An illustrated history from earliest times. London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-34261-1.
Kingery, W.D. and Vandiver, P.B. (1986). Ceramic Masterpieces – Art, Structure, and Technology. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-02-91848-0-0.
Sample
shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of
Sample
shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved
Sample
calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The
Sample
workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The mechanism by which lime blowing can be avoided through the addition of common salt
Sample
mechanism by which lime blowing can be avoided through the addition of common salt
Sample
(NaCl) to the clay is then fully explained, and whether or not the problem of lime blowing
Sample
(NaCl) to the clay is then fully explained, and whether or not the problem of lime blowing was avoided in the case of Mississippian pottery by the intentional addition of small quanti-
Sample
was avoided in the case of Mississippian pottery by the intentional addition of small quanti-ties of salt is considered.
Sample
ties of salt is considered.
Both authors are mineralogists by training. One (RBH) has researched into both ancient and
Sample
Both authors are mineralogists by training. One (RBH) has researched into both ancient and modern ceramics, with his interest in and understanding of ancient ceramics undoubtedly
Sample
modern ceramics, with his interest in and understanding of ancient ceramics undoubtedly gaining significantly as a result of his long-time collaboration with the Canadian guru of
Sample
gaining significantly as a result of his long-time collaboration with the Canadian guru of technological studies of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin. In contrast, the other
Sample
technological studies of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin. In contrast, the other (MM) has spent a major part of his career undertaking research and supervising PhD stu-
Sample
(MM) has spent a major part of his career undertaking research and supervising PhD stu-
Sample
dents in the field of ancient ceramic technology and provenance. Thus, the authors are very Sample
dents in the field of ancient ceramic technology and provenance. Thus, the authors are very well qualified to produce a book that makes an extremely valuable and, through its inclu-Sam
ple
well qualified to produce a book that makes an extremely valuable and, through its inclu-sion of history, technology and culinary practice, a unique addition to the currently availa-Sam
ple
sion of history, technology and culinary practice, a unique addition to the currently availa-ble literature on ancient ceramics.Sam
ple
ble literature on ancient ceramics.
page
storic New World pottery (Chapter 17). The Roman earthenware chapter concentrates on the
page
storic New World pottery (Chapter 17). The Roman earthenware chapter concentrates on the
, and provides valuable discus-
page
s, and provides valuable discus-sions on the properties of the moulds into which the vessels were thrown, the factors deter-
page
ssions on the properties of the moulds into which the vessels were thrown, the factors deter-mining the reflectivity of the high gloss surfaces, the operation of the kilns in which the
page
smining the reflectivity of the high gloss surfaces, the operation of the kilns in which the vessels were fired, and the logistics and scale of production and distribution. The German
page
svessels were fired, and the logistics and scale of production and distribution. The German stoneware chapter describes both the products of the Rhineland region from their begin-
page
sstoneware chapter describes both the products of the Rhineland region from their begin-
century AD through to the salt-glazed wares starting
page
s century AD through to the salt-glazed wares starting
century AD and reaching their peak during the second half of the 16
page
s century AD and reaching their peak during the second half of the 16
AD, as well as stonewares from Saxony and Silesia in the east of Germany. A highlight for
page
sAD, as well as stonewares from Saxony and Silesia in the east of Germany. A highlight for me of the New World chapter is the section on Mississippian culture pottery, tempered with
page
sme of the New World chapter is the section on Mississippian culture pottery, tempered with mussel shells, that was produced along the Mississippi valley from about 800-1500 AD. In pa
ges
mussel shells, that was produced along the Mississippi valley from about 800-1500 AD. In view of the potential problem of the destructive power of lime blowing that occurs with pa
ges
view of the potential problem of the destructive power of lime blowing that occurs with shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of pa
ges
shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved pa
ges
calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The
page
s
workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The
eschweizerbart_xxx
Acknowledgments
Many colleagues, research organisations and museums generously provided information and expertise, digital images, SEM micrographs, graphics, analytical data, and advice on ancient and historical pottery. We are gratefully acknowledging this invaluable support. We are also most thankful for the time many colleagues devoted to critically reviewing indi-vidual chapters of this volume.
We would like to acknowledge able assistance by Dr Barbara Helwing, Deutsches Archäo-logisches Institut, Berlin (Arismān pottery); Dr Lutz Martin, Vorderasiatisches Museum Ber-lin (Tell Halaf pottery); Prof. Dr Pieter ter Keurs, Rijkmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, The Netherlands (Tepe Sialk pottery); Prof. Dr Walter Noll †, Leverkusen, Germany (Mesopota-mian and Minoan pottery); Prof. Dr Herbert Kroll and Dr Martin Görres, Westfälische Wil-helms-Universität Münster, Germany (Grey Minyan pottery); Dr Alexandra Christopoulou, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece (Sesklo and Dimini pottery); Dr Yannis Maniatis, N.C.S.R. Democritos, Athens, Greece (Neolithic Greek pottery); Dr Michael Lind-blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer, Reiss-Engelhorn Museum, Mannheim, Germany (Saxon stoneware); Dr Sally Schöne, Hetjens-Museum, Düsseldorf, Germany (Rhenish stoneware); Prof. Dr Ulrich Pietsch, Cora Würmell and Annette Loesch, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, Germany (Meissen and Chinese porcelains); Dr Bernd Ullrich, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany (Böttger stoneware and Meissen porcelain); Prof. J. Victor Owen, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (phosphatic stoneware); Prof. Ian Freestone, Uni-versity College, London, UK (bone ash porcelain); Mr Sam Richardson, The Potteries Mu-seum & Art Gallery, Stoke-on-Trent, UK (Spode bone china); Dr Alpagut Kara, Anadolu University, Turkey (modern bone china); Dr Daniela Triadan, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA (White Mountain red ware); Mr William R. Iseminger, Collinsville, IL, USA (Mis-sissippian effigy bowls); Ms Heather A. Shannon, National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Mississippian engraved pottery); Prof. Pru-dence M. Rice, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA (Maya pottery); Prof. Thilo Rehren, University College, London, UK (Chinese proto-porcelain); Prof. Michael Tite, Ox-ford, UK (Longquan celadon ware); Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, MN, USA (Song Longquan celadon ware); Mr John C. Shaw, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Sukhothai, Si Satchanalai and Northern Thai pottery); Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Northern Thai pottery); Prof. Yoshihiro Ku-sano, Kurashiki University, Okayama, Japan (Bizen stoneware); The Trustees of the British Museum, London, UK (Jōmōn, Egyptian, Anatolian, Near East, Mycenaean, Attic, Corinth-ian and Roman pottery; German stoneware, bone china); The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK (Italian maiolica, French soft-paste porcelain, Japanese pottery, stoneware and porcelain); Tokyo National Museum, Japan (Imari porcelain); Ms Anne-Claire Schumacher,
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blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-
Sample
blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie
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zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-
Sample
Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer,
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la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer, Reiss-Engelhorn Museum, Mannheim, Germany (Saxon stoneware); Dr Sally Schöne,
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Reiss-Engelhorn Museum, Mannheim, Germany (Saxon stoneware); Dr Sally Schöne, Hetjens-Museum, Düsseldorf, Germany (Rhenish stoneware); Prof. Dr Ulrich Pietsch, Cora
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Hetjens-Museum, Düsseldorf, Germany (Rhenish stoneware); Prof. Dr Ulrich Pietsch, Cora Würmell and Annette Loesch, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Sample
Würmell and Annette Loesch, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, Germany
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(Meissen and Chinese porcelains); Dr Bernd Ullrich, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg,
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(Meissen and Chinese porcelains); Dr Bernd Ullrich, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany (Böttger stoneware and Meissen porcelain); Prof. J. Victor Owen, Saint Mary’s
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Germany (Böttger stoneware and Meissen porcelain); Prof. J. Victor Owen, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (phosphatic stoneware); Prof. Ian Freestone, Uni-
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University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (phosphatic stoneware); Prof. Ian Freestone, Uni-versity College, London, UK (bone ash porcelain); Mr Sam Richardson, The Potteries Mu-
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versity College, London, UK (bone ash porcelain); Mr Sam Richardson, The Potteries Mu-seum & Art Gallery, Stoke-on-Trent, UK (Spode bone china); Dr Alpagut Kara, Anadolu
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seum & Art Gallery, Stoke-on-Trent, UK (Spode bone china); Dr Alpagut Kara, Anadolu University, Turkey (modern bone china); Dr Daniela Triadan, University of Arizona, Tucson,
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University, Turkey (modern bone china); Dr Daniela Triadan, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA (White Mountain red ware); Mr William R. Iseminger, Collinsville, IL, USA (Mis-
Sample
AZ, USA (White Mountain red ware); Mr William R. Iseminger, Collinsville, IL, USA (Mis-sissippian effigy bowls); Ms Heather A. Shannon, National Museum of the American Indian, Sam
ple
sissippian effigy bowls); Ms Heather A. Shannon, National Museum of the American Indian, Sample
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Mississippian engraved pottery); Prof. Pru-Sample
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Mississippian engraved pottery); Prof. Pru-dence M. Rice, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA (Maya pottery); Prof. Thilo Sam
ple
dence M. Rice, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA (Maya pottery); Prof. Thilo Rehren, University College, London, UK (Chinese proto-porcelain); Prof. Michael Tite, Ox-Sam
ple
Rehren, University College, London, UK (Chinese proto-porcelain); Prof. Michael Tite, Ox-ford, UK (Longquan celadon ware); Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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ford, UK (Longquan celadon ware); Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, MN, USA
page
sare also most thankful for the time many colleagues devoted to critically reviewing indi-
page
sare also most thankful for the time many colleagues devoted to critically reviewing indi-
We would like to acknowledge able assistance by Dr Barbara Helwing, Deutsches Archäo-
page
sWe would like to acknowledge able assistance by Dr Barbara Helwing, Deutsches Archäo-n pottery); Dr Lutz Martin, Vorderasiatisches Museum Ber-
page
sn pottery); Dr Lutz Martin, Vorderasiatisches Museum Ber-lin (Tell Halaf pottery); Prof. Dr Pieter ter Keurs, Rijkmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, The
page
slin (Tell Halaf pottery); Prof. Dr Pieter ter Keurs, Rijkmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, The Netherlands (Tepe Sialk pottery); Prof. Dr Walter Noll †, Leverkusen, Germany (Mesopota-
page
sNetherlands (Tepe Sialk pottery); Prof. Dr Walter Noll †, Leverkusen, Germany (Mesopota-mian and Minoan pottery); Prof. Dr Herbert Kroll and Dr Martin Görres, Westfälische Wil-
page
smian and Minoan pottery); Prof. Dr Herbert Kroll and Dr Martin Görres, Westfälische Wil-helms-Universität Münster, Germany (Grey Minyan pottery); Dr Alexandra Christopoulou,
page
shelms-Universität Münster, Germany (Grey Minyan pottery); Dr Alexandra Christopoulou, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece (Sesklo and Dimini pottery); Dr Yannis
page
sNational Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece (Sesklo and Dimini pottery); Dr Yannis Maniatis, N.C.S.R. Democritos, Athens, Greece (Neolithic Greek pottery); Dr Michael Lind-pa
ges
Maniatis, N.C.S.R. Democritos, Athens, Greece (Neolithic Greek pottery); Dr Michael Lind-blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-pa
ges
blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie pa
ges
zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-pa
ges
Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer,
page
s
la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer,
eschweizerbart_xxx
VIII Acknowledgments
Musée Ariana, Geneva, Switzerland (Queen’s ware, Mesopotamian tin-glazed ware, Italian maiolica, French soft-paste porcelain); The American School of Classic Studies at Athens (Greek mainland polychrome ware); The Gardiner Museum of Ceramic Art, Toronto, ON, Canada (steatitic English porcelain); Citylife Magazine, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Japanese Photo Library (Tokyo); and Bibliotheca Gastronomica, SLUB, Dresden, Germany.
Special thanks for critically reviewing individual chapters of this treatise are due to Prof. Andrew Shortland (Cranfield, UK; Chapter 8), Prof. Hans Mommsen (Bonn, Germany; Chapter 9), Dr Gerwulf Schneider (Berlin, Germany; Chapter 10), Prof. David Gaimster (Glasgow, UK; Chapter 11), Prof. Trinitat Pradell (Castelldefels, Spain; Chapter 13), Dr An-toine d’Albis (Sèvres, France; Chapter 14); Prof. Victor Owen (Halifax, Canada; Chapter 16), Prof. James Feathers (Seattle, USA; Chapter 17), Prof. Nigel Wood (London, UK; Chapter 18), Mr John Shaw (Chiang Mai, Thailand; Chapter 19), and Prof. Yoshihiko Kusano and Dr Minoru Fukuhara (Okayama, Japan; Chapter 20). Ms Nicole Bruegger, Fribourg, Switzer-land deserves a special Thank You for drawing the maps of the archaeological sites men-tioned in the individual chapters. While we considered the valuable comments and sugges-tions for improvement freely given by the reviewers, remaining factual errors, misconceptions, ambiguities and omissions are entirely ours.
The culinary part of the book owes everything to the dedication of our spouses Gabriele and Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and finally approved the fruits of their labour of love.
Publication of this work would not have been possible without generous financial assis-tance by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL, Switzerland, represented by its president, Dr Thomas Staehelin. We are very grateful for this much needed support.
Dr Andreas Nägele and Ms Angela Pfeifer of Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany are acknowledged for their expert advice, and constant encouragement and tech-nical support during preparation of this text.
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Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-
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Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and
Sample
able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and finally approved the fruits of their labour of love.
Sample
finally approved the fruits of their labour of love.
Publication of this work would not have been possible without generous financial assis-
Sample
Publication of this work would not have been possible without generous financial assis-tance by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL, Switzerland, represented by its president, Dr
Sample
tance by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL, Switzerland, represented by its president, Dr Thomas Staehelin. We are very grateful for this much needed support.
Sample
Thomas Staehelin. We are very grateful for this much needed support.
Sample
Dr Andreas Nägele and Ms Angela Pfeifer of Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart,
Sample
Dr Andreas Nägele and Ms Angela Pfeifer of Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany are acknowledged for their expert advice, and constant encouragement and tech-
Sample
Germany are acknowledged for their expert advice, and constant encouragement and tech-
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nical support during preparation of this text.
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nical support during preparation of this text.
page
sChapter 9), Dr Gerwulf Schneider (Berlin, Germany; Chapter 10), Prof. David Gaimster
page
sChapter 9), Dr Gerwulf Schneider (Berlin, Germany; Chapter 10), Prof. David Gaimster (Glasgow, UK; Chapter 11), Prof. Trinitat Pradell (Castelldefels, Spain; Chapter 13), Dr An-
page
s(Glasgow, UK; Chapter 11), Prof. Trinitat Pradell (Castelldefels, Spain; Chapter 13), Dr An-toine d’Albis (Sèvres, France; Chapter 14); Prof. Victor Owen (Halifax, Canada; Chapter 16),
page
stoine d’Albis (Sèvres, France; Chapter 14); Prof. Victor Owen (Halifax, Canada; Chapter 16), Prof. James Feathers (Seattle, USA; Chapter 17), Prof. Nigel Wood (London, UK; Chapter
page
sProf. James Feathers (Seattle, USA; Chapter 17), Prof. Nigel Wood (London, UK; Chapter 18), Mr John Shaw (Chiang Mai, Thailand; Chapter 19), and Prof. Yoshihiko Kusano and Dr
page
s18), Mr John Shaw (Chiang Mai, Thailand; Chapter 19), and Prof. Yoshihiko Kusano and Dr Minoru Fukuhara (Okayama, Japan; Chapter 20). Ms Nicole Bruegger, Fribourg, Switzer-
page
sMinoru Fukuhara (Okayama, Japan; Chapter 20). Ms Nicole Bruegger, Fribourg, Switzer-land deserves a special Thank You for drawing the maps of the archaeological sites men-
page
sland deserves a special Thank You for drawing the maps of the archaeological sites men-tioned in the individual chapters. While we considered the valuable comments and sugges-
page
stioned in the individual chapters. While we considered the valuable comments and sugges-tions for improvement freely given by the reviewers, remaining factual errors, misconceptions,
page
stions for improvement freely given by the reviewers, remaining factual errors, misconceptions,
The culinary part of the book owes everything to the dedication of our spouses Gabriele and page
sThe culinary part of the book owes everything to the dedication of our spouses Gabriele and Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-pa
ges
Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and pa
ges
able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and
eschweizerbart_xxx
Table of Contents
Preface V
Acknowledgements VII
Table of Contents IX
Exordium XV
Part I Fundamentals
1 The nature of ceramics 1
1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies 11.2 Ancient roots 41.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologies 51.4 Ceramics and their production environment 81.5 Ceramics and cooking 101.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry 11
2 Classification and properties of ceramics 12
2.1 Classification and types of ceramics 122.2 Definitions of common ceramic types 132.3 Properties and functions of ceramic cooking pots 18
3 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties 22
3.1 Types of raw materials 223.2 The formation of clay minerals 233.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay minerals 253.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery 283.5 Clay-water interactions 31
4 Processing of clay, and forming and finishing of pottery 37
4.1 The operational sequence of making ceramics 374.2 Preparation of clay 374.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies 394.4 Drying of green pottery 474.5 Glazes and glazing 484.6 Post-firing painting 55
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1.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry 11
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1.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry 11
2 Classification and properties of ceramics
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2 Classification and properties of ceramics
2.1 Classification and types of ceramics 12
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2.1 Classification and types of ceramics 122.2 Definitions of common ceramic types 13
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2.2 Definitions of common ceramic types 132.3 Properties and functions of ceramic cooking pots 18
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2.3 Properties and functions of ceramic cooking pots 18
3 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties
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3 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties
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3.1 Types of raw materials 22
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3.1 Types of raw materials 223.2 The formation of clay minerals 23Sam
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3.2 The formation of clay minerals 233.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay minerals 25Sam
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3.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay minerals 253.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery 28Sam
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3.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery 28Sample
3.5 Clay-water interactions 31Sample
3.5 Clay-water interactions 31
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s1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies 1
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s1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies 1
1.4 Ceramics and their production environment 8page
s1.4 Ceramics and their production environment 8
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X Table of Contents
5 Ceramic phase diagrams 59
5.1 Introduction 595.2 Anatomy of three-component (ternary) phase diagrams 605.3 Selected model ceramic phase diagrams 65
6 Materials science of ceramics 70
6.1 Ceramics as man-made ‘rocks’ 706.2 Firing temperature vs. state of sintering 716.3 Thermal transformations in kaolinitic clays 736.4 Thermal transformations in illitic clays 766.5 Thermal transformations in phosphatic ceramics 956.6 Densification during firing 976.7 Determination of firing temperatures 99
7 Pottery kilns and firing technology 103
7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices 1037.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126
Part II Selected ceramics and culinary traditions
8 Ancient Near Eastern wares 129
8.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East 1298.2 Mesopotamia 1318.3 Anatolia 1358.4 Egypt 1378.5 Iran 1448.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic cooking pots 149
9 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age pottery 157
9.1 Setting the stage 1579.2 Neolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pottery 1599.3 Cretan pottery 1649.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery 1709.5 Iron Age Greek wares 1769.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies revealed 184
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7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices 103
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7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices 1037.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126
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7.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126
Part II Selected ceramics and culinary traditions
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Part II Selected ceramics and culinary traditions
8 Ancient Near Eastern wares
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8 Ancient Near Eastern wares 129
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129
8.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East 129
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8.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East 1298.2 Mesopotamia 131
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8.2 Mesopotamia 131
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8.3 Anatolia 135
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8.3 Anatolia 1358.4 Egypt 137
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8.4 Egypt 1378.5 Iran 144Sam
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8.5 Iran 1448.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic cooking pots 149Sam
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8.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic cooking pots 149
9 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age potterySam
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9 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age pottery
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s 103 pa
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103
7.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126pa
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7.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126
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10 Roman earthenware 192
10.1 Historical development 19210.2 Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Sigillata 19410.3 Manufacturing technique 19810.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata 20310.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in Tabernae, 2nd century CE 20610.6 What distinguishes a mould from the Terra Sigillata pottery? 20910.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his legacy 213
11 Medieval and early modern German stoneware 227
11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf 22711.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Frechen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren 22911.3 Saxon stoneware 23611.4 Bunzlau stoneware 24411.5 Of late medieval broth and mush 245
12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine) 255
12.1 French Renaissance precursors 25512.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 25912.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 26512.4 Scientific analyses of English and French white earthenware 27012.5 Fast food and sweet cake 275
13 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near East and Italy 279
13.1 Technological background 27913.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze technique 28213.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology in Europe 28813.4 Italian maiolica 28913.5 Renaissance gastronomy 300
14 French soft-paste porcelain 309
14.1 A short history of selected French manufactures 30914.2 Technology of French soft-paste porcelain 31814.3 Conclusion 32614.4 The ‘plaisirs de table’ of Louis XV and his favourite, Marquise de Pompadour 326
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12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)
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12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)
12.1 French Renaissance precursors 255
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12.1 French Renaissance precursors 25512.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 259
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12.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 25912.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 265
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12.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 26512.4 Scientific analyses of English and French white earthenware 270
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12.4 Scientific analyses of English and French white earthenware 27012.5 Fast food and sweet cake 275
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12.5 Fast food and sweet cake 275
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13 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near East and Italy
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13 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near East and Italy
13.1 Technological background 279
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13.1 Technological background 27913.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze technique 282Sam
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13.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze technique 28213.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology in Europe 288Sam
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13.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology in Europe 288Sample
13.4 Italian maiolica 289Sample
13.4 Italian maiolica 28913.5 Renaissance gastronomy 300Sam
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13.5 Renaissance gastronomy 300
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s11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf 227
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s11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf 22711.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Frechen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren 229
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s11.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Frechen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren 229
12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)page
s12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)
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XII Table of Contents
15 The first European hard-paste porcelain: Meissen 333
15.1 Historical beginnings 33315.2 The invention of European porcelain at Meissen 33615.3 Material basis and technology of Böttger stoneware 34115.4 Development of porcelain microstructure 34815.5 From the royal table of Augustus the Strong 351
16 English bone china 354
16.1 Early developments 35416.2 Forerunners of bone china 35716.3 The invention of bone china 35916.4 Microstructure of bone china 36216.5 Staffordshire potter’s favourite dishes 365
17 Prehistoric New World pottery 371
17.1 South American pottery 37117.2 Central American pottery 37417.3 South-western United States 37717.4 Mississippian culture 37917.5 Native cuisine of the Americas 393
18 Chinese pottery: From earthenware to stoneware to porcelain 395
18.1 The European perspective 39518.2 Chinese history and pottery 39818.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics 40118.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia and Shang dynasties 40318.5 Chinese proto-porcelain 40718.6 True Chinese porcelain 41118.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of plenty, perfectly balanced 433
19 Thai ceramics 439
19.1 Historical account 44019.2 Neolithic pottery 44119.3 High-fired glazed stoneware 44219.4 Northern Thai (Lan Na) kilns 44919.5 Ancient Thai cuisine 452
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17.2 Central American pottery 374
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17.2 Central American pottery 37417.3 South-western United States 377
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17.3 South-western United States 37717.4 Mississippian culture 379
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17.4 Mississippian culture 37917.5 Native cuisine of the Americas 393
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17.5 Native cuisine of the Americas 393
18 Chinese pottery: From earthenware to stoneware to porcelain
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18 Chinese pottery: From earthenware to stoneware to porcelain
18.1 The European perspective 395
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18.1 The European perspective 39518.2 Chinese history and pottery 398
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18.2 Chinese history and pottery 39818.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics 401
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18.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics 401
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18.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia and Shang dynasties 403Sample
18.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia and Shang dynasties 40318.5 Chinese proto-porcelain 407Sam
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18.5 Chinese proto-porcelain 40718.6 True Chinese porcelain 411Sam
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18.6 True Chinese porcelain 41118.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of plenty, perfectly balanced 433Sam
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18.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of plenty, perfectly balanced 433
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XIIITable of Contents
20 Japanese ceramics 457
20.1 A philosophy of natural aesthetics 45720.2 Jōmōn, Yayoi and Kofun (Yamato) pottery 46020.3 Asuka, Nara and Heian periods 46320.4 Kamakura and Muromachi period 46420.5 Momoyama wares 46620.6 Edo period 46820.7 Ancient Japanese cooking: what Samurai and Sumōtori enjoyed 475
References 481
Ceramic index 537
Location index 542
Names index 547
Recipe index 550
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Part I FundamentalsChapter 1
The nature of ceramics
Synopsis
Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials shaped at room temperature from various naturally occurring silicate-based minerals (clays) that obtain their typical physical and chemical properties by sintering at high temperature. Making of ceramics is a prime exam-ple of a generally observed trend that in all human societies with increasing control over the technological production environment a transition from holistic to prescriptive technolo-gies occurs. Whereas at the formative stage of a society all technology is holistic by neces-sity, after accumulation of extensive practical knowledge and theoretical understanding generalisation and abstraction can take place. Only then can a prescriptive process emerge that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-als as well as transfer of information by sets of self-normalizing ‘memes’, that is, ideas that appear to drive cultural including technological evolution. The chapter provides basic infor-mation on the development of materials technology and, in particular the commanding role pottery has played during evolution of ancient societies as well as the mutual interaction of the ceramic product and its production environment.
1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societiesOf all man-made material things we depend on in our daily life ceramics are the most an-cient ones. All material things possess either metallic, polymeric (plastic) or ceramic prop-erties, distinguished by the nature of their chemical bonds. The particular bonding type imposes on them typical physical properties, for example high thermal and electric conduc-tivities as well as ductility in metals, thermal stability, hardness and brittleness in ceramics including glasses, and low melting point and high elasticity in polymers. Information on bonding-property-application relationships of materials can be found in modern textbooks on materials science (see for example Smith 1996) and ceramics (see for example Kingery et al. 1976).
Exploitation of existing, and development and use of novel materials are closely related to social development and technological progress of humankind. Ceramics are a case in point. Utilisation of natural ceramic materials such as rocks, flint and obsidian defined the earliest development stages of human societies. Fired clay products were to follow. In modern par-
Sample
that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman
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that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the
Sample
Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-
Sample
holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-
Sample
lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-als as well as transfer of information by sets of self-normalizing ‘memes’, that is, ideas that
Sample
als as well as transfer of information by sets of self-normalizing ‘memes’, that is, ideas that appear to drive cultural including technological evolution. The chapter provides basic infor-
Sample
appear to drive cultural including technological evolution. The chapter provides basic infor-mation on the development of materials technology and, in particular the commanding role
Sample
mation on the development of materials technology and, in particular the commanding role pottery has played during evolution of ancient societies as well as the mutual interaction of
Sample
pottery has played during evolution of ancient societies as well as the mutual interaction of
Sample
the ceramic product and its production environment.
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the ceramic product and its production environment.
1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies
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1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societiesOf all man-made material things we depend on in our daily life ceramics are the most an-Sam
ple
Of all man-made material things we depend on in our daily life ceramics are the most an-cient ones. All material things possess either metallic, polymeric (plastic) or ceramic prop-Sam
ple
cient ones. All material things possess either metallic, polymeric (plastic) or ceramic prop-Sample
erties, distinguished by the nature of their chemical bonds. The particular bonding type Sample
erties, distinguished by the nature of their chemical bonds. The particular bonding type imposes on them typical physical properties, for example high thermal and electric conduc-Sam
ple
imposes on them typical physical properties, for example high thermal and electric conduc-tivities as well as ductility in metals, thermal stability, hardness and brittleness in ceramics
Sample
tivities as well as ductility in metals, thermal stability, hardness and brittleness in ceramics
page
sCeramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials shaped at room temperature from various
page
sCeramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials shaped at room temperature from various naturally occurring silicate-based minerals (clays) that obtain their typical physical and
page
snaturally occurring silicate-based minerals (clays) that obtain their typical physical and chemical properties by sintering at high temperature. Making of ceramics is a prime exam-
page
schemical properties by sintering at high temperature. Making of ceramics is a prime exam-ple of a generally observed trend that in all human societies with increasing control over the
page
sple of a generally observed trend that in all human societies with increasing control over the technological production environment a transition from holistic to prescriptive technolo-
page
stechnological production environment a transition from holistic to prescriptive technolo-gies occurs. Whereas at the formative stage of a society all technology is holistic by neces-
page
sgies occurs. Whereas at the formative stage of a society all technology is holistic by neces-sity, after accumulation of extensive practical knowledge and theoretical understanding
page
ssity, after accumulation of extensive practical knowledge and theoretical understanding generalisation and abstraction can take place. Only then can a prescriptive process emerge pa
ges
generalisation and abstraction can take place. Only then can a prescriptive process emerge that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman pa
ges
that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the pa
ges
Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-pa
ges
holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-
page
s
lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-
eschweizerbart_xxx
2 Part I
lance, traditional (classic) ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic and predominantly poly-crystalline materials shaped at room temperature from various silicate-based raw materials. They obtain their typical properties by sintering at high temperatures and display an over-whelmingly wide variability in terms of origin, history, utilisation, and mechanical, thermal, and optical properties (Heimann 2010). Making traditional ceramics may be considered the result of an attempt to turn clays, the weathered remnants of natural rock, back into an ar-tificial rock-like product by the action of heat (Heimann & Franklin 1979, Maggetti 2001).
As indicated in Fig. 1.1 ceramics played a very important role during the early technologi-cal development period of mankind. The knowledge acquired during making of ceramics vastly exceeded that necessary to fashion simple tools from stone, wood or bone (Hench 1988). This knowledge, in particular mastering high temperature technology required to fire ceramic objects was the precondition of transforming ore into metals such as copper and iron, and its purification, alloying to form bronze or steel, and subsequent forging or casting (Heimann 2004). Fig. 1.2 shows the main differences in selection and processing among the material classes of stone, pottery and metals in a general schematic.
From an archaeological perspective class I materials are naturally available ones such as rock, flint, obsidian or jade that were carefully chosen, separated from unwanted by-prod-ucts, and fashioned by removing excess material. For class II materials, that is, ceramics per se the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or
Figure 1.1. Historical timeline of development of materials (modified after Froes 1990, Heimann 2010). For discussion of Anthropocene see text.
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the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or
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the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or
Sample
Sample
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sAs indicated in Fig. 1.1 ceramics played a very important role during the early technologi-
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sAs indicated in Fig. 1.1 ceramics played a very important role during the early technologi-cal development period of mankind. The knowledge acquired during making of ceramics
page
scal development period of mankind. The knowledge acquired during making of ceramics vastly exceeded that necessary to fashion simple tools from stone, wood or bone (Hench
page
svastly exceeded that necessary to fashion simple tools from stone, wood or bone (Hench 1988). This knowledge, in particular mastering high temperature technology required to fire
page
s1988). This knowledge, in particular mastering high temperature technology required to fire ceramic objects was the precondition of transforming ore into metals such as copper and
page
sceramic objects was the precondition of transforming ore into metals such as copper and iron, and its purification, alloying to form bronze or steel, and subsequent forging or casting
page
siron, and its purification, alloying to form bronze or steel, and subsequent forging or casting (Heimann 2004). Fig. 1.2 shows the main differences in selection and processing among
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s(Heimann 2004). Fig. 1.2 shows the main differences in selection and processing among the material classes of stone, pottery and metals in a general schematic.
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sthe material classes of stone, pottery and metals in a general schematic.
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sFrom an archaeological perspective class I materials are naturally available ones such as
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sFrom an archaeological perspective class I materials are naturally available ones such as rock, flint, obsidian or jade that were carefully chosen, separated from unwanted by-prod-pa
ges
rock, flint, obsidian or jade that were carefully chosen, separated from unwanted by-prod-ucts, and fashioned by removing excess material. For class II materials, that is, ceramics pa
ges
ucts, and fashioned by removing excess material. For class II materials, that is, ceramics the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or pa
ges
the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or
eschweizerbart_xxx
31 The nature of ceramics
inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by addition rather than removal of material. Heating generates a new rock-like material, not existing in nature, as well as a new object. Class III materials such as metals require much more complex and sophisticated selection and processing steps. It is not sufficient anymore to select and mix the starting materials. Instead, as the raw material preparations are not longer directly related to the finished object they become a separate and separable produc-tion activity, involving mixing (alloying), heating, quenching and other steps, and finally casting, hammering or forging. Hence in contrast to stone or pottery most metals are de-rived materials that are produced from a suitable ore by a smelting process (Franklin 1983b, see also Tylecote 1992).
As a result of these hierarchical technological development steps, around 1500 CE ceramics technology was quantitatively overtaken by metals technology. Then the large-scale produc-tion of cast iron and steel replaced bronze as base material to cast gun barrels, and thus gave rise to so-called ‘gunpowder empires’ such as Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, Persia and Ming China, the territorial expansion of which depended on guns (Hodgson 1975, Pacey 1991). The predominance of metals as a choice construction material lasted until the 1970th when ubiquitous application of engineering polymers (‘plastics’ and elastomers) and their composites reduced the economic impact of metals. Moreover, in parallel a second ‘ceramic age’ emerged highlighted by the development and practical use of tough engi-neering, functional and other advanced ceramics (Heimann 2010).
Recently the term Anthropocene (Fig. 1.1) has been popularised by the Nobelist Paul Crutzen (2002) to mark both the evidence and the lasting effect that human technological activities have on the state of the Earth. Human activities triggered those processes that are significantly and irreversibly changing many global ecosystems, including the biosphere,
Figure 1.2. General schematic classification of materials selection and processing from an ar-chaeological perspective (adapted from Franklin 1983b).
Identify
+ Select
Separate
+
Reduce in size
Mix
+
Prepare
Heat
Mix + Heat + Cast
Fini
shed
Obj
ect
Class I: stone/flint/obsidian
Class II: pottery
Class III: metalRaw metal Alloyed metal
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inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by
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inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by addition rather than removal of material. Heating generates a new rock-like material, not
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addition rather than removal of material. Heating generates a new rock-like material, not existing in nature, as well as a new object. Class III materials such as metals require much
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existing in nature, as well as a new object. Class III materials such as metals require much more complex and sophisticated selection and processing steps. It is not sufficient anymore
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more complex and sophisticated selection and processing steps. It is not sufficient anymore to select and mix the starting materials. Instead, as the raw material preparations are not
Sample
to select and mix the starting materials. Instead, as the raw material preparations are not longer directly related to the finished object they become a separate and separable produc-
Sample
longer directly related to the finished object they become a separate and separable produc-tion activity, involving mixing (alloying), heating, quenching and other steps, and finally
Sample
tion activity, involving mixing (alloying), heating, quenching and other steps, and finally casting, hammering or forging. Hence in contrast to stone or pottery most metals are de-
Sample
casting, hammering or forging. Hence in contrast to stone or pottery most metals are de-rived materials that are produced from a suitable ore by a smelting process (Franklin 1983b,
Sample
rived materials that are produced from a suitable ore by a smelting process (Franklin 1983b, see also Tylecote 1992).
Sample
see also Tylecote 1992).
As a result of these hierarchical technological development steps, around 1500 CE ceramics
Sample
As a result of these hierarchical technological development steps, around 1500 CE ceramics technology was quantitatively overtaken by metals technology. Then the large-scale produc-Sam
ple
technology was quantitatively overtaken by metals technology. Then the large-scale produc-tion of cast iron and steel replaced bronze as base material to cast gun barrels, and thus Sam
ple
tion of cast iron and steel replaced bronze as base material to cast gun barrels, and thus gave rise to so-called ‘gunpowder empires’ such as Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, Persia Sam
ple
gave rise to so-called ‘gunpowder empires’ such as Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, Persia and Ming China, the territorial expansion of which depended on guns (Hodgson 1975, Sam
ple
and Ming China, the territorial expansion of which depended on guns (Hodgson 1975, Pacey 1991). The predominance of metals as a choice construction material lasted until the
Sample
Pacey 1991). The predominance of metals as a choice construction material lasted until the
page
spa
ges
page
s
inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by pa
ges
inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by
General schematic classification of materials selection and processing from an ar-
page
s General schematic classification of materials selection and processing from an ar-
chaeological perspective (adapted from Franklin 1983b). page
schaeological perspective (adapted from Franklin 1983b).
Mix + Heat +
page
sMix + Heat + Cast
page
s Cast
Fini
shed
Obj
ect
page
sFini
shed
Obj
ect
Class III: metal
page
sClass III: metal
Raw metal Alloyed metal
page
sRaw metal Alloyed metal
page
spa
ges
eschweizerbart_xxx
4 Part I
pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Among those who subscribe to this new con-cept of extending the geological timescale beyond the Holocene there is disagreement on the start of the Anthropocene. Whereas Crutzen (2002) takes the onset of the Industrial Revolution around 1800 CE as the starting point, others maintain that the acme of the Ro-man Empire is a plausible begin (Certini & Scalenghe 2011) as marked by the discovery of large-scale lead pollution by Roman industrial activities (Hong et al. 1994), or even much earlier by the transition from hunter-gatherer to sedentary agricultural societies during the later stages of the Neolithic Revolution (Ruddiman 2003) that led eventually to the extinc-tion of large mammals and land birds, and alteration of the composition of soils (Amundson & Jenny 1991).
1.2 Ancient rootsThe quest of discovering, defining and explaining the nature of our material world has deep historic roots. According to the teachings of the Greek natural philosopher Empedocles (495–435 BCE), laid down in his text ‘On Nature’ ( , Peri phýseōs), all matter is thought to be composed of only four immutable elements he referred to as ‘roots’: earth, water, fire, and air5. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and Democritos (460–390 BCE), saw the real process which corresponds to what we call growth, increase or decrease of things and actions. Nothing new can ever come into being; the only changes that can occur are variations in the juxtaposition of one root with the other roots, and their relative proportions. This hypothesis commanded remarkable power and longevity as it became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years until the Irish natural scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1692), called the ‘Father of Chemistry’, consid-ered the Empedoclesian view nonsensical.
However, in a leap of imagination, ceramics may be seen as the material embodiment of this Empedoclesian paradigm, being made by artfully combining the four ‘roots’ or ‘ele-ments’: earth-like clay soaked in water to gain workability is subsequently exposed to fire in either oxidising or reducing atmosphere, that is, air. Hence the product of this creative process aggregates synergistically all four ancient ‘elements’ and thus is a powerful symbol of the eternal harmony of all things and beings in the antique world view. In modern scien-tific parlance we are indeed dealing with a juxtaposition of the two universal empowering forces, energy and entropy (information). To quote the quantum physicist Seth Lloyd: ‘Earth, air, fire, and water …are all made of energy, but the different forms they take are determined by information. To do anything requires energy. To specify what is done requires informa-
5 (Sext.10,315). Translation: At first hear the four
roots of all things: Zeus the Radiant [the etheral fire], and Hera, the Life giving [earth] as well as Aidoneus [the invisible air] and Nestis [the water], who lets flow through her tears the earthly springs (Sextus Empiricus 1997).
Sample
. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-
Sample
. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural
Sample
created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-
Sample
differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and
Sample
tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and Democritos (460–390 BCE), saw the real process which corresponds to what we call
Sample
Democritos (460–390 BCE), saw the real process which corresponds to what we call growth, increase or decrease of things and actions. Nothing new can ever come into being;
Sample
growth, increase or decrease of things and actions. Nothing new can ever come into being; the only changes that can occur are variations in the juxtaposition of one root with the
Sample
the only changes that can occur are variations in the juxtaposition of one root with the other roots, and their relative proportions. This hypothesis commanded remarkable power
Sample
other roots, and their relative proportions. This hypothesis commanded remarkable power and longevity as it became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years until the
Sample
and longevity as it became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years until the Irish natural scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1692), called the ‘Father of Chemistry’, consid-
Sample
Irish natural scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1692), called the ‘Father of Chemistry’, consid-ered the Empedoclesian view nonsensical.
Sample
ered the Empedoclesian view nonsensical.
However, in a leap of imagination,
Sample
However, in a leap of imagination, this Empedoclesian paradigm, being made by artfully combining the four ‘roots’ or ‘ele-
Sample
this Empedoclesian paradigm, being made by artfully combining the four ‘roots’ or ‘ele-ments’: Sam
ple
ments’: Sample
earthSample
earth-like clay soaked in Sample
-like clay soaked in in either oxidising or reducing atmosphere, that is, Sam
ple
in either oxidising or reducing atmosphere, that is, process aggregates synergistically all four ancient ‘elements’ and thus is a powerful symbol Sam
ple
process aggregates synergistically all four ancient ‘elements’ and thus is a powerful symbol Sample
of the eternal harmony of all things and beings in the antique world view. In modern scien-Sample
of the eternal harmony of all things and beings in the antique world view. In modern scien-tific parlance we are indeed dealing with a juxtaposition of the two universal empowering
Sample
tific parlance we are indeed dealing with a juxtaposition of the two universal empowering
page
stion of large mammals and land birds, and alteration of the composition of soils (Amundson
page
stion of large mammals and land birds, and alteration of the composition of soils (Amundson
The quest of discovering, defining and explaining the nature of our material world has deep
page
sThe quest of discovering, defining and explaining the nature of our material world has deep historic roots. According to the teachings of the Greek natural philosopher Empedocles
page
shistoric roots. According to the teachings of the Greek natural philosopher Empedocles
page
spa
ges
page
s, Peri phýsepage
s, Peri phýse
thought to be composed of only four immutable elements he referred to as ‘roots’: earth, page
sthought to be composed of only four immutable elements he referred to as ‘roots’: earth,
. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-page
s. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-
created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural page
screated, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-pa
ges
differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and
page
s
tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and
eschweizerbart_xxx
51 The nature of ceramics
tion’ (Lloyd 2006). Thus the art and craft of the potter involve not only energy and, respec-tively its equivalent mass, but also information, knowledge, experience and judgement. In terms of modern physics this boils down to the universal interplay between energy and entropy.
Since times immemorial people transformed matter – in metallurgy, in preparing of medi-cines, potions and cosmetics, in dyeing fabrics, in cooking and, yes, in making ceramics. Some of these transformation processes were shrouded in mystery: alchemists searched for the Philosopher’s Stone able to transmute humble lead or mercury in shiny gold. At the outset of the 18th century European effort to recreate Chinese porcelain was initially based on alchemy. Johann Friedrich Böttger was pressed by his king, Augustus the Strong, to make gold by way of alchemy but what he found instead was the ‘white gold’, porcelain. Porce-lain as the product of a very special kind of transformation process appeals to all human senses as succinctly and lovingly expressed by Roald Hoffmann, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize in chemistry, in his essay on ‘Meissen chymistry’ (Hoffmann 2004): ‘Alchemy [was] a unique cultural experiment, which adopted chemical change (as we now know it) as a symbol, a kind of logo, for its philosophy of transformation. ... So the philosophy of change took on a chemical face. And then, I imagine, was co-opted by it. Alchemists became chemists.... One could make stoneware and glass, use them in everyday life. But anyone who has held a fine Song or Koryo vessel in one’s hands, rotated it, followed the fine crack-le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands faith in the possibility of transformation and a conviction that nature can be improved’.
1.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologiesThroughout this book, our main task will be to analyse technological processes leading to pottery in a historical perspective. For this it is helpful to classify any technological development process by two terms elaborated on by the eminent Canadian scholar of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin (1977, 1983a, 1999): holistic and prescriptive. Holistic processes may be associated with crafts and artistry, prescriptive ones with industry. During much of its history the process of making household pottery was, with a few notable exceptions, a typical holistic process involving a single, step-wise approximation towards the final object whereby the potter, starting with a conscious selection of appropriate raw materials, must master the whole succession of steps required to produce the pot (Fig. 1.2). The salient questions of who chooses and why such choices need to be made have been addressed recently in a series of papers presented to the World Archaeological Congress 4 (1999) that attempted to put the process of making pottery into a socio-cultural context, linking the producer to the consumer of pottery (Sillar & Tite 2000, Livingstone Smith 2000, Sillar 2000, Pool 2000). A lively discussion around these papers has added much additional background and compelling insights into the paradigm of technological choices in ceramic production and dispersion (for example Cumberpatch 2001, Griffiths 2001, Kolb 2001). As it turns out the holistic process is a sequential, linear development as each small step depends on, and is determined by the successful outcome of the preceding step. The potter
Sample
le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere
Sample
le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic
Sample
clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands
Sample
does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands
Sample
faith in the possibility of transformation and a conviction that nature can be improved’.
Sample
faith in the possibility of transformation and a conviction that nature can be improved’.
1.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologies
Sample
1.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologiesThroughout this book, our main task will be to analyse technological processes leading to
Sample
Throughout this book, our main task will be to analyse technological processes leading to pottery in a historical perspective. For this it is helpful to classify any technological
Sample
pottery in a historical perspective. For this it is helpful to classify any technological development process by two terms elaborated on by the eminent Canadian scholar of
Sample
development process by two terms elaborated on by the eminent Canadian scholar of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin (1977, 1983a, 1999):
Sample
ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin (1977, 1983a, 1999): Holistic processes may be associated with crafts and artistry, prescriptive ones with industry. Sam
ple
Holistic processes may be associated with crafts and artistry, prescriptive ones with industry. During much of its history the process of making household pottery was, with a few notable Sam
ple
During much of its history the process of making household pottery was, with a few notable Sample
exceptions, a typical holistic process involving a single, step-wise approximation towards Sample
exceptions, a typical holistic process involving a single, step-wise approximation towards the final object whereby the potter, starting with a conscious selection of appropriate raw Sam
ple
the final object whereby the potter, starting with a conscious selection of appropriate raw materials, must master the whole succession of steps required to produce the pot (Fig. 1.2).
Sample
materials, must master the whole succession of steps required to produce the pot (Fig. 1.2).
page
sthe Philosopher’s Stone able to transmute humble lead or mercury in shiny gold. At the
page
sthe Philosopher’s Stone able to transmute humble lead or mercury in shiny gold. At the
century European effort to recreate Chinese porcelain was initially based
page
s century European effort to recreate Chinese porcelain was initially based on alchemy. Johann Friedrich Böttger was pressed by his king, Augustus the Strong, to make
page
son alchemy. Johann Friedrich Böttger was pressed by his king, Augustus the Strong, to make gold by way of alchemy but what he found instead was the ‘white gold’, porcelain. Porce-
page
sgold by way of alchemy but what he found instead was the ‘white gold’, porcelain. Porce-lain as the product of a very special kind of transformation process appeals to all human
page
slain as the product of a very special kind of transformation process appeals to all human senses as succinctly and lovingly expressed by Roald Hoffmann, winner of the 1981 Nobel
page
ssenses as succinctly and lovingly expressed by Roald Hoffmann, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize in chemistry, in his essay on ‘Meissen chymistry’ (Hoffmann 2004):
page
sPrize in chemistry, in his essay on ‘Meissen chymistry’ (Hoffmann 2004): ‘Alchemy [was] a
page
s‘Alchemy [was] a
unique cultural experiment, which adopted chemical change (as we now know it) as a
page
sunique cultural experiment, which adopted chemical change (as we now know it) as a symbol, a kind of logo, for its philosophy of transformation. ... So the philosophy of change
page
ssymbol, a kind of logo, for its philosophy of transformation. ... So the philosophy of change took on a chemical face. And then, I imagine, was co-opted by it. Alchemists became
page
stook on a chemical face. And then, I imagine, was co-opted by it. Alchemists became chemists.... One could make stoneware and glass, use them in everyday life. But anyone pa
ges
chemists.... One could make stoneware and glass, use them in everyday life. But anyone who has held a fine Song or Koryo vessel in one’s hands, rotated it, followed the fine crack-pa
ges
who has held a fine Song or Koryo vessel in one’s hands, rotated it, followed the fine crack-le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere pa
ges
le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic pa
ges
clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands
page
s
does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands
eschweizerbart_xxx
6 Part I
is always in control, and his or her knowledge, experience and judgement determine the sequence of the process as well as its end (Franklin 1980).
This actually comes with a penalty. Owing to the nature of ceramics, the raw materials used in their production have a much larger impact on their final properties than is the case of metals and also polymers. This is because, beyond the initial basic cleaning and aging treat-ment of clays, there are no intermediate refinement/purification steps for ceramics as there are for metals that may include melting, solidification, refining and plastic deformation designed to improve the properties of the end product. Not so in the case of ceramics. All imperfections inherent in the ceramic paste and the resulting green body propagate into magnified imperfections of the fired product. This has been dubbed the ‘domino effect’ that emphasises the dependence of the final properties of the ceramic product on the character-istics, and error and failure range of every processing step, and in particular on the charac-teristics of the raw materials such as clay, quartz, and feldspars. None of these minerals used in processing traditional ceramics can be treated as well-defined compositions. This means that they do not have the compositions given by their (idealised) chemical formulae and consequently impart a large variability on the pottery produced therewith. Adding the vari-ability inherent in the technological process such as type of forming, extent of drying, firing time, firing temperature, firing atmosphere and several other factors including applying decorations by painting and glazing it is evident that the end product of this chain of pro-duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.
On the other hand, prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division of labour: the total work process is subdivided into rather simple unit processes that repre-sent autonomous skills and thus draws on different groups of workers. Hence a considera-ble degree of abstraction and a solid technical understanding are necessary to integrate the individual unit processes by appropriate measures of work organisation. Often special skills became exclusive prerogative domains of specific clans, groups or families to arrive at spe-cialisation according to the type of product, for example one potter may produce utilitarian vessels such as pots, jars and pans for everyday use while others may produce exclusively pottery for religious rites such as vessels and figurines for divination (Herskovits 1952). There is also a notion that in some instances geologically similar clays from individual sedimentary strata of a common deposit were utilised to produce different ceramic wares with different functional characteristics caused by variable chemistries and grain size distri-butions (Michelaki & Hancock 2011). However, despite these specialisations the produc-tion process of pottery in essence was still holistic.
The development of ceramics technology from holistic towards prescriptive may be recast in terms of the modern concept of ‘strange attractors’ (Ruelle 1980) that was introduced to describe the complex, in fact chaotic and thus non-deterministic interaction of technology and society (Kafka 1994). Changes in societal structures, technologies, and also materials utilisation require a paradigm shift (Kuhn 1996) that corresponds to a jump from one attrac-tor to the next probable one, that is, a neighbouring attractor6. This next-nearest attractor
6 An attractor is a pattern in some sub-space of possibilities that interacts (attracts) with the develop-ment path of a neighbouring subsystem. ‘We actually might call it the “idea” of this pattern. An attractor that has proven its viability is likely to be used as a building block in the evolution of still
Sample
duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.
Sample
duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.
prescriptive technologies
Sample
prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division
Sample
involve what anthropologists call the division prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division prescriptive technologies
Sample
prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division prescriptive technologiesof labour: the total work process is subdivided into rather simple unit processes that repre-
Sample
of labour: the total work process is subdivided into rather simple unit processes that repre-
Sample
sent autonomous skills and thus draws on different groups of workers. Hence a considera-
Sample
sent autonomous skills and thus draws on different groups of workers. Hence a considera-ble degree of abstraction and a solid technical understanding are necessary to integrate the
Sample
ble degree of abstraction and a solid technical understanding are necessary to integrate the individual unit processes by appropriate measures of work organisation. Often special skills
Sample
individual unit processes by appropriate measures of work organisation. Often special skills became exclusive prerogative domains of specific clans, groups or families to arrive at spe-
Sample
became exclusive prerogative domains of specific clans, groups or families to arrive at spe-cialisation according to the type of product, for example one potter may produce utilitarian
Sample
cialisation according to the type of product, for example one potter may produce utilitarian vessels such as pots, jars and pans for everyday use while others may produce exclusively
Sample
vessels such as pots, jars and pans for everyday use while others may produce exclusively pottery for religious rites such as vessels and figurines for divination (Herskovits 1952).
Sample
pottery for religious rites such as vessels and figurines for divination (Herskovits 1952). There is also a notion that in some instances geologically similar clays from individual
Sample
There is also a notion that in some instances geologically similar clays from individual
Sample
sedimentary strata of a common deposit were utilised to produce different ceramic wares
Sample
sedimentary strata of a common deposit were utilised to produce different ceramic wares with different functional characteristics caused by variable chemistries and grain size distri-Sam
ple
with different functional characteristics caused by variable chemistries and grain size distri-butions (Michelaki & Hancock 2011). However, despite these specialisations the produc-Sam
ple
butions (Michelaki & Hancock 2011). However, despite these specialisations the produc-tion process of pottery in essence was still holistic.Sam
ple
tion process of pottery in essence was still holistic.Sample
The development of ceramics technology from holistic towards prescriptive may be recast Sample
The development of ceramics technology from holistic towards prescriptive may be recast in terms of the modern concept of ‘strange attractors’ (Ruelle 1980) that was introduced to
Sample
in terms of the modern concept of ‘strange attractors’ (Ruelle 1980) that was introduced to
page
sdesigned to improve the properties of the end product. Not so in the case of ceramics. All
page
sdesigned to improve the properties of the end product. Not so in the case of ceramics. All imperfections inherent in the ceramic paste and the resulting green body propagate into
page
simperfections inherent in the ceramic paste and the resulting green body propagate into magnified imperfections of the fired product. This has been dubbed the ‘domino effect’ that
page
smagnified imperfections of the fired product. This has been dubbed the ‘domino effect’ that emphasises the dependence of the final properties of the ceramic product on the character-
page
semphasises the dependence of the final properties of the ceramic product on the character-istics, and error and failure range of every processing step, and in particular on the charac-
page
sistics, and error and failure range of every processing step, and in particular on the charac-teristics of the raw materials such as clay, quartz, and feldspars. None of these minerals used
page
steristics of the raw materials such as clay, quartz, and feldspars. None of these minerals used in processing traditional ceramics can be treated as well-defined compositions. This means
page
sin processing traditional ceramics can be treated as well-defined compositions. This means that they do not have the compositions given by their (idealised) chemical formulae and
page
sthat they do not have the compositions given by their (idealised) chemical formulae and consequently impart a large variability on the pottery produced therewith. Adding the vari-
page
sconsequently impart a large variability on the pottery produced therewith. Adding the vari-ability inherent in the technological process such as type of forming, extent of drying, firing
page
sability inherent in the technological process such as type of forming, extent of drying, firing time, firing temperature, firing atmosphere and several other factors including applying pa
ges
time, firing temperature, firing atmosphere and several other factors including applying decorations by painting and glazing it is evident that the end product of this chain of pro-pa
ges
decorations by painting and glazing it is evident that the end product of this chain of pro-duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.pa
ges
duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.
involve what anthropologists call the division page
s involve what anthropologists call the division
eschweizerbart_xxx
253 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties
surround the formation and transformation of this most abundant clay mineral, mostly re-lated to its widely varying chemical composition, small crystal size, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation sequences in the geologic environ-ment over time.
3.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay mineralsThe importance of clays as raw materials for traditional ceramics, their widespread occur-rence, chemical and structural variability, and the dependence of processing and firing properties on the phase composition of the precursor materials of ceramic products has led, among much research into their physico-chemical properties, to several attempts to devel-op a comprehensive system of clay nomenclature. More recently, utilisation of clays as sealing and ion-exchange and sorption components in geological barriers of disposal fa-cilities for domestic and nuclear wastes has added much to this quest (see for example Serne & Muller 1987, Ricci 1999).
Brindley (1951) reported the earliest efforts to obtain international collaboration on nomen-clature and classification of clay minerals. Since then, national clay groups were formed, and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International Association for the Study of Clays) established in 1966. It has worked closely with other international groups, including the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CN-MMN) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), which is responsible for the formal recognition of new minerals and mineral names, and the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr). In contrast to the other national clay groups, however, The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee, established in 1963, remains in exist-ence and occasionally produces recommendations. The precursor to this committee was the Nomenclature Subcommittee, which was organized in 1961 by the (US) National Re-search Council. From time to time AIPEA issues recommendations in close contact with the national organisations (Guggenheim et al. 2006).
The structure of all silicates including clay minerals is best understood in terms of the geo-metric arrangement of atoms within each unit cell. The wide variety of silicate minerals in nature is essentially caused by the variety of geometrical combination of the basic elements of the constituting SiO4 tetrahedra. Since the changes that occur during the firing of pottery are essentially related to the rearrangement of the silicate into different structures, an under-standing of the basic structures of clay minerals is essential for the understanding of the firing process.
Clay minerals consist basically of hexagonal networks of SiO4 tetrahedra. The planes of all tetrahedra are in the plane of the network, and the tips of the tetrahedra point in the same direction. The oxygen atoms at these tetrahedra tips are bound to Al or Mg atoms; residual valencies are saturated through OH– ions. This means that the cations AI3+ or Mg2+ are in a six-fold coordinated (octahedral) position (Grim 1953).
Sample
and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International
Sample
and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature
Sample
Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International
Sample
Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International Association for the Study of Clays) established in 1966. It has worked closely with other
Sample
Association for the Study of Clays) established in 1966. It has worked closely with other international groups, including the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CN-
Sample
international groups, including the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CN-MMN) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), which is responsible for the
Sample
MMN) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), which is responsible for the formal recognition of new minerals and mineral names, and the International Union of
Sample
formal recognition of new minerals and mineral names, and the International Union of
Sample
Crystallography (IUCr). In contrast to the other national clay groups, however, The Clay
Sample
Crystallography (IUCr). In contrast to the other national clay groups, however, The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee, established in 1963, remains in exist-
Sample
Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee, established in 1963, remains in exist-ence and occasionally produces recommendations. The precursor to this committee was
Sample
ence and occasionally produces recommendations. The precursor to this committee was the Nomenclature Subcommittee, which was organized in 1961 by the (US) National Re-
Sample
the Nomenclature Subcommittee, which was organized in 1961 by the (US) National Re-search Council. From time to time AIPEA issues recommendations in close contact with the
Sample
search Council. From time to time AIPEA issues recommendations in close contact with the national organisations (Guggenheim et al. 2006).
Sample
national organisations (Guggenheim et al. 2006).
The structure of all silicates including clay minerals is best understood in terms of the geo-Sample
The structure of all silicates including clay minerals is best understood in terms of the geo-metric arrangement of atoms within each unit cell. The wide variety of silicate minerals in Sam
ple
metric arrangement of atoms within each unit cell. The wide variety of silicate minerals in Sample
nature is essentially caused by the variety of geometrical combination of the basic elements Sample
nature is essentially caused by the variety of geometrical combination of the basic elements of the constituting SiOSam
ple
of the constituting SiOare essentially related to the rearrangement of the silicate into different structures, an under-
Sample
are essentially related to the rearrangement of the silicate into different structures, an under-
page
sThe importance of clays as raw materials for traditional ceramics, their widespread occur-
page
sThe importance of clays as raw materials for traditional ceramics, their widespread occur-rence, chemical and structural variability, and the dependence of processing and firing
page
srence, chemical and structural variability, and the dependence of processing and firing properties on the phase composition of the precursor materials of ceramic products has led,
page
sproperties on the phase composition of the precursor materials of ceramic products has led, among much research into their physico-chemical properties, to several attempts to devel-
page
samong much research into their physico-chemical properties, to several attempts to devel-op a comprehensive system of clay nomenclature. More recently, utilisation of clays as
page
sop a comprehensive system of clay nomenclature. More recently, utilisation of clays as sealing and ion-exchange and sorption components in geological barriers of disposal fa-
page
ssealing and ion-exchange and sorption components in geological barriers of disposal fa-cilities for domestic and nuclear wastes has added much to this quest (see for example
page
scilities for domestic and nuclear wastes has added much to this quest (see for example
Brindley (1951) reported the earliest efforts to obtain international collaboration on nomen-page
sBrindley (1951) reported the earliest efforts to obtain international collaboration on nomen-clature and classification of clay minerals. Since then, national clay groups were formed, pa
ges
clature and classification of clay minerals. Since then, national clay groups were formed, and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International pa
ges
and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature pa
ges
Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International
page
s
Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International
eschweizerbart_xxx
26 Part I
Such minerals consist, then, essentially of two layers. One is the basal plane of the SiO4 tetrahedra, the other the octahedral layer of the Al or Mg hydroxide which is normally called the gibbsite (with Al) or brucite (with Mg) layer. In the gibbsite layer there are always two aluminium atoms for each group of 6(OH)– ions (dioctahedral layer) while in the bru-cite layer three Mg cations combine with 6(OH)– ions (trioctahedral layer). Kaolinite, with the basic formula Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig. 3.1, left).
In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral Al or Mg layer is sandwiched between two SiO4 tetrahedral layers (Fig. 3.1, right). Talc, with the formula Mg3[(OH)2/Si4O10], is one example of this type of trioctahedral three-layer min-eral. Pyrophyllite is the dioctahedral three-layer equivalent of kaolinite with the formula Al2[(OH)2/Si4O10l. If, in the three-layer minerals, part of the Si is substituted by Al, negative surface charges occur. These are compensated for by alkali cations that are bound between the layers. In that way the basic group of mica is formed. Table 3.1 summarizes some more common di- and trioctahedral sheet silicates with mica-like structure. The sudoite-chlorite family can be described as mica-like 2:1 mixed-layer structures alternating with ordered
Figure 3.1. Schematic structures of clay minerals. Left: Two-layer clay minerals (kaolinite) and tetrahedral SiO4 and octahedral AlO6 building units. Right: Three-layer clay minerals (talc, py-rophyllite). The arrangement of atoms refers to the six-rings of SiO4 tetrahedra typical for sheet silicates.
Table 3.1. Systematic of sheet silicates with mica-like structure.
Dioctahedral with gibbsite layers Trioctahedral with brucite layers
Two-layer structures
Kaolinite Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10]Halloysite-10Å Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10]·2H2O
‘Serpentine’ (Antigorite) Mg6[(OH)8/Si4O10]
Three-layer structures
Pyrophyllite Al2[(OH)2/Si4O10]Beidellite Al2[(OH)2/
(Si,Al)4O10]·(Ca,Na)0.3(H2O)4
Muscovite KAl2[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]Margarite CaAl2[(OH)2/(Si,Al)4O10]
Sudoite (Al,Fe)2[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]·Mg2Al(OH)6
Talc Mg3[(OH)2/Si4O10]Vermiculite Mg3[(OH)2/(Si,Al)4O10]·Mg0.35(H2O)4
Phlogopite KMg3[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]Clintonite CaMg2[(OH)2/(Si,Al)4O10]
Clinochlore (Mg,Al,Fe)3[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]·(Mg,Fe,Al)3(OH)6
O,OHSiAI
O,OHSiAIMg, Fe
Sample
], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig.
Sample
], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig.
In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral
Sample
In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral Al or Mg layer is sandwiched between two SiO
Sample
Al or Mg layer is sandwiched between two SiO4
Sample
4 tetrahedral layers (Fig. 3.1, right). Talc, with
Sample
tetrahedral layers (Fig. 3.1, right). Talc, with
10
Sample
10], is one example of this type of trioctahedral three-layer min-
Sample
], is one example of this type of trioctahedral three-layer min-
eral. Pyrophyllite is the dioctahedral three-layer equivalent of kaolinite with the formula
Sample
eral. Pyrophyllite is the dioctahedral three-layer equivalent of kaolinite with the formula
l. If, in the three-layer minerals, part of the Si is substituted by Al, negative
Sample
l. If, in the three-layer minerals, part of the Si is substituted by Al, negative
surface charges occur. These are compensated for by alkali cations that are bound between
Sample
surface charges occur. These are compensated for by alkali cations that are bound between the layers. In that way the basic group of mica is formed. Table 3.1 summarizes some more
Sample
the layers. In that way the basic group of mica is formed. Table 3.1 summarizes some more common di- and trioctahedral sheet silicates with mica-like structure. The sudoite-chlorite
Sample
common di- and trioctahedral sheet silicates with mica-like structure. The sudoite-chlorite family can be described as mica-like 2:1 mixed-layer structures alternating with ordered
Sample
family can be described as mica-like 2:1 mixed-layer structures alternating with ordered
Table 3.1.Sample
Table 3.1. Systematic of sheet silicates with mica-like structure.Sample
Systematic of sheet silicates with mica-like structure.Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Dioctahedral with gibbsite layersSample
Dioctahedral with gibbsite layers
Kaolinite AlSample
Kaolinite AlHalloysite-10Å Al
Sample
Halloysite-10Å Al
page
sSuch minerals consist, then, essentially of two layers. One is the basal plane of the SiO
page
sSuch minerals consist, then, essentially of two layers. One is the basal plane of the SiOtetrahedra, the other the octahedral layer of the Al or Mg hydroxide which is normally
page
stetrahedra, the other the octahedral layer of the Al or Mg hydroxide which is normally called the gibbsite (with Al) or brucite (with Mg) layer. In the gibbsite layer there are always
page
scalled the gibbsite (with Al) or brucite (with Mg) layer. In the gibbsite layer there are always
ions (dioctahedral layer) while in the bru-page
s ions (dioctahedral layer) while in the bru-
ions (trioctahedral layer). Kaolinite, with page
s ions (trioctahedral layer). Kaolinite, with
], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig. page
s], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig.
In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral pa
ges
In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral
Schematic structures of clay minerals. Left: Two-layer clay minerals (kaolinite) and
page
s Schematic structures of clay minerals. Left: Two-layer clay minerals (kaolinite) and building units. Right: Three-layer clay minerals (talc, py-
page
s building units. Right: Three-layer clay minerals (talc, py- tetrahedra typical for sheet
page
s tetrahedra typical for sheet
page
s
eschweizerbart_xxx
273 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties
gibbsite- (sudoite) or brucite (chlorite)-type interlayers. Margarite and clintonite belong to the brittle mica group.
On the other hand the relation of montmorillonite to pyrophyllite can be understood when one considers the partial substitution of Al by Mg in the octahedral layers of the latter. Like-wise the smectite group mineral beidellite is generated by partial substitution of Si by Al in the tetrahedral layer (Table 3.1). This again produces negative lattice charges (for determina-tion of the layer charge of 2:1 sheet silicates see Mermut & Lagaly 2001) which are com-pensated for by monovalent or divalent atoms such as Na+ or Ca2+. This can, in addition, cause the disintegration of the layered crystals and in that manner enables the entrance of water between the layers. It is on this basis that the ability of the smectite mineral group to absorb large amounts of water can be understood. Figure 3.2 summarizes the structure of smectitic clays minerals.
Figure 3.2. Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Al3+ in the octahedral layer is replaced by Mg2+, in beidellite some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al3+, and in nontronite some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al3+ and (all) Al3+ in the octahe-dral layer is replaced by Fe3+.
Sample
gibbsite- (sudoite) or brucite (chlorite)-type interlayers. Margarite and clintonite belong to
Sample
gibbsite- (sudoite) or brucite (chlorite)-type interlayers. Margarite and clintonite belong to the brittle mica group.
Sample
the brittle mica group.
On the other hand the relation of montmorillonite to pyrophyllite can be understood when
Sample
On the other hand the relation of montmorillonite to pyrophyllite can be understood when one considers the partial substitution of Al by Mg in the octahedral layers of the latter. Like-
Sample
one considers the partial substitution of Al by Mg in the octahedral layers of the latter. Like-wise the smectite group mineral beidellite is generated by partial substitution of Si by Al in
Sample
wise the smectite group mineral beidellite is generated by partial substitution of Si by Al in the tetrahedral layer (Table 3.1). This again produces negative lattice charges (for determina-Sam
ple
the tetrahedral layer (Table 3.1). This again produces negative lattice charges (for determina-tion of the layer charge of 2:1 sheet silicates see Mermut & Lagaly 2001) which are com-Sam
ple
tion of the layer charge of 2:1 sheet silicates see Mermut & Lagaly 2001) which are com-pensated for by monovalent or divalent atoms such as NaSam
ple
pensated for by monovalent or divalent atoms such as Nacause the disintegration of the layered crystals and in that manner enables the entrance of Sam
ple
cause the disintegration of the layered crystals and in that manner enables the entrance of water between the layers. It is on this basis that the ability of the smectite mineral group to
Sample
water between the layers. It is on this basis that the ability of the smectite mineral group to
Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Al
Sample
Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Al, in beidellite some of the Si
Sample
, in beidellite some of the Si4+
Sample
4+ in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al
Sample
in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Alin the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al
Sample
in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
page
s Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Alpa
ges
Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Alin the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al
page
s
in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Alpa
ges
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spa
ges
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eschweizerbart_xxx
28 Part I
3.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery
3.4.1 IlliteIllite appears to be the most abundant clay mineral next to kaolinite. However, despite copi-ous research performed stubborn mysteries still surround the formation and transformation of this clay mineral, mostly related to its widely varying chemical composition, small crystal size, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation se-quences in the geologic environment over time. It has been a long standing agreement that illite sensu lato can form basically by all three mechanisms discussed in section 3.2, in particular by inheritance, that is, through loss of potassium ions (degradation) during leach-ing of muscovite (dioctahedral illites) or biotite (trioctahedral illites), by transformation through addition of potassium ions (aggradation) to montmorillonite, and possibly also by neoformation involving precipitation from dilute colloidal weathering solutions.
The loss of easily soluble potassium ions from the trioctahedral mica biotite will be com-pensated for by ion exchange with H3O+ ions, by oxidation of Fe2+ ions, and by replacement of Al3+ in the octahedral layer by Si4+ ions. On the other hand, the dioctahedral mica mus-covite undergoes similar potassium loss by degradation and associated charge deficiency (Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some water is intercalated between the layer stacks.
Starting from an ideal muscovite lattice three possible reaction paths have been suggested as shown in Table 3.2. Path 1 assumes that K+ ions in the interlayer space will be replaced by H3O+ ions, path 2 considers that one K+ ion together with one OH– group of the octahe-dral layer will be replaced by two H2O molecules, and path 3 suggests that one Si4+ ion in the tetrahedral layer will be replaced by 4 protons. It should be emphasized that illite with increasing degradation approaches the chemical composition of kaolinite but the structural state of montmorillonite. Hence numerous interstratified ordered and disordered structure variants exist. However, the higher proportion of aluminium in the tetrahedral layer com-pared to montmorillonite requires more potassium as interlayer cation. As a result very little intracrystalline expansion occurs in illite.
Since the degree of crystallinity of illite in sediments increases with temperature it can be used as a marker to estimate the diagenetic-metamorphic zones (grades) of metasedimen-tary rocks of marine fine-clastic origin that are widespread in sedimentary basins and in the outer fold-and-thrust zones of the orogenic belts.
Table 3.2. Three feasible ways of illite formation from dioctahedral muscovites.
Interlayer Octahedral layer Tetrahedral layer
Muscovite K2 Al4(OH)4 Al2Si6 O20
Path 1 K(H3O) Al4(OH)4 Al2Si6 O20
Path 2 K(H2O) Al4(H2O)(OH)3 Al2Si6 O20
Path 3 K2 Al4(OH)4 Al2Si4H8O20
Sample
(Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral
Sample
(Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some
Sample
layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some water is intercalated between the layer stacks.
Sample
water is intercalated between the layer stacks.
Starting from an ideal muscovite lattice three possible reaction paths have been suggested
Sample
Starting from an ideal muscovite lattice three possible reaction paths have been suggested as shown in Table 3.2. Path 1 assumes that K
Sample
as shown in Table 3.2. Path 1 assumes that K+
Sample
+ ions in the interlayer space will be replaced
Sample
ions in the interlayer space will be replaced
ions, path 2 considers that one K
Sample
ions, path 2 considers that one K+
Sample
+ ion together with one OH
Sample
ion together with one OH
dral layer will be replaced by two H
Sample
dral layer will be replaced by two H2
Sample
2O molecules, and path 3 suggests that one Si
Sample
O molecules, and path 3 suggests that one Si
the tetrahedral layer will be replaced by 4 protons. It should be emphasized that illite with
Sample
the tetrahedral layer will be replaced by 4 protons. It should be emphasized that illite with increasing degradation approaches the chemical composition of kaolinite but the structural
Sample
increasing degradation approaches the chemical composition of kaolinite but the structural state of montmorillonite. Hence numerous interstratified ordered and disordered structure
Sample
state of montmorillonite. Hence numerous interstratified ordered and disordered structure variants exist. However, the higher proportion of aluminium in the tetrahedral layer com-
Sample
variants exist. However, the higher proportion of aluminium in the tetrahedral layer com-pared to montmorillonite requires more potassium as interlayer cation. As a result very little
Sample
pared to montmorillonite requires more potassium as interlayer cation. As a result very little
Sample
intracrystalline expansion occurs in illite.
Sample
intracrystalline expansion occurs in illite.
Since the degree of crystallinity of illite in sediments increases with temperature it can be Sample
Since the degree of crystallinity of illite in sediments increases with temperature it can be used as a marker to estimate the diagenetic-metamorphic zones (grades) of metasedimen-Sam
ple
used as a marker to estimate the diagenetic-metamorphic zones (grades) of metasedimen-tary rocks of marine fine-clastic origin that are widespread in sedimentary basins and in the Sam
ple
tary rocks of marine fine-clastic origin that are widespread in sedimentary basins and in the Sample
outer fold-and-thrust zones of the orogenic belts. Sample
outer fold-and-thrust zones of the orogenic belts.
page
ssize, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation se-
page
ssize, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation se-quences in the geologic environment over time. It has been a long standing agreement that
page
squences in the geologic environment over time. It has been a long standing agreement that can form basically by all three mechanisms discussed in section 3.2, in
page
s can form basically by all three mechanisms discussed in section 3.2, in that is, through loss of potassium ions (degradation) during leach-
page
s that is, through loss of potassium ions (degradation) during leach-ing of muscovite (dioctahedral illites) or biotite (trioctahedral illites), by
page
sing of muscovite (dioctahedral illites) or biotite (trioctahedral illites), by transformation
page
stransformationthrough addition of potassium ions (aggradation) to montmorillonite, and possibly also by
page
sthrough addition of potassium ions (aggradation) to montmorillonite, and possibly also by
involving precipitation from dilute colloidal weathering solutions.
page
s involving precipitation from dilute colloidal weathering solutions.
The loss of easily soluble potassium ions from the trioctahedral mica biotite will be com-
page
sThe loss of easily soluble potassium ions from the trioctahedral mica biotite will be com-
ions, by oxidation of Fe
page
s ions, by oxidation of Fe2+
page
s2+ ions, and by replacement
page
s ions, and by replacement
ions. On the other hand, the dioctahedral mica mus-page
s ions. On the other hand, the dioctahedral mica mus-
covite undergoes similar potassium loss by degradation and associated charge deficiency page
scovite undergoes similar potassium loss by degradation and associated charge deficiency (Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral pa
ges
(Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some pa
ges
layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some
eschweizerbart_xxx
293 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties
3.4.2 KaoliniteKaolinite, Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10] is the typical weathering product of feldspar under temperate-humid climate conditions and in the presence of surplus water of slightly acidic pH that is sufficient to remove completely the alkali and alkali earth ions of the parent feldspars. In contrast to illite, most kaolinite minerals are formed in situ, that is, they remain where they were formed by weathering of granite or related rocks (autochthonous). Rocks rich in kao-linite are known as china clay, white clay, or kaolin.
The name kaolinite derives from Chinese: ; pinyin: kao-ling (‘High Hill’) near Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, China (see Chapter 18).
The mineral exists in four main structural variants: triclinic kaolinite, monoclinic dickite, and monoclinic nacrite as well as b-axis distorted fireclay. While kaolinite is considered one of the products of deep weathering of feldspars occurring in granitic rocks, the mineral can also form by hydrothermal routes (Huertas et al. 1999) and as a product of diagenesis and low-grade metamorphosis in sandstones (Ruiz Cruz & Andreo 1996). There is also the notion that some kaolin deposits may have been formed under pneumatolytic conditions in the presence of fluorine ions that result in additional formation of fluorspar as found in Cornish stone. However, in this case the high temperature minerals dickite and/or nacrite should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).
3.4.3 MontmorilloniteMontmorillonite, a member of the smectite family (Fig. 3.2), has only limited importance for making pottery. This is based on the fact that ceramic green bodies formed from clays rich in expandable three-layer smectitic clay minerals such as montmorillonite show during dry-ing a large degree of shrinkage and hence the appearance of many cracks in the leather-hard body. Indeed, clay containing montmorillonite in excess of 20 mass% shows reduced green body strength as well as reduced compressive strength of the fired ceramic object (Stegmüller 1956). Consequently such ‘fat’ clays must be rendered ‘lean’ by adding copious amounts of sand, rock, grog, bone or shell (see Chapter 17) temper. In the crystal structure of montmorillonite sensu strictu Al ions in the octahedral layer are partially replaced by Mg. For charge balance hydrated alkali ions such as Na+ or alkaline earth ions such as Ca2+ are fixed in the interlayer space. Intercalation of hydrated Ca2+ ions causes the crystallographic identity period in c-direction to swell from about 1 to 2 nm whereas Na+ ions, owing to their much lower crystal field strength and associated high zeta potential, lead to much larger c-axis values. Such Na-montmorillonites form gels due to lack of attractive forces within the electric double layer surrounding the clay mineral grains. On the other hand, addition of Ca2+ ions induce flocculation, limits the shrink-swell ratio and in general generate rheo-logical properties that are conducive to good workability and green body strength. Since K+ and ammonium (NH4
+) ions can also be intercalated smectites are important carriers of these fertilising ions. This may have been one of the reasons why in the past agricultural people settled preferentially in river valleys rich in such fertile clays. An example will be shown in Chapter 17 that describes American Indian pottery from the Mississippi valley.
Sample
should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).
Sample
should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).
3.4.3 Montmorillonite
Sample
3.4.3 MontmorilloniteMontmorillonite, a member of the smectite family (Fig. 3.2), has only limited importance for
Sample
Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite family (Fig. 3.2), has only limited importance for making pottery. This is based on the fact that ceramic green bodies formed from clays rich
Sample
making pottery. This is based on the fact that ceramic green bodies formed from clays rich in expandable three-layer smectitic clay minerals such as montmorillonite show during dry-
Sample
in expandable three-layer smectitic clay minerals such as montmorillonite show during dry-ing a large degree of shrinkage and hence the appearance of many cracks in the leather-
Sample
ing a large degree of shrinkage and hence the appearance of many cracks in the leather-hard body. Indeed, clay containing montmorillonite in excess of 20 mass% shows reduced
Sample
hard body. Indeed, clay containing montmorillonite in excess of 20 mass% shows reduced
Sample
green body strength as well as reduced compressive strength of the fired ceramic object
Sample
green body strength as well as reduced compressive strength of the fired ceramic object (Stegmüller 1956). Consequently such ‘fat’ clays must be rendered ‘lean’ by adding copious
Sample
(Stegmüller 1956). Consequently such ‘fat’ clays must be rendered ‘lean’ by adding copious amounts of sand, rock, grog, bone or shell (see Chapter 17) temper. In the crystal structure
Sample
amounts of sand, rock, grog, bone or shell (see Chapter 17) temper. In the crystal structure of montmorillonite Sam
ple
of montmorillonite sensu strictuSample
sensu strictuFor charge balance hydrated alkali ions such as NaSam
ple
For charge balance hydrated alkali ions such as Nafixed in the interlayer space. Intercalation of hydrated CaSam
ple
fixed in the interlayer space. Intercalation of hydrated Caidentity period in c-direction to swell from about 1 to 2 nm whereas NaSam
ple
identity period in c-direction to swell from about 1 to 2 nm whereas Namuch lower crystal field strength and associated high zeta potential, lead to much larger
Sample
much lower crystal field strength and associated high zeta potential, lead to much larger
page
s; pinyin: kao-ling (‘High Hill’) near
page
s; pinyin: kao-ling (‘High Hill’) near
The mineral exists in four main structural variants: triclinic kaolinite, monoclinic dickite,
page
sThe mineral exists in four main structural variants: triclinic kaolinite, monoclinic dickite, and monoclinic nacrite as well as b-axis distorted fireclay. While kaolinite is considered
page
sand monoclinic nacrite as well as b-axis distorted fireclay. While kaolinite is considered one of the products of deep weathering of feldspars occurring in granitic rocks, the mineral
page
sone of the products of deep weathering of feldspars occurring in granitic rocks, the mineral can also form by hydrothermal routes (Huertas et al. 1999) and as a product of diagenesis
page
scan also form by hydrothermal routes (Huertas et al. 1999) and as a product of diagenesis and low-grade metamorphosis in sandstones (Ruiz Cruz & Andreo 1996). There is also the
page
sand low-grade metamorphosis in sandstones (Ruiz Cruz & Andreo 1996). There is also the notion that some kaolin deposits may have been formed under pneumatolytic conditions in
page
snotion that some kaolin deposits may have been formed under pneumatolytic conditions in the presence of fluorine ions that result in additional formation of fluorspar as found in pa
ges
the presence of fluorine ions that result in additional formation of fluorspar as found in Cornish stone. However, in this case the high temperature minerals dickite and/or nacrite pa
ges
Cornish stone. However, in this case the high temperature minerals dickite and/or nacrite should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).pa
ges
should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).
eschweizerbart_xxx
30 Part I
Smectites such as montmorillonite intercalate not just hydrated ions but also polar organic molecules such as fatty acids. This is why montmorillonite-rich clays, so-called bentonites were used since ancient times in the process of tanning animal hides to take up oils and fat. Also, they were used in fulling of felt and cloth, hence the old name Fuller’s Earth for ben-tonite rocks. For details the reader is referred to Heimann (2010).
3.4.4 OthersAnother mineral frequently associated with bentonite deposits is the clay-type mineral pa-lygorskite (a.k.a. attapulgite), a magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate with the formula (Mg,Al)2[OH/Si4O10]·4H2O. The structure consists of sheets of six-membered rings of SiO4 tetrahedra parallel (100), linked by strips of edge-sharing MgO6 (and AlO6) octahedra aligned parallel to [001]. The four water molecules are accommodated in large channels parallel to the fibre axis [001]. These channels can also take up large organic molecule complexes such as indigo, a property exploited by the ancient Maya to synthesize the fa-mous Maya Blue (see below; also Chapter 17.2).
Palygorskite is presumed to have formed authigenically, either by conversion of detrital smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir & Akbulut 2011).
Palygorskite is the key constituent of Maya Blue used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisa-tion of Mesoamerica to colour ceramics, sculptures, murals and (most probably) textiles. It was produced by gentle heating of powdered palygorskite with the aqueous extract of añil leaves (Indigofera suffruticosa), with smaller amounts of other mineral additives. According to recent research (Chiari et al. 2003, Dejoie et al. 2010) the indigo molecule is partly accommodated internally in the structural channels of palygorskite thereby replacing wa-ter, and partly externally in grooves at the surface of the mineral fibres. In a remarkable development the ancient discovery of the pigment by the Maya was recently utilised to synthesise a modern environmentally stable blue pigment by incorporating the indigo mol-ecule into MFI zeolite (high-silica silicalite), a spectacular example of reverse engineering by ‘archaeomimetism’ (Dejoie et al. 2010).
Deposits of palygorskite in the Maya area were unknown for years, but archaeological re-search performed during the 1960s and more recently indicated two such sources at the cenote in the town of Sacalum and at a pre-Columbian mining site at Yo’ Sah Kab near Ticul, both in Yucatán (Arnold 2005).
The Maya Blue pigment was also manufactured and used in other Mesoamerican regions and cultures, for example by the Aztecs of central Mexico to colour their codices and early Colonial-era manuscripts and maps. Human sacrificial victims in post-Classic Mesoamerica were frequently daubed with this blue pigment (Haude 1997).
Sample
smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe
Sample
smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks
Sample
and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir
Sample
underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir
Palygorskite is the key constituent of Maya Blue used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisa-
Sample
Palygorskite is the key constituent of Maya Blue used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisa-
Sample
tion of Mesoamerica to colour ceramics, sculptures, murals and (most probably) textiles. It
Sample
tion of Mesoamerica to colour ceramics, sculptures, murals and (most probably) textiles. It was produced by gentle heating of powdered palygorskite with the aqueous extract of añil
Sample
was produced by gentle heating of powdered palygorskite with the aqueous extract of añil
Indigofera suffruticosa
Sample
Indigofera suffruticosa), with smaller amounts of other mineral additives. According
Sample
), with smaller amounts of other mineral additives. According
to recent research (Chiari et al. 2003, Dejoie et al. 2010) the indigo molecule is partly
Sample
to recent research (Chiari et al. 2003, Dejoie et al. 2010) the indigo molecule is partly accommodated internally in the structural channels of palygorskite thereby replacing wa-
Sample
accommodated internally in the structural channels of palygorskite thereby replacing wa-ter, and partly externally in grooves at the surface of the mineral fibres. In a remarkable
Sample
ter, and partly externally in grooves at the surface of the mineral fibres. In a remarkable development the ancient discovery of the pigment by the Maya was recently utilised to
Sample
development the ancient discovery of the pigment by the Maya was recently utilised to
Sample
synthesise a modern environmentally stable blue pigment by incorporating the indigo mol-
Sample
synthesise a modern environmentally stable blue pigment by incorporating the indigo mol-ecule into MFI zeolite (high-silica silicalite), a spectacular example of reverse engineering Sam
ple
ecule into MFI zeolite (high-silica silicalite), a spectacular example of reverse engineering by ‘archaeomimetism’ (Dejoie et al. 2010).Sam
ple
by ‘archaeomimetism’ (Dejoie et al. 2010).
Deposits of palygorskite in the Maya area were unknown for years, but archaeological re-Sample
Deposits of palygorskite in the Maya area were unknown for years, but archaeological re-Sample
search performed during the 1960s and more recently indicated two such sources at the Sample
search performed during the 1960s and more recently indicated two such sources at the
page
sAnother mineral frequently associated with bentonite deposits is the clay-type mineral pa-
page
sAnother mineral frequently associated with bentonite deposits is the clay-type mineral pa-lygorskite (a.k.a. attapulgite), a magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate with the formula
page
slygorskite (a.k.a. attapulgite), a magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate with the formula O. The structure consists of sheets of six-membered rings of SiO
page
sO. The structure consists of sheets of six-membered rings of SiOtetrahedra parallel (100), linked by strips of edge-sharing MgO
page
stetrahedra parallel (100), linked by strips of edge-sharing MgO6
page
s6 (and AlO
page
s (and AlO6
page
s6) octahedra
page
s) octahedra
aligned parallel to [001]. The four water molecules are accommodated in large channels
page
saligned parallel to [001]. The four water molecules are accommodated in large channels parallel to the fibre axis [001]. These channels can also take up large organic molecule
page
sparallel to the fibre axis [001]. These channels can also take up large organic molecule complexes such as indigo, a property exploited by the ancient Maya to synthesize the fa-
page
scomplexes such as indigo, a property exploited by the ancient Maya to synthesize the fa-
Palygorskite is presumed to have formed authigenically, either by conversion of detrital page
sPalygorskite is presumed to have formed authigenically, either by conversion of detrital smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe pa
ges
smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks pa
ges
and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir
page
sunderneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir
eschweizerbart_xxx
Chapter 7
Pottery kilns and firing technology
Synopsis
Pottery firing structures can be classified into two main types: (1) the work is embedded into the fuel bed before its ignition (surface or bonfire firing); (2) work separated from fuel and the hot combustion gases are passed over the work (kiln firing). Pottery kilns with complete separation of fuel and work providing higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption were invented in the Near East during the middle of the 6th millennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq. Of the countless type 2 firing structures in this chapter only a few will be addressed including simple domed structures, Attic and Corin-thian kilns, Roman Terra Sigillata kilns, Medieval stoneware kilns, Chinese and Japanese kilns (single-chambered, multi-chambered and hill-climbing), and early European porce-lain kilns (Meissen, Staffordshire). Calculation of the fuel consumption shows that ancient potters often sacrified technology for economy.
7.1 Pottery firing structures and devicesInformation on structure, development and functional principles of ancient pottery kilns as well as furnaces for melting glass, smelting ore and refining metals has been revealed by numerous archaeological excavations and ethnological studies. Some information is also available from the practical experiences collected by ancient ‘technical’ writers such as Theophilus49, Agricola50, Biringuccio (Fig. 7.1, left)51 and Ercker (Fig. 7.1, right)52. Whereas these ancient texts predominately concentrate on metallurgical issues such as smelting and refining of metals, accounts on pottery and pottery kilns are scant.
49 Theophilus Presbyter (Roger of Helmarshausen?, around 1122?) describes in the second book (‘The Art of the Worker in Glass’) of his work ‘De diversis artibus’ (On Divers Arts) in Chapters 1 (Building the furnace for working glass) and 22 (The kiln in which glass is fired) glass melting and annealing furnaces.
50 Georgius Agricola (1556). De Re Metallica Libri XII (On the Nature of Metals), Basel: Frobenius & Episcopius.
51 Vanoccio Biringuccio (1540). De La Pirotechnia (postumus). Venezia. Transl. H.S. Mudd, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurg., New York, 1943. Introduction by C.S. Smith and M.T. Gnudi. Book 9 (The Pro-cedure of Various Works of Fire) contains Chapter 14 (Discourse on the potter’s art, pp 392–394) and 15 (Concerning lime and bricks, pp 395–402) with illustrations of two forms of the potter’s wheel and a furnace for firing pottery (Fig. 76 therein) as well as brick and lime kilns (Fig. 77 therein).
52 Lazarus Ercker (1672). Aula Subterranea Domina Dominantium Subdita Subditorum, Frankfurt/Main: Johann David Zunner.
Sample
7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices
Sample
7.1 Pottery firing structures and devicesInformation on structure, development and functional principles of ancient pottery kilns as
Sample
Information on structure, development and functional principles of ancient pottery kilns as well as furnaces for melting glass, smelting ore and refining metals has been revealed by
Sample
well as furnaces for melting glass, smelting ore and refining metals has been revealed by numerous archaeological excavations and ethnological studies. Some information is also
Sample
numerous archaeological excavations and ethnological studies. Some information is also available from the practical experiences collected by ancient ‘technical’ writers such as
Sample
available from the practical experiences collected by ancient ‘technical’ writers such as
Sample
, Agricola
Sample
, Agricola50
Sample
50, Biringuccio (Fig. 7.1, left)
Sample
, Biringuccio (Fig. 7.1, left)
these ancient texts predominately concentrate on metallurgical issues such as smelting and
Sample
these ancient texts predominately concentrate on metallurgical issues such as smelting and refining of metals, accounts on pottery and pottery kilns are scant.
Sample
refining of metals, accounts on pottery and pottery kilns are scant.
Sample
49 Theophilus Presbyter (Roger of Helmarshausen?, around 1122?) describes in the second book Sample
49 Theophilus Presbyter (Roger of Helmarshausen?, around 1122?) describes in the second book (‘The Art of the Worker in Glass’) of his work ‘Sam
ple
(‘The Art of the Worker in Glass’) of his work ‘Sample
(Building the furnace for working glass) and 22 (The kiln in which glass is fired) glass melting and Sample
(Building the furnace for working glass) and 22 (The kiln in which glass is fired) glass melting and
page
sPottery firing structures can be classified into two main types: (1) the work is embedded into
page
sPottery firing structures can be classified into two main types: (1) the work is embedded into the fuel bed before its ignition (surface or bonfire firing); (2) work separated from fuel and
page
sthe fuel bed before its ignition (surface or bonfire firing); (2) work separated from fuel and the hot combustion gases are passed over the work (kiln firing). Pottery kilns with complete
page
sthe hot combustion gases are passed over the work (kiln firing). Pottery kilns with complete separation of fuel and work providing higher temperatures, better temperature control, and
page
sseparation of fuel and work providing higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption were invented in the Near East during the middle of the 6
page
sdecreased fuel consumption were invented in the Near East during the middle of the 6millennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq. Of the countless type 2 firing structures in this
page
smillennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq. Of the countless type 2 firing structures in this chapter only a few will be addressed including simple domed structures, Attic and Corin-
page
schapter only a few will be addressed including simple domed structures, Attic and Corin-thian kilns, Roman Terra Sigillata kilns, Medieval stoneware kilns, Chinese and Japanese
page
sthian kilns, Roman Terra Sigillata kilns, Medieval stoneware kilns, Chinese and Japanese kilns (single-chambered, multi-chambered and hill-climbing), and early European porce-
page
skilns (single-chambered, multi-chambered and hill-climbing), and early European porce-lain kilns (Meissen, Staffordshire). Calculation of the fuel consumption shows that ancient pa
ges
lain kilns (Meissen, Staffordshire). Calculation of the fuel consumption shows that ancient
eschweizerbart_xxx
104 Part I
In this chapter only structures and kilns used for firing of utilitarian and table ware will be discussed in some detail whereas special kilns to manufacture amphorae (for example Vitali 2005, Bogdani et al. 2010) and bricks will be consciously neglected.
Pottery kilns utilised in antiquity relied on natural draught provided by the heated air rising through the furnace structure53. Natural draught, as opposed to forced draught from bel-lows54, is rather weak but its force is sufficient to move amounts of air to burn fuel at a high enough rate to generate the temperatures required to fire pottery. To achieve these tempera-tures, the resistance to gas flow55 must be low, a factor that strongly influences kiln design
53 A furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated and transferred to the objects to be heated. The function of the container is to reduce heat loss to the surrounding, to establish a controlled atmosphere within, and to control the geometry of its content. Specifically, a kiln is a furnace fired with biomass as fuel and operated with natural draught air supply (Rehder 2000).
54 The dynamics of bellows-powered furnaces and their role in metallurgical processes were ex-plored by Rehder (2000). In particular, the dynamic behaviour of bag and bowl bellows in indig-enous African metallurgy was reviewed by Chirikure et al. (2009).
55 In a vertical arrangement, the effective draught height H (in m) is the vertical distance between the bottom of the fuel bed and the top of the flue. Hence keeping the fuel bed as thin as possible and the escape route of gas with the temperature tS (in °C) long, the resistance to the gas flow, that is
the pressure drop in the fuel bed in Pa, PS = 12 · H ⎛⎝1–298 ⎞
⎠S + 273 can be minimized (Rehder
Figure 7.1. Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page of Lazarus Ercker’s ‘Aula Subterranea’ (1672).
Sample
In this chapter only structures and kilns used for firing of utilitarian and table ware will be
Sample
In this chapter only structures and kilns used for firing of utilitarian and table ware will be discussed in some detail whereas special kilns to manufacture amphorae (for example Vitali
Sample
discussed in some detail whereas special kilns to manufacture amphorae (for example Vitali 2005, Bogdani et al. 2010) and bricks will be consciously neglected.
Sample
2005, Bogdani et al. 2010) and bricks will be consciously neglected.
Pottery kilns utilised in antiquity relied on natural draught provided by the heated air rising
Sample
Pottery kilns utilised in antiquity relied on natural draught provided by the heated air rising through the furnace structure
Sample
through the furnace structure53.
Sample
53. Natural draught, as opposed to forced draught from bel-
Sample
Natural draught, as opposed to forced draught from bel-
, is rather weak but its force is sufficient to move amounts of air to burn fuel at a high
Sample
, is rather weak but its force is sufficient to move amounts of air to burn fuel at a high
enough rate to generate the temperatures required to fire pottery. To achieve these tempera-
Sample
enough rate to generate the temperatures required to fire pottery. To achieve these tempera-tures, the resistance to gas flowSam
ple
tures, the resistance to gas flowSample
furnaceSample
furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated Sample
is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated furnaceSample
furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated furnaceand transferred to the objects to be heated. The function of the container is to reduce heat loss to Sam
ple
and transferred to the objects to be heated. The function of the container is to reduce heat loss to
Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page
Sample
Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page of Lazarus Ercker’s ‘Aula Subterranea’ (1672).
Sample
of Lazarus Ercker’s ‘Aula Subterranea’ (1672).
Sample
page
s Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page pa
ges
Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page page
s
eschweizerbart_xxx
1057 Pottery kilns and firing technology
and operation. The heat generated by combustion of biomass fuel must be efficiently trans-ferred to the ceramic objects (the ‘work’56) to be fired.
The way in which this heat transfer is achieved provides a general classification of kilns: either (i) the work is embedded into the fuel bed before its ignition (type 1) or (ii) the hot combustion gases are passed over the work (type 2) (Rehder 1987, 2000).
Early Neolithic pottery kilns, and medieval and modern blast furnaces in which fuel and ore are intimately mixed belong to the first type, advanced pottery kilns as well as reverbera-tory furnaces used to refine metals are of the second type. Accordingly, advanced pottery kilns are characterised by a fuel chamber or firebox, and a separate, but connected, work chamber or furnace proper. The work chamber may be placed above the firebox separated by a perforated floor as typical for so-called beehive kilns (Figs. 7.8, 7.9, 7.14), to one side of the firebox and usually sepa rated by a low wall (Fig. 7.10) or on an inclined floor adja-cent to the firebox (Fig. 7.18). The firebox may either con tain fuel in a simple heap on a floor over which combustion air is drawn, or the fuel may be supported on a grate. The lat-ter arrangement gives more uniform and controllable combus tion, and allows for more economical use of fuel. It is assumed that this type of pottery kiln became dominant in the Near East by about the 6th millennium BCE, not in the least triggered by the scarcity of fuel in this region. Air enters initially through openings behind or under the fuel, usually with a damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the (domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln wall, or by a chimney of some kind (Fig. 7.13).
7.1.1 Work mixed with fuel (type 1 kilns)The most simple ‘kiln’ arrangement was a heap of wood with the ceramic work to be fired mixed in and lit to achieve a surface (bonfire) fire. Heat from the burning fuel is transferred to the ceramic work predominately by radiation and conduction. However, the tempera-tures attained were necessarily rather low owing to high heat loss of the uncontained sys-tem in the form of a flame as well as radiation to the surroundings. Consequently, fuel consumption was high. The uncontrolled manner by which access of air is provided results in an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the mixed fuel-work heap, leading to frequent cracking of pots by differential thermal expansion. Also, direct contact of the hot ceramic surfaces with fuel ash leads to discolouration and streaking commonly seen in early Neolithic pottery. Even today this type of surface firing can be found worldwide in rural environments where simple unassuming pottery for everyday use is being produced (Fig. 17.2).
Recent experimental work by Maggetti et al. (2011a) on pottery surface-fired using straw and wood (alder, hazel, beech) showed that, depending on the heating rate, within 12–22 minutes maximum temperatures of 800–900 °C could easily be reached, well in accord
2000). For a Neolithic pottery kiln operated at an average gas temperature of 800 °C the pressure drop through the fuel is 8.7·H Pa.
56 The term ‘work’ refers here to the dried ‘green’ ceramic ware prior to firing.
Sample
damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the
Sample
damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the (domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln
Sample
(domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln wall, or by a chimney of some kind (Fig. 7.13).
Sample
wall, or by a chimney of some kind (Fig. 7.13).
7.1.1 Work mixed with fuel (type 1 kilns)
Sample
7.1.1 Work mixed with fuel (type 1 kilns)
Sample
The most simple ‘kiln’ arrangement was a heap of wood with the ceramic work to be fired
Sample
The most simple ‘kiln’ arrangement was a heap of wood with the ceramic work to be fired mixed in and lit to achieve a surface (bonfire) fire. Heat from the burning fuel is transferred
Sample
mixed in and lit to achieve a surface (bonfire) fire. Heat from the burning fuel is transferred to the ceramic work predominately by radiation and conduction. However, the tempera-
Sample
to the ceramic work predominately by radiation and conduction. However, the tempera-tures attained were necessarily rather low owing to high heat loss of the uncontained sys-
Sample
tures attained were necessarily rather low owing to high heat loss of the uncontained sys-tem in the form of a flame as well as radiation to the surroundings. Consequently, fuel
Sample
tem in the form of a flame as well as radiation to the surroundings. Consequently, fuel consumption was high. The uncontrolled manner by which access of air is provided results
Sample
consumption was high. The uncontrolled manner by which access of air is provided results in an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the mixed fuel-work heap, leading to Sam
ple
in an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the mixed fuel-work heap, leading to frequent cracking of pots by differential thermal expansion. Also, direct contact of the hot Sam
ple
frequent cracking of pots by differential thermal expansion. Also, direct contact of the hot Sample
ceramic surfaces with fuel ash leads to discolouration and streaking commonly seen in Sample
ceramic surfaces with fuel ash leads to discolouration and streaking commonly seen in early Neolithic pottery. Even today this type of surface firing can be found worldwide in Sam
ple
early Neolithic pottery. Even today this type of surface firing can be found worldwide in rural environments where simple unassuming pottery for everyday use is being produced
Sample
rural environments where simple unassuming pottery for everyday use is being produced
page
story furnaces used to refine metals are of the second type. Accordingly, advanced pottery
page
story furnaces used to refine metals are of the second type. Accordingly, advanced pottery kilns are characterised by a fuel chamber or firebox, and a separate, but connected, work
page
skilns are characterised by a fuel chamber or firebox, and a separate, but connected, work chamber or furnace proper. The work chamber may be placed above the firebox separated
page
schamber or furnace proper. The work chamber may be placed above the firebox separated by a perforated floor as typical for so-called beehive kilns (Figs. 7.8, 7.9, 7.14), to one side
page
sby a perforated floor as typical for so-called beehive kilns (Figs. 7.8, 7.9, 7.14), to one side of the firebox and usually sepa rated by a low wall (Fig. 7.10) or on an inclined floor adja-
page
sof the firebox and usually sepa rated by a low wall (Fig. 7.10) or on an inclined floor adja-cent to the firebox (Fig. 7.18). The firebox may either con tain fuel in a simple heap on a
page
scent to the firebox (Fig. 7.18). The firebox may either con tain fuel in a simple heap on a floor over which combustion air is drawn, or the fuel may be supported on a grate. The lat-
page
sfloor over which combustion air is drawn, or the fuel may be supported on a grate. The lat-ter arrangement gives more uniform and controllable combus
page
ster arrangement gives more uniform and controllable combus tion, and allows for more
page
stion, and allows for more
economical use of fuel. It is assumed that this type of pottery kiln became dominant in the
page
seconomical use of fuel. It is assumed that this type of pottery kiln became dominant in the
millennium BCE, not in the least triggered by the scarcity of fuel page
s millennium BCE, not in the least triggered by the scarcity of fuel
in this region. Air enters initially through openings behind or under the fuel, usually with a page
sin this region. Air enters initially through openings behind or under the fuel, usually with a damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the pa
ges
damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the (domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln pa
ges
(domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln
eschweizerbart_xxx
106 Part I
Figure 7.2. Open pit firing of traditional cooking pottery in the village of Gökeyüp, Turkey (Colak et al. 2006). Photo: Maggetti. © The Geological Society of London.
Figure 7.3. Temperature distributions vs. firing time in an experimentally fired pot (Maggetti et al. 2011a).
45
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s Open pit firing of traditional cooking pottery in the village of Gökeyüp, Turkey (Colak
page
s Open pit firing of traditional cooking pottery in the village of Gökeyüp, Turkey (Colak
he Geological Society of London.
page
she Geological Society of London.
page
spa
ges
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spa
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eschweizerbart_xxx
1077 Pottery kilns and firing technology
with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith (2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also commonly observed (Fig. 7.3).
Better firing conditions were attained when some kind of containment was provided to re-duce heat losses, to yield a more even temperature distribution, and to improve control of the firing atmosphere. The logical step was to move the firing operation below ground. This was the advent of pit furnaces, that is, holes in the ground lined with refractory clay, some kind of stoking channel at their bases, and openings at their upper rims to allow smoke to escape. This kind of furnace resembles even more primitive scove kilns used to fire bricks
Figure 7.4. Stacking of pottery on top of fuel in a primitive pit furnace (Heimann 1979). Photo: Heimann.
Figure 7.5. Improved early Iron Age pit furnace with separate firing (stoking) channel and four flues (air channels) constructed at a hillside of a clay pit (Limhamn, Skaane, Denmark) (Bjorn 1969).
Turf plaques
Stoking channel
Flue Clay pit
10
7
100 cm
Sample
with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith
Sample
with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith (2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also
Sample
(2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also
Better firing conditions were attained when some kind of containment was provided to re-
Sample
Better firing conditions were attained when some kind of containment was provided to re-duce heat losses, to yield a more even temperature distribution, and to improve control of
Sample
duce heat losses, to yield a more even temperature distribution, and to improve control of the firing atmosphere. The logical step was to move the firing operation below ground. This
Sample
the firing atmosphere. The logical step was to move the firing operation below ground. This
pit furnaces
Sample
pit furnaces, that is, holes in the ground lined with refractory clay, some
Sample
, that is, holes in the ground lined with refractory clay, some
kind of stoking channel at their bases, and openings at their upper rims to allow smoke to
Sample
kind of stoking channel at their bases, and openings at their upper rims to allow smoke to escape. This kind of furnace resembles even more primitive
Sample
escape. This kind of furnace resembles even more primitive
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
page
swith results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith pa
ges
with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith (2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also pa
ges
(2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also
Stacking of pottery on top of fuel in a primitive pit furnace (Heimann 1979). Photo:
page
s Stacking of pottery on top of fuel in a primitive pit furnace (Heimann 1979). Photo:
page
s
eschweizerbart_xxx
108 Part I
in ancient Mesopotamia. The work was stacked on top of the fuel (Fig. 7.4), most com-monly solid wood, twigs, straw, chaff or peat, and covered with plaques of turf or larger potsherds to minimize heat losses (Fig. 7.5). Apart from the fact that the heat loss through the surrounding soil and the top is much reduced, access of air can be somewhat controlled by opening or plugging the smoke escape holes in the base of the cover.
The improved arrangement of the Limhamn-type kiln (Fig. 7.5) was the progenitor of the complete separation of fuel and work that is, to separate the loci of generation and applica-tion of heat. Experimental firings with a reconstructed Limhamn kiln were performed at the Archaeological Centre in Leijre, Denmark, and maximum temperatures of 700 °C were re-corded.
Despite progress achieved over time there was one basic conceptual flaw: pit kilns are up-side down! A proper kiln should have the fuel at the bottom and the insulation on top since pit kilns are losing heat primarily through their top portion. However, a pit kiln with its mix of fuel and pots had the fuel mostly on top. Early potters may have tried to reverse this situ-ation by putting the fuel at the bottom but realised that as the fire burned down the pots would follow gravity, descent and break. Hence they were forced to keep the fuel on top since their kilns lacked permanent supports to separate fuel and work.
7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)The invention of the pottery kiln in which complete separation of fuel and work provided higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption is thought to have taken place in the Near East during the middle of the 6th millennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq (Merpert & Munchaev 1973, Hansen Streily 2000). In these kilns the work chamber was placed on top of the firebox separated by a perforated floor on which the work was stacked. A hole in the top of the upper (work) chamber generated natural draught that drew air through openings in the lower wall of the (fire) chamber underneath and subsequently the hot combustion gases through the holes in the perforated floor into the work chamber. Based on this principle a multitude of arrangements of fuel beds, work chambers, flues, stoking channels, and chimneys have been developed over time (Rhodes 1968). Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) was first to develop a typology of kilns dating to the Ro-man period in Italy and the Roman provinces based on shape (circular or rectangular) as well as number and position of pedestals, internal walls, and flues (Fig. 7.6, Table 7.1). A competing typology was later suggested by Davaras (1980) whose main criteria were the presence or absence of two different chambers, one for fuel and one for pottery, and the type of support for the perforated floor. Detailed information on kiln technology and or-ganisation of pottery workshops in ancient Greece, together with a comprehensive list of close to 500 kilns excavated and studied in mainland Greece and the Aegean islands can be found in the enormously readable Ph.D. dissertation of Hasaki (2002) who also amalga-mated the typologies of Cuomo di Caprio and Davaras to arrive at her own system to clas-sify Greek pottery kilns.
Even despite improved firing technology large temperature gradients within an updraught kiln are to be expected. For example, the temperature variation within a reconstructed me-
Sample
7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)
Sample
7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)The invention of the pottery kiln in which complete separation of fuel and work provided
Sample
The invention of the pottery kiln in which complete separation of fuel and work provided higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption is thought
Sample
higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption is thought to have taken place in the Near East during the middle of the 6
Sample
to have taken place in the Near East during the middle of the 6Tepe in ancient Iraq (Merpert & Munchaev 1973, Hansen Streily 2000). In these kilns the
Sample
Tepe in ancient Iraq (Merpert & Munchaev 1973, Hansen Streily 2000). In these kilns the work chamber was placed on top of the firebox separated by a perforated floor on which
Sample
work chamber was placed on top of the firebox separated by a perforated floor on which the work was stacked. A hole in the top of the upper (work) chamber generated natural
Sample
the work was stacked. A hole in the top of the upper (work) chamber generated natural
Sample
draught that drew air through openings in the lower wall of the (fire) chamber underneath
Sample
draught that drew air through openings in the lower wall of the (fire) chamber underneath and subsequently the hot combustion gases through the holes in the perforated floor into
Sample
and subsequently the hot combustion gases through the holes in the perforated floor into the work chamber. Based on this principle a multitude of arrangements of fuel beds, work
Sample
the work chamber. Based on this principle a multitude of arrangements of fuel beds, work chambers, flues, stoking channels, and chimneys have been developed over time (Rhodes
Sample
chambers, flues, stoking channels, and chimneys have been developed over time (Rhodes 1968). Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) was first to develop a typology of kilns dating to the Ro-Sam
ple
1968). Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) was first to develop a typology of kilns dating to the Ro-man period in Italy and the Roman provinces based on shape (circular or rectangular) as Sam
ple
man period in Italy and the Roman provinces based on shape (circular or rectangular) as well as number and position of pedestals, internal walls, and flues (Fig. 7.6, Table 7.1). A Sam
ple
well as number and position of pedestals, internal walls, and flues (Fig. 7.6, Table 7.1). A competing typology was later suggested by Davaras (1980) whose main criteria were the Sam
ple
competing typology was later suggested by Davaras (1980) whose main criteria were the presence or absence of two different chambers, one for fuel and one for pottery, and the
Sample
presence or absence of two different chambers, one for fuel and one for pottery, and the
page
stion of heat. Experimental firings with a reconstructed Limhamn kiln were performed at the
page
stion of heat. Experimental firings with a reconstructed Limhamn kiln were performed at the Archaeological Centre in Leijre, Denmark, and maximum temperatures of 700 °C were re-
page
sArchaeological Centre in Leijre, Denmark, and maximum temperatures of 700 °C were re-
Despite progress achieved over time there was one basic conceptual flaw: pit kilns are up-
page
sDespite progress achieved over time there was one basic conceptual flaw: pit kilns are up-side down! A proper kiln should have the fuel at the bottom and the insulation on top since
page
sside down! A proper kiln should have the fuel at the bottom and the insulation on top since pit kilns are losing heat primarily through their top portion. However, a pit kiln with its mix
page
spit kilns are losing heat primarily through their top portion. However, a pit kiln with its mix of fuel and pots had the fuel mostly on top. Early potters may have tried to reverse this situ-
page
sof fuel and pots had the fuel mostly on top. Early potters may have tried to reverse this situ-ation by putting the fuel at the bottom but realised that as the fire burned down the pots
page
sation by putting the fuel at the bottom but realised that as the fire burned down the pots would follow gravity, descent and break. Hence they were forced to keep the fuel on top
page
swould follow gravity, descent and break. Hence they were forced to keep the fuel on top since their kilns lacked permanent supports to separate fuel and work. pa
ges
since their kilns lacked permanent supports to separate fuel and work.
7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)page
s7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)
eschweizerbart_xxx
1097 Pottery kilns and firing technology
dieval brick kiln (Geck & Westphalen 1998) utilised in experiments to assess the technology of making the large bricks found at the Cistercian monastery St. Urban, Canton of Lucerne, Switzerland showed values around 200 °C, with excursions up to 600 °C at peak firing temperature (Wolf 2002). A very detailed account on construction and functioning of a simple Indian traditional updraught pottery kiln was given by Beaudry et al. (1987) in con-text with Smithsonian Institution’s exhibition ‘Aditi: The Living Arts of India. A Celebration of Life’, shown in 1985 in Washington, D.C.
Table 7.1. Features of pottery kilns shown in Fig. 7.6 according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72).
Circular or oval shape (type I) Rectangular shape (type II)
Ia Central pedestal IIa Central wall
Ib1, Ib2 Radial or tongue-shaped pilasters IIb Central corridor with cross-walls and cross-flues
Ic Arches IIc Double corridor with cross-walls and cross-flues
Id Central corridor with parallel walls and cross-flues
IId Double praefurnium and double corridor with cross-walls and
cross-flues
Figure 7.6. Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from Hasaki 2002).
Sample
dieval brick kiln (Geck & Westphalen 1998) utilised in experiments to assess the technology
Sample
dieval brick kiln (Geck & Westphalen 1998) utilised in experiments to assess the technology of making the large bricks found at the Cistercian monastery St. Urban, Canton of Lucerne,
Sample
of making the large bricks found at the Cistercian monastery St. Urban, Canton of Lucerne, Switzerland showed values around 200 °C, with excursions up to 600 °C at peak firing
Sample
Switzerland showed values around 200 °C, with excursions up to 600 °C at peak firing temperature (Wolf 2002). A very detailed account on construction and functioning of a
Sample
temperature (Wolf 2002). A very detailed account on construction and functioning of a simple Indian traditional updraught pottery kiln was given by Beaudry et al. (1987) in con-
Sample
simple Indian traditional updraught pottery kiln was given by Beaudry et al. (1987) in con-text with Smithsonian Institution’s exhibition ‘Aditi: The Living Arts of India. A Celebration
Sample
text with Smithsonian Institution’s exhibition ‘Aditi: The Living Arts of India. A Celebration of Life’, shown in 1985 in Washington, D.C.
Sample
of Life’, shown in 1985 in Washington, D.C.
Table 7.1.Sample
Table 7.1. Features of pottery kilns shown in Fig. 7.6 according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72).Sample
Features of pottery kilns shown in Fig. 7.6 according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72).Sample
Sample
Circular or oval shape (type I)Sam
ple
Circular or oval shape (type I)
Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from
Sample
Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from
Sample
page
s Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from
page
s Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from
page
s
eschweizerbart_xxx
110 Part I
Simple domed structures
Throughout history it was common to build a permanent firebox with a perforated roof onto which the work was stacked, and over which was constructed a domed cover with a vent on top. This resulted in so-called beehive kilns. After the firing process was completed the cover was demolished and rebuild for the next firing (Fig. 7.7). This was clearly a waste of resources, labour and time. Hence the development went towards completely permanent and increasingly larger structures.
Figure 7.8 shows the reconstruction of the mobile pottery kiln of a travelling potter during Roman Imperial time, excavated in Weddinghusen, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The ce-ramic work was separated from the fuel by a holey platform (Fig. 7.8, left) through which the hot combustion gases could rise to heat the pottery. The work to be fired was loaded onto the platform, and then covered by a moveable terracotta cupola and sealed more or less airtight by a soil backfill (Fig. 7.8, right). With this arrangement maximum firing tem-peratures of about 950 °C could be achieved during reducing firing. The reconstruction shown here and the re-enactment of the firing process took place during a symposium on ‘Firing technologies and their recovery through experimental archaeology’ held from March 29 to April 1, 1977 on the grounds of the Museum Village Berlin-Düppel, Germany.
Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1st century BCE) pottery kiln from Nimptsch, Lower Silesia (Fig. 7.9).
Figure 7.7. Ancient Egyptian pottery kilns (2nd millennium BCE) based on wall paintings in Tomb 2 of Beni Hasan, Egypt. On the top panel a potter is shown stoking the fire of a tall domed kiln. On the bottom panel a potter is unloading the fired pottery after the dome has been dismantled. © Rockefeller Archaeological Museum Jerusalem.
Sample
Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di
Sample
Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1
Sample
Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1
Sample
pottery kiln from Nimptsch, Lower Silesia (Fig. 7.9).
Sample
pottery kiln from Nimptsch, Lower Silesia (Fig. 7.9).
Sample
page
sFigure 7.8 shows the reconstruction of the mobile pottery kiln of a travelling potter during
page
sFigure 7.8 shows the reconstruction of the mobile pottery kiln of a travelling potter during Roman Imperial time, excavated in Weddinghusen, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The ce-
page
sRoman Imperial time, excavated in Weddinghusen, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The ce-ramic work was separated from the fuel by a holey platform (Fig. 7.8, left) through which
page
sramic work was separated from the fuel by a holey platform (Fig. 7.8, left) through which the hot combustion gases could rise to heat the pottery. The work to be fired was loaded
page
sthe hot combustion gases could rise to heat the pottery. The work to be fired was loaded onto the platform, and then covered by a moveable terracotta cupola and sealed more or
page
sonto the platform, and then covered by a moveable terracotta cupola and sealed more or less airtight by a soil backfill (Fig. 7.8, right). With this arrangement maximum firing tem-
page
sless airtight by a soil backfill (Fig. 7.8, right). With this arrangement maximum firing tem-peratures of about 950 °C could be achieved during reducing firing. The reconstruction
page
speratures of about 950 °C could be achieved during reducing firing. The reconstruction shown here and the re-enactment of the firing process took place during a symposium on
page
sshown here and the re-enactment of the firing process took place during a symposium on
page
s‘Firing technologies and their recovery through experimental archaeology’ held from March
page
s‘Firing technologies and their recovery through experimental archaeology’ held from March 29 to April 1, 1977 on the grounds of the Museum Village Berlin-Düppel, Germany.pa
ges
29 to April 1, 1977 on the grounds of the Museum Village Berlin-Düppel, Germany.
Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di page
sFrequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1pa
ges
Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1
eschweizerbart_xxx
1378 Ancient Near Eastern wares
quality, coated with a thick cream slip and decorated with red-brown, highly burnished geometric pattern resembling textile designs (Fig. 8.6, right). This development abated dur-ing the late Chalcolithic period that produced predominately monochrome pottery.
In the early Bronze Age (last quarter of the 3rd millennium BCE) the finds at Kültepe near Kayseri (Turkey) present hand-formed but also wheel-turned ware with dark red, light brown, dark brown and light yellow geometric pattern of the Alişar III period.
Before the onset of the Hittite Empire Assyrian merchants founded colonies in Anatolia between 1950 and 1750 BCE. Their ceramic wares were wheel-turned and either finely burnished monochrome or painted with geometric pattern in red and brown, and subse-quently coated with a buff slip.
The early burnished monochrome ware achieved its finest work in the technically excellent products of the early Hittite Empire of the 16th century BCE. The greater part by far of Hittite pottery used a highly burnished orange to red slip.
8.4 EgyptIn the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976, Noll 1976a, Riederer 1976, Catling & Jones 1977, Michel et al. 1976, Allen at al. 1982, Tite et al. 1983, Noll 1991, Krishnan et al. 2005, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). Figure 8.7 shows typical forms of pottery from the earliest prehistoric times to the Persian rule of the 30th dynasty. In Fig. 8.8 some important archaeological sites are indicated.
During the last half of the 5th millennium BCE settlers at El-Badari (Fig. 8.8, site 4) and Deir Tasa in the central Nile valley made arguably one of the finest pottery ever produced in the prehistoric Near East. Their vessels excel with extreme thinness, and are well-fired and highly polished. A lustrous surface gloss emphasises the colours of black, brown and red, the latter being frequently used with a black upper body. This black colour was produced by ‘smoking’, that is, oriented deposition of carbon flakes on the highly burnished upper rim of the so-called ‘black-topped ware’ (C-black technique) (see Chapter 6.4.4). Fig. 8.9 shows typical examples of black-topped redware bowls from El-Badari. To add contrast a decorative palm-leaf pattern was polished onto the air-dried clay body prior to smoking that subsequently would stand out by virtue of its silver-grey gloss over the dull black, unpolished background (Fig. 8.9, left). This gave the vessels the appearance of high-priced and thus prestigious metal objects. To retain the red bottom part of the bowls, the vessels were partly buried in ash.
Similar ceramics decorated in C-black technique were produced in Early Minoan times (Vasiliki ware, see Chapter 9.2) but eventually replaced by pottery decorated in iron reduc-tion techniques. Decorations consisting of a light comb ripple were occasionally applied with a wooden or bone tool (Spencer 1997). It is acknowledged that the Egyptians potters never surpassed the technological and aesthetical standard of the Badarian ware (Boger 1971). Indeed, this type of pottery disappeared from the ceramic record in the Dynastic period (Bakr 1956).
Sample
In the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic
Sample
In the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can
Sample
Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976,
Sample
shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976, Noll 1976a, Riederer 1976, Catling & Jones 1977, Michel et al. 1976, Allen at al. 1982, Tite
Sample
Noll 1976a, Riederer 1976, Catling & Jones 1977, Michel et al. 1976, Allen at al. 1982, Tite et al. 1983, Noll 1991, Krishnan et al. 2005, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). Figure 8.7 shows
Sample
et al. 1983, Noll 1991, Krishnan et al. 2005, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). Figure 8.7 shows typical forms of pottery from the earliest prehistoric times to the Persian rule of the 30
Sample
typical forms of pottery from the earliest prehistoric times to the Persian rule of the 30dynasty. In Fig. 8.8 some important archaeological sites are indicated.
Sample
dynasty. In Fig. 8.8 some important archaeological sites are indicated.
During the last half of the 5
Sample
During the last half of the 5th
Sample
th millennium BCE settlers at El-Badari (Fig. 8.8, site 4) and Deir
Sample
millennium BCE settlers at El-Badari (Fig. 8.8, site 4) and Deir
Tasa in the central Nile valley made arguably one of the finest pottery ever produced in the
Sample
Tasa in the central Nile valley made arguably one of the finest pottery ever produced in the prehistoric Near East. Their vessels excel with extreme thinness, and are well-fired and highly
Sample
prehistoric Near East. Their vessels excel with extreme thinness, and are well-fired and highly
Sample
polished. A lustrous surface gloss emphasises the colours of black, brown and red, the latter
Sample
polished. A lustrous surface gloss emphasises the colours of black, brown and red, the latter being frequently used with a black upper body. This black colour was produced by ‘smoking’,
Sample
being frequently used with a black upper body. This black colour was produced by ‘smoking’, that is, oriented deposition of carbon flakes on the highly burnished upper rim of the so-called
Sample
that is, oriented deposition of carbon flakes on the highly burnished upper rim of the so-called ‘black-topped ware’ (C-black technique) (see Chapter 6.4.4). Fig. 8.9 shows typical examples Sam
ple
‘black-topped ware’ (C-black technique) (see Chapter 6.4.4). Fig. 8.9 shows typical examples of black-topped redware bowls from El-Badari. To add contrast a decorative palm-leaf pattern Sam
ple
of black-topped redware bowls from El-Badari. To add contrast a decorative palm-leaf pattern was polished onto the air-dried clay body prior to smoking that subsequently would stand out Sam
ple
was polished onto the air-dried clay body prior to smoking that subsequently would stand out by virtue of its silver-grey gloss over the dull black, unpolished background (Fig. 8.9, left). This Sam
ple
by virtue of its silver-grey gloss over the dull black, unpolished background (Fig. 8.9, left). This gave the vessels the appearance of high-priced and thus prestigious metal objects. To retain
Sample
gave the vessels the appearance of high-priced and thus prestigious metal objects. To retain
page
sbetween 1950 and 1750 BCE. Their ceramic wares were wheel-turned and either finely
page
sbetween 1950 and 1750 BCE. Their ceramic wares were wheel-turned and either finely burnished monochrome or painted with geometric pattern in red and brown, and subse-
page
sburnished monochrome or painted with geometric pattern in red and brown, and subse-
The early burnished monochrome ware achieved its finest work in the technically excellent
page
sThe early burnished monochrome ware achieved its finest work in the technically excellent century BCE. The greater part by far of Hittite
page
s century BCE. The greater part by far of Hittite
In the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic page
sIn the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can pa
ges
Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976,
page
s
shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976,
eschweizerbart_xxx
138 Part II
Figure 8.7. Typical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. A Prehistoric (Badarian), c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1st – 2nd dynasties), c. 3040–2650 BCE; D Old Kingdom (3rd – 6th dynasties), 2649–2150 BCE; E First In-termediate Period (7th – 10th dynasties), 2150–1986? BCE; F Middle Kingdom (11th – 13th dynas-ties), 2000–1640 BCE); G Second Intermediate Period (14th – 17th dynasties), 1633–1593 BCE; H New Kingdom (18th – 20th dynasties), 1550–1070 BCE; I Late Egyptian (22nd – 25th dynasties), 945–656 BCE; J Persian (26th – 30th dynasties), < 664 BCE) (adapted from Bakr, 1956).
During the Predynastic Naqada (Fig. 8.8, site 10) period earthenware pottery was produced from marly clays, slip-painted with geometric pattern as well as animal, plant and boat decorations (Fig. 8.10, left). The Naqada I period somewhat overlapped the Badari era and eventually succeeded it with red-grounded pottery made from Nile mud, sometimes cold-painted white with gypsum (Noll 1991). During the Naqada II stage of Predynastic Egypt additional colours and colour combination appeared, often disguising the red-grounded ceramic body with a light-coloured slip that served as a painting ground for geometric orna-ments and images of human figures and animals executed in red-brown and even black colours by using iron and manganese oxide pigments instead of smoking that became a less frequently applied decoration technique (Fig. 8.10, left). Table 8.2 shows the chemical com-
Table 8.2. Chemical composition in mass% of highly calcareous Naqada pottery (c. 3200 BCE) from El-Tarif (Noll 1991).
SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O LOI
42.8 0.8 10.4 6.8 27.7 3.9 0.8 1.6 5.6
Sample
ypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods.
Sample
ypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1
Sample
c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1dynasties), c. 3040–2650 BCE; D Old Kingdom (3
Sample
dynasties), c. 3040–2650 BCE; D Old Kingdom (3rd
Sample
rd – 6
Sample
– 6th
Sample
th dynasties), 2649–2150 BCE; E First In-
Sample
dynasties), 2649–2150 BCE; E First In-
dynasties), 2150–1986? BCE; F Middle Kingdom (11
Sample
dynasties), 2150–1986? BCE; F Middle Kingdom (11
ties), 2000–1640 BCE); G Second Intermediate Period (14
Sample
ties), 2000–1640 BCE); G Second Intermediate Period (14
– 20
Sample
– 20th
Sample
th dynasties), 1550–1070 BCE; I Late Egyptian (22
Sample
dynasties), 1550–1070 BCE; I Late Egyptian (22
945–656 BCE; J Persian (26
Sample
945–656 BCE; J Persian (26th
Sample
th – 30
Sample
– 30th
Sample
th
Sample
dynasties), < 664 BCE) (adapted from Bakr, 1956).
Sample
dynasties), < 664 BCE) (adapted from Bakr, 1956).
Sample
During the Predynastic Naqada (Fig. 8.8, site 10) period earthenware pottery was produced
Sample
During the Predynastic Naqada (Fig. 8.8, site 10) period earthenware pottery was produced from marly clays, slip-painted with geometric pattern as well as animal, plant and boat
Sample
from marly clays, slip-painted with geometric pattern as well as animal, plant and boat decorations (Fig. 8.10, left). The Naqada I period somewhat overlapped the Badari era and
Sample
decorations (Fig. 8.10, left). The Naqada I period somewhat overlapped the Badari era and eventually succeeded it with red-grounded pottery made from Nile mud, sometimes cold-Sam
ple
eventually succeeded it with red-grounded pottery made from Nile mud, sometimes cold-painted white with gypsum (Noll 1991). During the Naqada II stage of Predynastic Egypt Sam
ple
painted white with gypsum (Noll 1991). During the Naqada II stage of Predynastic Egypt additional colours and colour combination appeared, often disguising the red-grounded Sam
ple
additional colours and colour combination appeared, often disguising the red-grounded Sample
ceramic body with a light-coloured slip that served as a painting ground for geometric orna-Sample
ceramic body with a light-coloured slip that served as a painting ground for geometric orna-ments and images of human figures and animals executed in red-brown and even black
Sample
ments and images of human figures and animals executed in red-brown and even black
page
sypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. pa
ges
ypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1
page
s
c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1pa
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eschweizerbart_xxx
1398 Ancient Near Eastern wares
Figure 8.8. Map of important archaeological sites in Egypt. 1 Aswan, 2 El-Amarna, 3 Edfu, 4 El-Badari, 5 El-Ballas, 6 El-Fustat, 7 El-Kharga, 8 Fayyum, 9 Luxor, 10 Naqada, 11 Qena, 12 Saqqara, 13 Sinai, 14 Wadi El-Natrun, 15 Asyut.
EasternDesert
DesertWestern
Nile R
iver
13
11
7
5109
3
1
15 4
2
8
12
146
Mediterranean Sea
Red Sea
300 km
Figure 8.9. Left: Polished black-topped redware bowl with burnished palm-leaf design within. Badari tradition (c.4400–4000 BCE). Excavated at El-Badari. Repaired. Height 7 cm, diameter 17 cm. Reg.no. 1929,1106.10. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Polished black-topped brownware with rippled surface produced by a comb-like tool. Badari tradition (c.4400–4000 BCE). Excavated at El-Badari. Repaired. Height 7 cm, diameter 23.8 cm. Reg.no. 1929,1106.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum. See Friedmann (1999).
Sample
Map of important archaeological sites in Egypt. 1 Aswan, 2 El-Amarna, 3 Edfu, 4 El-
Sample
Map of important archaeological sites in Egypt. 1 Aswan, 2 El-Amarna, 3 Edfu, 4 El-
Badari, 5 El-Ballas, 6 El-Fustat, 7 El-Kharga, 8 F
Sample
Badari, 5 El-Ballas, 6 El-Fustat, 7 El-Kharga, 8 Fa
Sample
ayyum, 9 Luxor, 10 Naqada, 11 Qena, 12 Saqqara,
Sample
yyum, 9 Luxor, 10 Naqada, 11 Qena, 12 Saqqara,
13 Sinai, 14 Wadi El-Natrun, 15 Asyut.
Sample
13 Sinai, 14 Wadi El-Natrun, 15 Asyut.
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
300 km
Sample
300 km
Sample
page
spa
ges
Nile R
iverpage
sN
ile River
3page
s33pa
ges
3
1page
s1
eschweizerbart_xxx
140 Part II
position of highly calcareous Naqada II pottery from the Eastern mastaba in El Tarif, Egypt (c. 3200 BCE, Noll 1991, Arnold 1976).
During Early Dynastic times, utilitarian vessels such as the conical bowl shown in Fig. 8.10, right were made, here with its exterior surface painted with red oval spots and a polished black interior.
Production of fine pottery in the Badarian tradition continued during the 3rd to 6th dynasties of the Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). The red-slipped bowl of ‘Meidum’ type (Petrie et al. 1910) shown in Fig. 8.11 (see also Fig. 8.7, D) was produced from marl or silty Nile clay with a thick red slip on the interior and exterior surfaces. Such ‘Meidum’ bowls are highly polished and elegantly executed, with a rather large diameter, rounded bottom, and flared rim. The grooved rim was presumably used for effective attachment of a rope or strap for carrying food, liquid, or other materials (Sterling 2001).
Apart from clay-based traditional earthenware pottery the Egyptian artisans developed something entirely new, a hard and durable ceramic material known somewhat euphemis-tically as Egyptian ‘faience’ (see for example Bakr 1956, Vandiver 1982) and even dubbed the ‘first high-tech ceramics’ (Vandiver & Kingery 1987). It was already invented in Predy-nastic time and reached its artistic summit in the 18th Dynasty (1550–1292 BCE). It is not clay-based at all but consists of a glazed quartz sinter ceramic with > 90 mass% silica content. Typical analyses of the ceramic body show 94.0–94.2 mass% SiO2, 0.6–1.8 mass% Al2O3, 0.9–1.6 mass% Fe2O3, 1.7–2.0 mass% CaO, 1.1–1.8 mass% MgO, and traces of al-kalies (Bakr 1956). Owing to its lack of clay-based constituents the name ‘faience’ is com-
Figure 8.10. Egyptian pottery of the Naqada II (left) and Early Dynastic (right) periods. Left: Two-handled earthenware jar, slip-painted in red with dancing figures, ostriches and many-oared boats. Naqada II, c. 3300 BCE. Height 29.5 cm, diameter 22.5 cm. Reg. no. 1901,1012.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Conical bowl painted with red oval spots on the exterior and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1st and 2nd dynasties), c. 3000 BCE. Faras, Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Sample
and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1
Sample
and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1
Sample
position of highly calcareous Naqada II pottery from the Eastern
Sample
position of highly calcareous Naqada II pottery from the Eastern (c. 3200 BCE, Noll 1991, Arnold 1976).
Sample
(c. 3200 BCE, Noll 1991, Arnold 1976).
During Early Dynastic times, utilitarian vessels such as the conical bowl shown in Fig. 8.10,
Sample
During Early Dynastic times, utilitarian vessels such as the conical bowl shown in Fig. 8.10, right were made, here with its exterior surface painted with red oval spots and a polished
Sample
right were made, here with its exterior surface painted with red oval spots and a polished
Production of fine pottery in the Badarian tradition continued during the 3
Sample
Production of fine pottery in the Badarian tradition continued during the 3of the Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). The red-slipped bowl of ‘Meidum’ type (Petrie et al.
Sample
of the Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). The red-slipped bowl of ‘Meidum’ type (Petrie et al. 1910) shown in Fig. 8.11 (see also Fig. 8.7, D) was produced from marl or silty Nile clay
Sample
1910) shown in Fig. 8.11 (see also Fig. 8.7, D) was produced from marl or silty Nile clay with a thick red slip on the interior and exterior surfaces. Such ‘Meidum’ bowls are highly Sam
ple
with a thick red slip on the interior and exterior surfaces. Such ‘Meidum’ bowls are highly polished and elegantly executed, with a rather large diameter, rounded bottom, and flared Sam
ple
polished and elegantly executed, with a rather large diameter, rounded bottom, and flared rim. The grooved rim was presumably used for effective attachment of a rope or strap for Sam
ple
rim. The grooved rim was presumably used for effective attachment of a rope or strap for carrying food, liquid, or other materials (Sterling 2001).Sam
ple
carrying food, liquid, or other materials (Sterling 2001).
Apart from clay-based traditional earthenware pottery the Egyptian artisans developed Sam
ple
Apart from clay-based traditional earthenware pottery the Egyptian artisans developed
Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees
Sample
Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees page
s Egyptian pottery of the Naqada II (left) and Early Dynastic (right) periods. Left: Two-
page
s Egyptian pottery of the Naqada II (left) and Early Dynastic (right) periods. Left: Two-
handled earthenware jar, slip-painted in red with dancing figures, ostriches and many-oared
page
shandled earthenware jar, slip-painted in red with dancing figures, ostriches and many-oared boats. Naqada II, c. 3300 BCE. Height 29.5 cm, diameter 22.5 cm. Reg. no. 1901,1012.2. © The pa
ges
boats. Naqada II, c. 3300 BCE. Height 29.5 cm, diameter 22.5 cm. Reg. no. 1901,1012.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Conical bowl painted with red oval spots on the exterior pa
ges
Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Conical bowl painted with red oval spots on the exterior and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1 pa
ges
and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1st page
sst and 2pa
ges
and 2ndpage
sndpa
ges
dynasties), c. 3000 BCE. Faras, page
s dynasties), c. 3000 BCE. Faras,
Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees page
sNubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees pa
ges
eschweizerbart_xxx
1418 Ancient Near Eastern wares
pletely misleading. This type of ‘pottery’ was produced from sand grains or crushed quartz pebbles that were mixed with a pre-melted alkali silicate glass frit and a few percent of re-fractory kaolinitic clay. The ceramic body was coated by a alkali-lime silicate glaze col-oured blue-green by copper that was arguably applied to simulate scarce and highly prized lapis lazuli and turquoise (Tite 1992). The first glazes of this kind have to be seen in context with the copper ore deposits in the Sinai peninsula, where in the Timna Valley ore was mined and processed from the Chalcolithic period (5th–4th millennium BCE) to the Egyptian New Kingdom (late 14th to mid-12th centuries BCE) (for example Conrad & Rothenberg 1980, Hauptmann 2000, Drenka 2003). Details on production technology and microstruc-ture of Egyptian ‘faience’ were provided by Kingery & Vandiver (1986), Vandiver & Kingery (1987), and more recently by Nicholson (2009).
In this context it should be mentioned that the ancient Egyptian artisans appear to have in-vented two synthetic ceramic colour pigments, Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite, CaCuSi4O10, Tite 1985) and cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate spinel, CoAl2O4) (see also Chapter 4.6). The former was almost exclusively used in wall painting as its low colour intensity, in particular in fine grained products, precluded its use as a pigment for cold-painted ceramic decora-tion (Noll 1991). It was arguably invented already during the 4th dynasty (c.2575–2467 BCE). In Roman time it was also widely used under the name of caeruleum (Gettens & Stout 1966) and its manufacture was (incorrectly) described by Vitruvius (1960). Knowledge of the existence of Egyptian blue disappeared in the 4th century CE (Chase 1971) and the mate-rial was only reinvestigated in the early 19th century CE by Sir Humphrey Davy (1815). For
Figure 8.11. Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter 21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Sample
Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-
Sample
Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-
Sample
pletely misleading. This type of ‘pottery’ was produced from sand grains or crushed quartz
Sample
pletely misleading. This type of ‘pottery’ was produced from sand grains or crushed quartz pebbles that were mixed with a pre-melted alkali silicate glass frit and a few percent of re-
Sample
pebbles that were mixed with a pre-melted alkali silicate glass frit and a few percent of re-fractory kaolinitic clay. The ceramic body was coated by a alkali-lime silicate glaze col-
Sample
fractory kaolinitic clay. The ceramic body was coated by a alkali-lime silicate glaze col-oured blue-green by copper that was arguably applied to simulate scarce and highly prized
Sample
oured blue-green by copper that was arguably applied to simulate scarce and highly prized lapis lazuli and turquoise (Tite 1992). The first glazes of this kind have to be seen in context
Sample
lapis lazuli and turquoise (Tite 1992). The first glazes of this kind have to be seen in context with the copper ore deposits in the Sinai peninsula, where in the Timna Valley ore was
Sample
with the copper ore deposits in the Sinai peninsula, where in the Timna Valley ore was mined and processed from the Chalcolithic period (5
Sample
mined and processed from the Chalcolithic period (5New Kingdom (late 14
Sample
New Kingdom (late 14th
Sample
th to mid-12
Sample
to mid-12
1980, Hauptmann 2000, Drenka 2003). Details on production technology and microstruc-Sample
1980, Hauptmann 2000, Drenka 2003). Details on production technology and microstruc-ture of Egyptian ‘faience’ were provided by Kingery & Vandiver (1986), Vandiver & Kingery Sam
ple
ture of Egyptian ‘faience’ were provided by Kingery & Vandiver (1986), Vandiver & Kingery (1987), and more recently by Nicholson (2009).Sam
ple
(1987), and more recently by Nicholson (2009).
In this context it should be mentioned that the ancient Egyptian artisans appear to have in-Sample
In this context it should be mentioned that the ancient Egyptian artisans appear to have in-vented two synthetic ceramic colour pigments,
Sample
vented two synthetic ceramic colour pigments,
neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter
Sample
neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter 21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Sample
21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.pa
ges
Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-page
s Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-pa
ges
neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter page
sneath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter 21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
page
s
21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.pa
ges
eschweizerbart_xxx
142 Part II
additional information see Noll 1982a, Ullrich 1987, Tite & Hatton 2007, Rehren 2008, and Hatton et al. 2008.
The second pigment, cobalt blue with superior quality and higher colour intensity com-pared to the classic Egyptian blue was copiously used from the 18th to the 20th dynasties (1550–1070 BCE) to decorate faiences (Tite & Shortland 2003) and was almost certainly derived from rare cobaltiferous alums found in the Western Oases of El–Kharga (Fig. 8.8, site 7) and Dakhla (Kaczmarczyk 1986, Shortland et al. 2006b). Prior to the 18th dynasty, the synthetic blue cobalt spinel pigment was rarely used to paint pottery surfaces, presum-ably owing to its scarcity and hence high cost. Interestingly, Noll (1991) tentatively related the sudden and massive appearance of this blue pigment as ceramic paint during the 18th dynasty to the sun cult of Pharaoh Akhenaten, the Heretic King. The vivid colour of cobalt aluminate was supposed to resemble the heavenly blue, a symbol of the god of the sun disc, Aten, but its use fell, like Akhenaten himself, into oblivion after reestablishment of the tra-ditional Amun cult by Tutankhamun in 1334 BCE. However, the continuing use of this pig-ment up to the 20th dynasty casts some doubt on this hypothesis. Still, it is rather mysterious why this better product did not conquer the antique market since it produced painted sur-faces with high abrasion strength and as the only thermally stable blue pigment may also have been used to colour the ceramic body during firing (Noll 1984, 1991). Alas, this mate-rial was forgotten for almost two millennia until it was rediscovered as a ceramic pigment during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre ware of Mina’i and Lajvardina styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s blue) and used as brilliantly blue pigment by the Sèvres and Vienna’s Augarten porcelain manufactures.
During the 18th dynasty Tell-el-Amarna (Fig. 8.8, site 2) period around 1300 BCE plaster-of-Paris moulds for slip casting of pottery were invented, the knowledge of which was, maybe for the same reason, rather quickly forgotten and reinvented only much later. In contrast to this, the Egyptian potters stuck to the ancient manganese-black pigment even though their trade relation with Minoan Crete certainly had made them aware of the technically supe-rior and more variable iron oxidation/reduction colour palette used there since at least the Early Minoan (EM II, 2500–2300 BCE) Vasiliki ware (Noll 1982).
The polychrome pottery of the 18th/19th dynasties was decorated lavishly with black, red, white and blue colours. As discussed above the blue pigment is cobalt aluminate spinel63; black is related to manganiferous iron oxide with haematite structure and varying Mn/(Mn+Fe) ratios; red colours are generated by haematite crystallites obtained by heating of Mn-free iron ochre; white impure decoration may be related to a mixture of gypsum, calcite and diopside (so-called ‘lime silicate white’, Noll 1982b).
Apart from the various ways the Egyptians decorated their pottery the ceramic bodies were chemically remarkably homogeneous, with clay raw materials closely associated with lime-
63 As discussed by Kerr & Wood (2004; p. 663) cobalt spinel could have been formed in situ during glazing rather than being introduced as a prefabricated pigment the production of which was complicated owing to a complex roasting and fritting process of sulphide and/or arsenide cobalt ores (Kleinmann 1991).
Sample
during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre
Sample
during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was
Sample
styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s
Sample
discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s blue) and used as brilliantly blue pigment by the Sèvres and Vienna’s Augarten porcelain
Sample
blue) and used as brilliantly blue pigment by the Sèvres and Vienna’s Augarten porcelain
Sample
dynasty Tell-el-Amarna (Fig. 8.8, site 2) period around 1300 BCE plaster-of-
Sample
dynasty Tell-el-Amarna (Fig. 8.8, site 2) period around 1300 BCE plaster-of-
Paris moulds for slip casting of pottery were invented, the knowledge of which was, maybe
Sample
Paris moulds for slip casting of pottery were invented, the knowledge of which was, maybe for the same reason, rather quickly forgotten and reinvented only much later. In contrast to
Sample
for the same reason, rather quickly forgotten and reinvented only much later. In contrast to this, the Egyptian potters stuck to the ancient manganese-black pigment even though their
Sample
this, the Egyptian potters stuck to the ancient manganese-black pigment even though their trade relation with Minoan Crete certainly had made them aware of the technically supe-
Sample
trade relation with Minoan Crete certainly had made them aware of the technically supe-rior and more variable iron oxidation/reduction colour palette used there since at least the
Sample
rior and more variable iron oxidation/reduction colour palette used there since at least the Early Minoan (EM II, 2500–2300 BCE) Vasiliki ware (Noll 1982).
Sample
Early Minoan (EM II, 2500–2300 BCE) Vasiliki ware (Noll 1982).
The polychrome pottery of the 18Sample
The polychrome pottery of the 18Sample
white and blue colours. As discussed above the blue pigment is cobalt aluminate spinelSample
white and blue colours. As discussed above the blue pigment is cobalt aluminate spinelblack is related to manganiferous iron oxide with haematite structure and varying Mn/Sam
ple
black is related to manganiferous iron oxide with haematite structure and varying Mn/(Mn+Fe) ratios; red colours are generated by haematite crystallites obtained by heating of Sam
ple
(Mn+Fe) ratios; red colours are generated by haematite crystallites obtained by heating of Mn-free iron ochre; white impure decoration may be related to a mixture of gypsum, calcite
Sample
Mn-free iron ochre; white impure decoration may be related to a mixture of gypsum, calcite
page
sthe synthetic blue cobalt spinel pigment was rarely used to paint pottery surfaces, presum-
page
sthe synthetic blue cobalt spinel pigment was rarely used to paint pottery surfaces, presum-ably owing to its scarcity and hence high cost. Interestingly, Noll (1991) tentatively related
page
sably owing to its scarcity and hence high cost. Interestingly, Noll (1991) tentatively related the sudden and massive appearance of this blue pigment as ceramic paint during the 18
page
sthe sudden and massive appearance of this blue pigment as ceramic paint during the 18, the Heretic King. The vivid colour of cobalt
page
s, the Heretic King. The vivid colour of cobalt aluminate was supposed to resemble the heavenly blue, a symbol of the god of the sun disc,
page
saluminate was supposed to resemble the heavenly blue, a symbol of the god of the sun disc, Aten, but its use fell, like Akhenaten himself, into oblivion after reestablishment of the tra-
page
sAten, but its use fell, like Akhenaten himself, into oblivion after reestablishment of the tra-ditional Amun cult by Tutankhamun in 1334 BCE. However, the continuing use of this pig-
page
sditional Amun cult by Tutankhamun in 1334 BCE. However, the continuing use of this pig-
dynasty casts some doubt on this hypothesis. Still, it is rather mysterious
page
s dynasty casts some doubt on this hypothesis. Still, it is rather mysterious
why this better product did not conquer the antique market since it produced painted sur-
page
swhy this better product did not conquer the antique market since it produced painted sur-faces with high abrasion strength and as the only thermally stable blue pigment may also
page
sfaces with high abrasion strength and as the only thermally stable blue pigment may also have been used to colour the ceramic body during firing (Noll 1984, 1991). Alas, this mate-pa
ges
have been used to colour the ceramic body during firing (Noll 1984, 1991). Alas, this mate-rial was forgotten for almost two millennia until it was rediscovered as a ceramic pigment pa
ges
rial was forgotten for almost two millennia until it was rediscovered as a ceramic pigment during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre pa
ges
during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was pa
ges
styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s
page
s
discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s
eschweizerbart_xxx
1438 Ancient Near Eastern wares
poor Nile silt, the composition of which is nearly constant over long distances (Table 8.3). The clay has been deposited between the Upper Pleistocene and the present. As a conse-quence the deposits can be found well away from the present course of the Nile as well as within the modern flood plain (Bourriau et al. 2000, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). As shown in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-mately 68 mass% SiO2, 24 mass% Al2O3 + Fe2O3, and 8 mass% CaO + MgO (see also Kemp 2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A substantial number of pottery analyses are found in the cotectiv triangle quartz-anorthite-mullite. The fact that the Nile silt composition is lowest in SiO2 compared to the analyses of the Egyptian wares is certainly related to the fact that fine quartz sand was used as an inten-tionally added temper during production of the pottery64. It should be noted that in Fig. 8.12
64 A recent study (Michelaki & Hancock 2013) showed that sediment samples collected from the Nile River delta, potential raw materials of Egyptian ceramics, could be assigned by principal component analysis (PCA) to three groups: unaltered Nile alluvium, lime-diluted Nile alluvium, and silica (quartz sand)-diluted Nile alluvium. This finding underscores the complexity of the in-terpretation of archaeological data of ancient Egyptian ceramics (see also Hancock et al. 1987).
Figure 8.12. Position of Egyptian pottery in the ternary phase diagram (CaO+MgO)-Al2O3-SiO2 (Data from Noll 1984). The composition of Nile mud was obtained from Hangst (1979).
Late Egyptian
Anorthite
Gehlenite
CaO+MgO
DiopsideWollastonite
AI2O3
Mullite
Nile mud
SiO2/Quarz
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
908070605040302010
90
80
70
60
40
30
20
10
Marly clay (Qena)New kingdomMiddle kingdomOld kingdomPre-dynasticNile mud
Table 8.3. Chemical analyses in mass% oxide of Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lucas & Harris 1962, Shortland 2000; see also Bourriau et al. 2000).
Origin Analyst SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O LOI
Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5
Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0
Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2
Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0
Qena marly clay Bakr 33.0 15.0 8.1 17.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 20.0
Ballas marly clay Lucas 34.8 20.6 6.1 17.7 0.4 1.3 1.0 21.4*Expressed as FeO
Sample
in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-
Sample
in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-O
Sample
O3
Sample
3 +
Sample
+ Fe
Sample
Fe2
Sample
2O
Sample
O3
Sample
3
2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A
Sample
2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A substantial number of pottery analyses are found in the cotectiv triangle quartz-anorthite-
Sample
substantial number of pottery analyses are found in the cotectiv triangle quartz-anorthite-mullite. The fact that the Nile silt composition is lowest in SiO
Sample
mullite. The fact that the Nile silt composition is lowest in SiOthe Egyptian wares is certainly related to the fact that fine quartz sand was used as an inten-
Sample
the Egyptian wares is certainly related to the fact that fine quartz sand was used as an inten-tionally added temper during production of the pottery
Sample
tionally added temper during production of the pottery
Chemical analyses in mass% oxide of Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-
Sample
Chemical analyses in mass% oxide of Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-
Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lucas & Harris 1962, Shortland 2000; see also Bourriau et al. 2000).
Sample
Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lucas & Harris 1962, Shortland 2000; see also Bourriau et al. 2000).
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Analyst SiO
Sample
Analyst SiOAnalyst SiO
Sample
Analyst SiO
Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5
Sample
Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5
Sample
Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5
Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Sample
Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Sample
Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Sample
Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2Sample
Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2Sample
Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2
Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0Sample
Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0Sample
Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0
Qena marly clay Bakr 33.0 15.0 8.1 17.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 20.0Sam
ple
Qena marly clay Bakr 33.0 15.0 8.1 17.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 20.0
page
spoor Nile silt, the composition of which is nearly constant over long distances (Table 8.3).
page
spoor Nile silt, the composition of which is nearly constant over long distances (Table 8.3). The clay has been deposited between the Upper Pleistocene and the present. As a conse-
page
sThe clay has been deposited between the Upper Pleistocene and the present. As a conse-quence the deposits can be found well away from the present course of the Nile as well as pa
ges
quence the deposits can be found well away from the present course of the Nile as well as within the modern flood plain (Bourriau et al. 2000, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). As shown pa
ges
within the modern flood plain (Bourriau et al. 2000, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). As shown in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-pa
ges
in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-, and 8 mass% CaO + MgO (see also Kemp pa
ges
, and 8 mass% CaO + MgO (see also Kemp 2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A
page
s2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A
Position of Egyptian pottery in the ternary phase diagram (CaO+MgO)-Al
page
s Position of Egyptian pottery in the ternary phase diagram (CaO+MgO)-Al2
page
s2Opa
gesO3
page
s3-SiO
page
s-SiO(Data from Noll 1984). The composition of Nile mud was obtained from Hangst (1979).
page
s(Data from Noll 1984). The composition of Nile mud was obtained from Hangst (1979).
eschweizerbart_xxx
144 Part II
the compositional point of Nile silt is shifted towards the SiO2 apex since the high content of Fe2O3 (Table 8.3) has not been considered in the ternary diagram, that is, the composition of Nile silt and the ceramic bodies produced from it must be displayed correctly in the quinary phase diagram CaO-MgO-Al2O3-Fe2O3-SiO2.
The New Kingdom wares produced from very lime-rich marly clays of Qena (Dendara, Fig. 8.8, site 11)) and El-Ballas (Fig. 8.8, site 5) form a clearly separated group (Fig. 8.12) that extends from the cotectic triangle di-qz-an to the calcareous triangle di-an-ge. Table 8.3 shows analyses of silty Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lu-cas & Harris 1962, Bourriau et al. 2000, Shortland 2000).
8.5 IranIran is home of one of the oldest civilisations on Earth, located at the eastern branch of the so-called ‘Fertile Crescent’, a region stretching from Egypt in the West to Anatolia and east-wards to the deserts of eastern Iran. To date in the mountainous regions of central Iran only few remains from the earliest periods are known. Notable exceptions are Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar in the North, Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis in the South, and, in particular Tepe Sialk and Arismān in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.
The oldest pottery-producing cultures go back to the Neolithic, in the Zagros Mountains as far back as the 7th millennium BCE (Wulff 1966). In this area arguably the oldest pottery painted with iron oxihydroxide (ochre) originated. It is interesting that these ancient potters did not use the readily available iron-rich clays to obtain a red surface decoration but in-stead resorted to painting the surfaces with (yellow) iron ochre that turned red during oxi-dising firing (see Chapter 4.6). This is known among potters as ‘intentional red’ (Hofmann 1966). Noll (1982a) suggested that this practice could have been a carry-over from the an-cient way of decorating cave walls and dead bodies with red iron ochre.
The Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE) produced important production centres of painted pottery. In the North and central regions wheel-turned vessels were manufactured and dec-orated with an engobe technique at Tepe Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Tepe Guran since 3200 BCE (Figs. 8.15, 8.16). In the South at Tell-i-Bakun (Fig. 8.14, right), Bampur, Persepolis, and, most importantly, Susa potters produced their finest painted wares, developing a variety of jars, bowls (Fig. 8.13), chalice and goblet forms, some of which rivalled those of the earlier Mesopotamian Halaf culture (see above). These technological achievements must be seen in context with the widely varying clay compositions the early Iranian potters had to cope with, in contrast to the uniform compositions the Mesopotamian potters enjoyed. This dif-ference is also manifest in the firing temperatures applied: whereas the Mesopotamian Ubaid ware was fired around 1100 °C to attain a dense, partly vitrified body, wares of the Iranian Tepe Hissar and Tureng Tepe kilns were fired between 750 and 1000 °C as deter-mined by saturation magnetisation vs. magnetic coercive force plots by Coey et al. (1980) (see also Heimann 1978/79).
Sample
n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central
Sample
n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and
Sample
Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.
Sample
sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.
The oldest pottery-producing cultures go back to the Neolithic, in the Zagros Mountains as
Sample
The oldest pottery-producing cultures go back to the Neolithic, in the Zagros Mountains as
millennium BCE (Wulff 1966). In this area arguably the oldest pottery
Sample
millennium BCE (Wulff 1966). In this area arguably the oldest pottery
painted with iron oxihydroxide (ochre) originated. It is interesting that these ancient potters
Sample
painted with iron oxihydroxide (ochre) originated. It is interesting that these ancient potters did not use the readily available iron-rich clays to obtain a red surface decoration but in-
Sample
did not use the readily available iron-rich clays to obtain a red surface decoration but in-stead resorted to painting the surfaces with (yellow) iron ochre that turned red during oxi-
Sample
stead resorted to painting the surfaces with (yellow) iron ochre that turned red during oxi-dising firing (see Chapter 4.6). This is known among potters as ‘intentional red’ (Hofmann
Sample
dising firing (see Chapter 4.6). This is known among potters as ‘intentional red’ (Hofmann 1966). Noll (1982a) suggested that this practice could have been a carry-over from the an-
Sample
1966). Noll (1982a) suggested that this practice could have been a carry-over from the an-
Sample
cient way of decorating cave walls and dead bodies with red iron ochre.
Sample
cient way of decorating cave walls and dead bodies with red iron ochre.
The Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE) produced important production centres of painted
Sample
The Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE) produced important production centres of painted pottery. In the North and central regions wheel-turned vessels were manufactured and dec-Sam
ple
pottery. In the North and central regions wheel-turned vessels were manufactured and dec-orated with an engobe technique at Tepe Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Tepe Guran since 3200 BCE Sam
ple
orated with an engobe technique at Tepe Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Tepe Guran since 3200 BCE Sample
(Figs. 8.15, 8.16). In the South at Tell-i-Bakun (Fig. 8.14, right), Bampur, Persepolis, and, Sample
(Figs. 8.15, 8.16). In the South at Tell-i-Bakun (Fig. 8.14, right), Bampur, Persepolis, and, most importantly, Susa potters produced their finest painted wares, developing a variety of Sam
ple
most importantly, Susa potters produced their finest painted wares, developing a variety of jars, bowls (Fig. 8.13), chalice and goblet forms, some of which rivalled those of the earlier
Sample
jars, bowls (Fig. 8.13), chalice and goblet forms, some of which rivalled those of the earlier
page
sshows analyses of silty Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lu-
page
sshows analyses of silty Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lu-
Iran is home of one of the oldest civilisations on Earth, located at the eastern branch of the
page
sIran is home of one of the oldest civilisations on Earth, located at the eastern branch of the so-called ‘Fertile Crescent’, a region stretching from Egypt in the West to Anatolia and east-
page
sso-called ‘Fertile Crescent’, a region stretching from Egypt in the West to Anatolia and east-wards to the deserts of eastern Iran. To date in the mountainous regions of central Iran only
page
swards to the deserts of eastern Iran. To date in the mountainous regions of central Iran only few remains from the earliest periods are known. Notable exceptions are Tepe Ghabristan pa
ges
few remains from the earliest periods are known. Notable exceptions are Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar in the North, Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis in the South, and, in particular Tepe pa
ges
and Tepe Hissar in the North, Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis in the South, and, in particular Tepe n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central pa
ges
n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and pa
ges
Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.
page
s
sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.
eschweizerbart_xxx
1458 Ancient Near Eastern wares
Figure 8.13. Painted pottery bowl made from very calcareous clay. The interior is decorated with cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base). Reg. no. 1924,0902.4. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Figure 8.14. Left: Pottery fragment with human and equine figures. Sialk III (early 4th millennium BCE). Near Eastern Antiquities, Louvre, Paris. Object no. AO17865. Use of this image is licenced under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5. Photo: Jastrow. Right: Thin-walled pottery bowl with dark brown matt painted decoration showing three dancing figures with stylised heads and raised hands as in adoration. Tell-i-Bakun, southern Iran. 5000–4000 BCE. Design typical of Tepe Sialk III. Height 16 cm, diameter 27 cm (rim), diameter 5.5 (base). Reg. No. 1936,0613.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Sample
cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines
Sample
cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in
Sample
parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).
Sample
Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).
Sample
Reg. no. 1924,0902.4. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Sample
Reg. no. 1924,0902.4. © The Trustees of the British Museum.
Sample
page
swl made from very calcareous clay. The interior is decorated with pa
ges
wl made from very calcareous clay. The interior is decorated with cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines pa
ges
cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in pa
ges
parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).
page
sSusa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).
page
s
eschweizerbart_xxx
146 Part II
During the reign of the Sassanide and Parther kings (500 BCE) the ceramic tradition artisti-cally declined somewhat but reached a new high level with the revival of the glazing tech-niques during Islamic time (see Chapter 13.2.1; Mason 2004).
One of the most important Iranian archaeological sites was excavated at Tepe Sialk starting in 1933 (Ghirshman 1938/39) and continuing at present time after the excavations resumed in 1999 (Shahmirzadi 2002). Tepe Sialk is situated at two neighbouring hills southwest of Kashan. While earlier research has identified four main phases of occupation (Majidzadeh 1981), today six phases are recognised between the first half of the 5th millennium BCE and the 8th century BCE (Sialk I to VI), spanning the four main epochs of the Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE), Proto-Elamite (3500–2800 BCE), Bronze Age (3000–1350 BCE), and Iron Age I–II (1350–800 BCE). The Sialk III period saw the introduction of the potter’s wheel and the production of beautiful terracotta pottery adorned with animal and human figures (Fig. 8.14).
Important centres of pottery production were scattered throughout ancient Iran including Amlash, Rajj, Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar south of the Caspian Sea, Hasanlu in the Northwest, Tepe Giyan in the West, Susa in the Southwest as well as Nishapur in the far Northeast. However, among the large number of pottery traditions in ancient Iran (Reindell & Riederer 1983) one appears to be of particular importance and will therefore be dis-cussed in more detail: Arismān near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper smelting complex, dubbed the ‘Ruhr of the Bronze Age’ (Zick & Bick 2001) and considered to be the oldest metallurgical centre in the world, and hence presumably the cradle of the raw materials basis of the contemporary high cultures in the Near East. This particular im-portant technological centre existed between the mid-4th and the early 3rd millennia BCE. The excavation of this vast prehistoric copper smelting and working centre of the Sialk III/IV periods led by Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in cooperation with the Geo-logical Survey of Iran and the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO) so far revealed the existence of no less than 34 smelting furnaces in which copper ores from distant depos-its such as Vesnoveh and Nakhlak were processed. Arguably Arismān was the main copper supplier of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian high cultures and may have traded copper in-gots and weapons, tools and jewellery made from copper with the Mohenjo-Daro culture of the Indus valley. Specific details of the origin of the Arismān culture and the work or-ganisation of their copper smelting, casting and trading systems are still obscure and need much additional research (Chegini et al. 2004).
Next to numerous artefacts related to metal working activities five circular pottery kilns were excavated with stoking channels attached and a central pillar supporting a holey firing platform, similar to the kiln-type shown in Fig. 7.9.
The yellow-brown Sialk III Arismān pottery shown in Figs. 8.15 and 8.16, right was appar-ently made from very calcareous clay covered by a light-coloured engobe (slip), and bur-nished prior to firing under oxidising atmosphere. This technique was widely applied throughout Neolithic cultures of the Fertile Crescent, Anatolia, Egypt and Iran as well as Minoan Crete and Cyprus. Even today potters in Crete polish their vessels in the leather-hard state with a wet smooth pebble (Hampe & Winter 1962, Noll 1982). This burnished
Sample
n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-
Sample
n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-
Sample
ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper
Sample
quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper smelting complex, dubbed the ‘Ruhr of the Bronze Age’ (Zick & Bick 2001) and considered
Sample
smelting complex, dubbed the ‘Ruhr of the Bronze Age’ (Zick & Bick 2001) and considered to be the oldest metallurgical centre in the world, and hence presumably the cradle of the
Sample
to be the oldest metallurgical centre in the world, and hence presumably the cradle of the raw materials basis of the contemporary high cultures in the Near East. This particular im-
Sample
raw materials basis of the contemporary high cultures in the Near East. This particular im-
Sample
portant technological centre existed between the mid-4
Sample
portant technological centre existed between the mid-4The excavation of this vast prehistoric copper smelting and working centre of the Sialk III/
Sample
The excavation of this vast prehistoric copper smelting and working centre of the Sialk III/IV periods led by Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in cooperation with the Geo-
Sample
IV periods led by Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in cooperation with the Geo-logical Survey of Iran and the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO) so far revealed
Sample
logical Survey of Iran and the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO) so far revealed the existence of no less than 34 smelting furnaces in which copper ores from distant depos-
Sample
the existence of no less than 34 smelting furnaces in which copper ores from distant depos-its such as Vesnoveh and Nakhlak were processed. Arguably Arism
Sample
its such as Vesnoveh and Nakhlak were processed. Arguably Arismsupplier of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian high cultures and may have traded copper in-
Sample
supplier of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian high cultures and may have traded copper in-gots and weapons, tools and jewellery made from copper with the Mohenjo-Daro culture Sam
ple
gots and weapons, tools and jewellery made from copper with the Mohenjo-Daro culture Sample
of the Indus valley. Specific details of the origin of the ArismSample
of the Indus valley. Specific details of the origin of the Arismganisation of their copper smelting, casting and trading systems are still obscure and need Sam
ple
ganisation of their copper smelting, casting and trading systems are still obscure and need much additional research (Chegini et al. 2004). Sam
ple
much additional research (Chegini et al. 2004).
Next to numerous artefacts related to metal working activities five circular pottery kilns Sam
ple
Next to numerous artefacts related to metal working activities five circular pottery kilns
page
s millennium BCE and
page
s millennium BCE and
century BCE (Sialk I to VI), spanning the four main epochs of the Chalcolithic (c.
page
s century BCE (Sialk I to VI), spanning the four main epochs of the Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE), Proto-Elamite (3500–2800 BCE), Bronze Age (3000–1350 BCE), and Iron
page
s5500–3500 BCE), Proto-Elamite (3500–2800 BCE), Bronze Age (3000–1350 BCE), and Iron Age I–II (1350–800 BCE). The Sialk III period saw the introduction of the potter’s wheel and
page
sAge I–II (1350–800 BCE). The Sialk III period saw the introduction of the potter’s wheel and the production of beautiful terracotta pottery adorned with animal and human figures (Fig.
page
sthe production of beautiful terracotta pottery adorned with animal and human figures (Fig.
Important centres of pottery production were scattered throughout ancient Iran including
page
sImportant centres of pottery production were scattered throughout ancient Iran including Amlash, Rajj, Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar south of the Caspian Sea, Hasanlu in the
page
sAmlash, Rajj, Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar south of the Caspian Sea, Hasanlu in the Northwest, Tepe Giyan in the West, Susa in the Southwest as well as Nishapur in the far
page
sNorthwest, Tepe Giyan in the West, Susa in the Southwest as well as Nishapur in the far Northeast. However, among the large number of pottery traditions in ancient Iran (Reindell pa
ges
Northeast. However, among the large number of pottery traditions in ancient Iran (Reindell & Riederer 1983) one appears to be of particular importance and will therefore be dis-pa
ges
& Riederer 1983) one appears to be of particular importance and will therefore be dis-n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-pa
ges
n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-pa
ges
ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper pa
ges
quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper
eschweizerbart_xxx
47520 Japanese ceramics
20.7 Ancient Japanese cooking: what Samurai and Sumōtori enjoyed
20.7.1 History and characteristic of Japanese cuisineIn Japan preparation and presentation of food mirrors the origin, development and charac-teristics of culture more profoundly than most other styles of cuisine do. Central to food are the traditional ingredients of rice, fish, and soybeans.
Since remote antiquity, presumably since the Final Jōmōn period (1000–300 BCE) rice has occupied a highly revered, almost mythical position, and its seasonal cycle has dictated the character, rhythm and rituals of Japanese life. Rice was and is not just nourishment but a product with numerous cultural and historical nuances and aspects that are deeply woven into the fabric of Japanese culture. It is widely believed that the notion of wa (harmony), the desire for consensus, and the assessment of the context and result of actions, typical for Japanese social behaviour, originated from wet rice cultivation. This cultivation required collaboration on many tasks and levels, including sharing of scarce resources, organising and pooling of labour, and a general emphasis on group interest, synergistic collaboration, collective decision making, and efficient conflict control. Thus the historic commitment to group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear disaster that challenged the country in March 2011.
As the language of any culture provides clues to important concepts and values this is par-ticularly true for Japan. The primacy of rice as a diet staple is deeply impressed into the Japanese language. Gohan in Japanese is both the word for ‘cooked rice’ as well as ‘meal’. The use of gohan in Japanese is extended with prefixes to asagohan (breakfast, lit. morning rice), hirugohan (lunch, lit. midday rice), and bangohan (dinner, lit. evening rice). These words signal that it was almost impossible for Japanese to think of a meal without rice. Another linguistic link is the early indigenous name of Japan, mizu ho no kuni (The land of the water stalk plant, i.e. rice). Early identification, then, encompassed the concept of rice growing.
Cultivation of rice in paddy field s is thought to have been started in northern Kyûshû during the Final Jōmōn period, presumably introduced by settlers from Korea and/or China, along with tools such as spade, hoe, mortar and pestle, and also agricultural dwellings such as raised granaries to protect the harvested goods from rain and pests. During the following Yayoi period, rice cultivation spread all over Japan. It is a remarkable coincidence that two and a half thousand years later from the same Kyûshû area, brought in by immigrating Ko-rean and Chinese artisans, porcelain technology had made its victorious move across Japan.
Combined with local vegetables and fruits, rice provides simple, but nourishing and ade-quate sustenance. For oil and proteins, the Japanese relied traditionally on the fruits of the sea. The influence of Chinese Buddhism, introduced to Japan during the 7th and 8th centuries CE, brought both the proscription to eat four-legged animals, and the cultivation of soy-beans, a high-protein substitute of meat. Indeed, the Japanese did not begin eating pork and
Sample
group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to
Sample
group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked
Sample
shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear
Sample
even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear disaster that challenged the country in March 2011.
Sample
disaster that challenged the country in March 2011.
As the language of any culture provides clues to important concepts and values this is par-
Sample
As the language of any culture provides clues to important concepts and values this is par-ticularly true for Japan. The primacy of rice as a diet staple is deeply impressed into the
Sample
ticularly true for Japan. The primacy of rice as a diet staple is deeply impressed into the
Gohan
Sample
Gohan in Japanese is both the word for ‘cooked rice’ as well as ‘meal’.
Sample
in Japanese is both the word for ‘cooked rice’ as well as ‘meal’.
in Japanese is extended with prefixes to
Sample
in Japanese is extended with prefixes to
hirugohan
Sample
hirugohan (lunch, lit. midday rice), and
Sample
(lunch, lit. midday rice), and
words signal that it was almost impossible for Japanese to think of a meal without rice.
Sample
words signal that it was almost impossible for Japanese to think of a meal without rice. Another linguistic link is the early indigenous name of Japan,
Sample
Another linguistic link is the early indigenous name of Japan, the water stalk plant, i.e. rice). Early identification, then, encompassed the concept of rice
Sample
the water stalk plant, i.e. rice). Early identification, then, encompassed the concept of rice growing.
Sample
growing.
Cultivation of rice in paddy field s is thought to have been started in northern Kyûshû during Sample
Cultivation of rice in paddy field s is thought to have been started in northern Kyûshû during the Final Sam
ple
the Final JōmōnSample
Jōmōn period, presumably introduced by settlers from Korea and/or China, along Sample
period, presumably introduced by settlers from Korea and/or China, along with tools such as spade, hoe, mortar and pestle, and also agricultural dwellings such as Sam
ple
with tools such as spade, hoe, mortar and pestle, and also agricultural dwellings such as raised granaries to protect the harvested goods from rain and pests. During the following
Sample
raised granaries to protect the harvested goods from rain and pests. During the following
page
s period (1000–300 BCE) rice has
page
s period (1000–300 BCE) rice has occupied a highly revered, almost mythical position, and its seasonal cycle has dictated the
page
soccupied a highly revered, almost mythical position, and its seasonal cycle has dictated the character, rhythm and rituals of Japanese life. Rice was and is not just nourishment but a
page
scharacter, rhythm and rituals of Japanese life. Rice was and is not just nourishment but a product with numerous cultural and historical nuances and aspects that are deeply
page
sproduct with numerous cultural and historical nuances and aspects that are deeply woven
page
swoven
into the fabric of Japanese culture. It is widely believed that the notion of wa (harmony), the
page
sinto the fabric of Japanese culture. It is widely believed that the notion of wa (harmony), the desire for consensus, and the assessment of the context and result of actions, typical for
page
sdesire for consensus, and the assessment of the context and result of actions, typical for Japanese social behaviour, originated from wet rice cultivation. This cultivation required
page
sJapanese social behaviour, originated from wet rice cultivation. This cultivation required collaboration on many tasks and levels, including sharing of scarce resources, organising
page
scollaboration on many tasks and levels, including sharing of scarce resources, organising and pooling of labour, and a general emphasis on group interest, synergistic collaboration, pa
ges
and pooling of labour, and a general emphasis on group interest, synergistic collaboration, collective decision making, and efficient conflict control. Thus the historic commitment to pa
ges
collective decision making, and efficient conflict control. Thus the historic commitment to group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to pa
ges
group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked pa
ges
shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear
page
s
even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear
eschweizerbart_xxx
476 Part II
beef until the late 19th century CE when after the Meiji Restoration the country opened up to the West again, emulating Western-style cuisine. However, soybeans are still an essential ingredient of Japanese cooking in the form of tōfu (bean curd), miso (bean paste used in soups), nattō (boiled, fermented soy beans) and shōyû (soy sauce). Beside this, Japan has always borrowed and assimilated ingredients and cooking styles from the outside world: noodles from China, tempura-style cooking from Portugal, and beef cooked sukiyaki-style from the West.
Two traits are hallmarks of Japanese culinary aesthetics: attention to season and emphasis on presentation. The first causes Japanese people to prefer fresh over frozen food by buying and serving whatever is in season. The second is manifest in a pleasing display of both com-plementary and contrasting shapes, colours, and textures of food. No cuisine in the world places more emphasis on visual appearance, variety of ingredients, and seasonal appropri-ateness (Furse 1991) that are furthered by utilisation of exquisite pottery. Indeed, in Japan, pottery is so much a part of daily life that it is difficult to imagine a meal without it. Because tableware is a necessary element of the cuisine, ceramic dishes are chosen to blend not only with the food that is put on or in them but with the occasion, the time of day, the at-mosphere of the room, and with the season (Sosnoski 2000). There are endless variations.
Hence it comes to no surprise that the Japanese pottery designed to prepare and serve food also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain at the forefront but some also made of lacquer ware or wood. A rice bowl (gohan jawan, meshiwan) has just the right size to fit comfortably in the hand, the rectangular dish yaki-mono zara, meant to accommodate either whole grilled or sliced fish, comes in different sizes, with their shorter edges slightly curved upward, small china bowls (kobachi) used for sunomono (vinegared dishes) and nimono (stew), and larger china bowls with lids (donburi-bachi) are popular, designed to hold noodle dishes such as soba (buckwheat noodles), udon (thick wheat noodles), ramen (egg noodles) or donburimono (rice with toppings of chicken, beef, eggs, tempura etc.). Porcelain hashi oki (chopstick rest) are used to keep the tips of the (pointy) Japanese chopsticks from coming in contact with the table during pauses in eating, and yunomi jawan (yunomi, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are either small and delicate, or large and sturdy depending on the occasion and the type of tea served. A porcelain yunomi jawan for tea accompanying a dinner is very different from the ancient earthenware or stoneware Raku matchawan (tea bowl) used in the traditional Japa-nese tea ceremony (see Fig. 20.7).
Richly decorated chûzara (medium sized) and kozara (small sized) dishes are used for a variety of food including sashimi (raw fish slices) and yakimono (grilled food of any kind). To accompany more formal dinners, sake (rice wine) will be served warm or cold in tokkuri or choshi (sake bottle) and sipped from sakazuki or syohai (cone-shaped sake cup).
This rich variety of ceramic table ware with different shapes, sizes, colours, patterns and functions is evidence that the Japanese regard the presentation and appearance of food as being as important as its freshness, quality, fragrance and taste.
Sample
also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls,
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also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to
Sample
cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain
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hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain at the forefront but some also made of lacquer ware or wood. A rice bowl (
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at the forefront but some also made of lacquer ware or wood. A rice bowl () has just the right size to fit comfortably in the hand, the rectangular dish
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) has just the right size to fit comfortably in the hand, the rectangular dish , meant to accommodate either whole grilled or sliced fish, comes in different
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, meant to accommodate either whole grilled or sliced fish, comes in different
sizes, with their shorter edges slightly curved upward, small china bowls (
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sizes, with their shorter edges slightly curved upward, small china bowls (
(vinegared dishes) and
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(vinegared dishes) and nimono
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nimono (stew), and larger china bowls with lids (
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(stew), and larger china bowls with lids (
) are popular, designed to hold noodle dishes such as
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) are popular, designed to hold noodle dishes such as
(thick wheat noodles),
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(thick wheat noodles), ramen
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ramen (egg noodles) or
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(egg noodles) or
tempura
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tempura etc.). Porcelain
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etc.). Porcelain hashi oki
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hashi oki
(pointy) Japanese chopsticks from coming in contact with the table during pauses in eating,
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(pointy) Japanese chopsticks from coming in contact with the table during pauses in eating,
yunomi jawan
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yunomi jawan (
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(yunomi
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yunomi
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, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are
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, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are yunomi, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are yunomi
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yunomi, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are yunomi
either small and delicate, or large and sturdy depending on the occasion and the type of tea Sample
either small and delicate, or large and sturdy depending on the occasion and the type of tea served. A porcelain Sam
ple
served. A porcelain yunomi jawan Sample
yunomi jawan Sample
ancient earthenware or stoneware Raku Sample
ancient earthenware or stoneware Raku nese tea ceremony (see Fig. 20.7).Sam
ple
nese tea ceremony (see Fig. 20.7).
Richly decorated Sam
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Richly decorated
page
sTwo traits are hallmarks of Japanese culinary aesthetics: attention to season and emphasis
page
sTwo traits are hallmarks of Japanese culinary aesthetics: attention to season and emphasis on presentation. The first causes Japanese people to prefer fresh over frozen food by buying
page
son presentation. The first causes Japanese people to prefer fresh over frozen food by buying and serving whatever is in season. The second is manifest in a pleasing display of both com-
page
sand serving whatever is in season. The second is manifest in a pleasing display of both com-plementary and contrasting shapes, colours, and textures of food. No cuisine in the world
page
splementary and contrasting shapes, colours, and textures of food. No cuisine in the world places more emphasis on visual appearance, variety of ingredients, and seasonal appropri-
page
splaces more emphasis on visual appearance, variety of ingredients, and seasonal appropri-ateness (Furse 1991) that are furthered by utilisation of exquisite pottery. Indeed, in Japan,
page
sateness (Furse 1991) that are furthered by utilisation of exquisite pottery. Indeed, in Japan, pottery is so much a part of daily life that it is difficult to imagine a meal without it. Because
page
spottery is so much a part of daily life that it is difficult to imagine a meal without it. Because tableware is a necessary element of the cuisine, ceramic dishes are chosen to blend not
page
stableware is a necessary element of the cuisine, ceramic dishes are chosen to blend not only with the food that is put on or in them but with the occasion, the time of day, the at-
page
sonly with the food that is put on or in them but with the occasion, the time of day, the at-mosphere of the room, and with the season (Sosnoski 2000). There are endless variations.
page
smosphere of the room, and with the season (Sosnoski 2000). There are endless variations.
Hence it comes to no surprise that the Japanese pottery designed to prepare and serve food page
sHence it comes to no surprise that the Japanese pottery designed to prepare and serve food also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, pa
ges
also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to pa
ges
cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain pa
ges
hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain
eschweizerbart_xxx
47720 Japanese ceramics
20.7.2 Kamo-nanban soba (Soba with duck and spring onions)An ancient Japanese tradition to celebrate the beginning of a New Year is to eat toshikoshi soba, the ‘crossing-over’ noodles that are enjoyed on New Year’s Eve while quietly listening to the temple bells ringing in the New Year. A popular, ancient dish served on this occasion is kamo-nanban soba, consisting of duck (kamo) and long (spring) onions (negi) in a rich broth, together with long, thin buckwheat noodles (soba) representing a wish for long life (Fig. 20.14). 191192
Ingredients (3 servings):
Half a boned duck breast with the skin and excess fat removed; 200 g dry soba noodles; 750 ml of kake-jiru191 (broth for hot noodles); 1 negi (Japa-nese long onion) or 2 thick spring onions; 1/8 cup (30 ml) of sake; 70 ml soy sauce; 45 ml mirin (sweet rice wine); 1 bunch mitsuba (trefoil), cut into 5 cm lengths, or watercress; shichimi togarashi192 (seven-spices powder); 1 sheet of kombu (seaweed), c. 5x10 cm; 10g katsuo bushi (dried bonito flakes) or dashi no moto.
Preparation:
1. To prepare kake-jiru: Soak kombu overnight in cold water. Remove kombu. Heat liquid. Add bonito flakes (or dashi no moto), bring quickly to a boil. Let soak without heating for 30 min and strain thoroughly until liquid is clear. Add 40 ml soy sauce and 45 ml mirin. Reheat quickly, set aside and let cool.
2. To prepare soba noodles: Add soba to 2 litres of boiling water without salt. Simmer gently without further boiling for 6 min. Remove from heat. Strain noodles and put immediately into cold water. Replace water several times and wash noodles under gentle rubbing to remove the starchy and slimy coat.
3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in a large skillet over medium heat, and cook until oil covers completely the bottom of the skillet. Remove skin and surplus duck fat. Cut the duck breast diagonally into strips about 6 mm thick. Heat skillet and add meat strips. Stir
191 Kake-jiru will be prepared as follows: Heat dashi soup in a medium-sized saucepan until hot. Add shōyu (soy sauce), saké and mirin (sweet rice wine) and simmer for a while. Kake-jiru is for immediate consumption but is usable up to 2 days when refrigerated. Dashi soup or stock is prepared from kombu (kelp), soaked overnight in water. After removal of the kombu, katsuo bushi (bonito flakes) will be added into the water and boiled for 1 hour. After straining to remove the fish flakes the liquid can be used to make kake-jiru.
192 Japanese 7-spices powder. Ingredients: Red chilli, black sesame seed, orange peels, poppy seed, Szechuan pepper, seaweed, hempseed.
Sample
kombu
Sample
kombu overnight in cold water. Remove
Sample
overnight in cold water. Remove kombu overnight in cold water. Remove kombu
Sample
kombu overnight in cold water. Remove kombu. Heat liquid. Add bonito flakes (or
Sample
. Heat liquid. Add bonito flakes (or dashi no moto
Sample
dashi no motoboil. Let soak without heating for 30 min and strain thoroughly until liquid
Sample
boil. Let soak without heating for 30 min and strain thoroughly until liquid is clear. Add 40 ml soy sauce and 45 ml
Sample
is clear. Add 40 ml soy sauce and 45 ml mirin
Sample
mirin
Sample
Sample
Sample
2. To prepare soba noodles: Add
Sample
2. To prepare soba noodles: Add 2. To prepare soba noodles: Add
Sample
2. To prepare soba noodles: Add soba
Sample
soba to 2 litres of boiling water without salt.
Sample
to 2 litres of boiling water without salt.
Simmer gently without further boiling for 6 min. Remove from heat. Strain
Sample
Simmer gently without further boiling for 6 min. Remove from heat. Strain noodles and put immediately into cold water. Replace water several times
Sample
noodles and put immediately into cold water. Replace water several times and wash noodles under gentle rubbing to remove the starchy and slimy coat.
Sample
and wash noodles under gentle rubbing to remove the starchy and slimy coat.
3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in
Sample
3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in 3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in
Sample
3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in a large skillet over medium heat, and cook until oil covers completely the
Sample
a large skillet over medium heat, and cook until oil covers completely the bottom of the skillet. Remove skin and surplus duck fat. Cut the duck breast Sam
ple
bottom of the skillet. Remove skin and surplus duck fat. Cut the duck breast diagonally into strips about 6 mm thick. Heat skillet and add meat strips. StirSam
ple
diagonally into strips about 6 mm thick. Heat skillet and add meat strips. Stir
page
spa
gesHalf a boned duck breast with the skin and excess fat removed; 200 g dry
page
sHalf a boned duck breast with the skin and excess fat removed; 200 g dry (broth for hot noodles); 1 negi (Japa-
page
s (broth for hot noodles); 1 negi (Japa-
nese long onion) or 2 thick spring onions; 1/8 cup (30 ml) of sake; 70 ml soy
page
snese long onion) or 2 thick spring onions; 1/8 cup (30 ml) of sake; 70 ml soy sauce; 45 ml mirin (sweet rice wine); 1 bunch mitsuba (trefoil), cut into
page
ssauce; 45 ml mirin (sweet rice wine); 1 bunch mitsuba (trefoil), cut into
(seven-spices powder);
page
s (seven-spices powder);
1 sheet of kombu (seaweed), c. 5x10 cm; 10g katsuo bushi (dried bonito
page
s1 sheet of kombu (seaweed), c. 5x10 cm; 10g katsuo bushi (dried bonito
overnight in cold water. Remove page
s overnight in cold water. Remove
dashi no motopa
ges
dashi no moto
eschweizerbart_xxx
478 Part II
and fry strips quickly all around until just golden. Deglaze immediately with sake and the remaining soy sauce, stir, and add sliced spring onions. Cover and simmer for 2 min.
4. To serve: Heat kake-jiru. Divide the soba noodles among three bowls, add duck breast strips and spring onions. Pour hot kake-jiru over solids, sprinkle with shichimi togarashi and garnish with water cress.
20.7.3 Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot) 193
The river Ishikari, flowing through the centre of Hokkaido, is noted for the many salmon returning to it every year to spawn. Ishikari nabe is a mainstay in Hokkaido cuisine, made of saké (salmon), ikura (salmon roe), various vegetables and tōfu boiled in a karakuchi ko-mé-miso193, a light-brown salty bean paste broth. Originally the dish was called saké nabe
Figure 20.14. Japanese Kamo-nanban (soba noodles in kake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring onions and watercress).
193 Miso is generally made by crushing boiled soybeans and adding salt and kōji, either rice, wheat, barley or beans, acting as a fermenting aid. The type of kōji determines the taste of miso. Kara-kuchi komé-miso is made with rice as kōji.
Sample
Sample
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and fry strips quickly all around until just golden. Deglaze immediately with
Sample
and fry strips quickly all around until just golden. Deglaze immediately with
and the remaining soy sauce, stir, and add sliced spring onions. Cover
Sample
and the remaining soy sauce, stir, and add sliced spring onions. Cover
and simmer for 2 min.
Sample
and simmer for 2 min.
4. To serve: Heat
Sample
4. To serve: Heat kake-jiru
Sample
kake-jiru. Divide the soba noodles among three bowls,
Sample
. Divide the soba noodles among three bowls,
add duck breast strips and spring onions. Pour hot
Sample
add duck breast strips and spring onions. Pour hot sprinkle with
Sample
sprinkle with shichimi togarashi
Sample
shichimi togarashi
20.7.3 Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot)Sample
20.7.3 Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot)The river Ishikari, flowing through the centre of Hokkaido, is noted for the many salmon
Sample
The river Ishikari, flowing through the centre of Hokkaido, is noted for the many salmon
(soba noodles in
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(soba noodles in page
skake-jirupa
ges
kake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring page
s broth with duck slices, spring kake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring kake-jirupage
skake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring kake-jirupa
ges
eschweizerbart_xxx
47920 Japanese ceramics
and considered just simple fishermen’s food. When it was introduced to Tokyo as a Hok-kaido specialty by clever entrepreneurs it was given the name Ishikari nabe to distinguish it from the many other types of nabe available as something special (Fig. 20.15). It is indeed one of the very few Japanese dishes named after a geographical feature.
Ingredients (serves 4):
500 g salmon fillet, bite-size cubes; 50 g masago (capelin roe) or ikura (salmon roe), optional;1–2 tbls of shōyu (light soy sauce); 4 large leaves of hakusai (Chinese cabbage; bok choy), sliced; 2 chopped leeks (white portion only); 1/3 cup enoki (velvet foot) mushrooms; 4 shiitake mush-rooms; 2 medium potatoes; ½ carrot, sliced thinly; 250 g of firm tōfu; 8 cups (2 l) of dashi (see endnote 4) or vegetable stock ; 5–8 tbls of miso193 paste (dark and/or light); 2 tbls of sake; butter to taste; mirin (sweet sake) to taste; a dash of sansho (Japanese pepper, optional).
Preparation:
1. Slice salmon fillet into bite-sized cubes. Marinate salmon cubes with soy sauce and a dash of mirin. Leave to marinate for 20 minutes.
2. Bring the dashi or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to your preference).
3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are cooked through.
4. Add miso paste in slowly, making sure it dissolves completely. Taste to ensure that it is not too salty.
5. Add a dash of mirin into the soup after stirring in the miso. 6. Add in butter to taste. 7. Place tōfu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes. 8. Simmer the salmon cubes, just slightly below the surface of the soup
until thoroughly cooked. 9. Once the salmon is cooked, add vegetables and mushrooms and reheat
for a few minutes. 10. Spoon an even portion of the soup, vegetables, mushrooms, tōfu and
salmon into individual bowls.11. (Optional step) Add a dash of sansho to the soup.
Ishikari nabe is usually served with a bowl of steamed white rice. An alternative would be to combine the dish with kuzukiri (arrowroot starch noodles) or udon (Japanese wheat noo-dles). After adding in the butter in step 6, throw in the noodles and boil until the noodles are almost cooked. Proceed with the following steps 7 to 10.
Frequently ishikari nabe is prepared as a hot pot and served tableside. In this case dashi and miso are combined in an appropriately sized pot and heated over high heat until the miso paste has completely dissolved. Taste and adjust the seasoning with shōyu, sake and mirin.
Sample
or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to
Sample
or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to
3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are
Sample
3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are
paste in slowly, making sure it dissolves completely. Taste to
Sample
paste in slowly, making sure it dissolves completely. Taste to
ensure that it is not too salty.
Sample
ensure that it is not too salty.
5. Add a dash of
Sample
5. Add a dash of mirin
Sample
mirin into the soup after stirring in the
Sample
into the soup after stirring in the
6. Add in butter to taste.
Sample
6. Add in butter to taste.
t
Sample
tō
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ōtōt
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tōt fu
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fu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.
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gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.fu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.fu
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fu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.fu
8. Simmer the salmon cubes, just slightly below the surface of the soup
Sample
8. Simmer the salmon cubes, just slightly below the surface of the soup
Sample
until thoroughly cooked.
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until thoroughly cooked.
9. Once the salmon is cooked, add vegetables and mushrooms and reheat
Sample
9. Once the salmon is cooked, add vegetables and mushrooms and reheat
for a few minutes.
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for a few minutes. 10. Spoon an even portion of the soup, vegetables, mushrooms, Sam
ple
10. Spoon an even portion of the soup, vegetables, mushrooms, Sample
Sample
salmon into individual bowls.Sample
salmon into individual bowls.11. (Optional step) Add a dash of Sam
ple
11. (Optional step) Add a dash of
page
s (light soy sauce); 4 large leaves of
page
s (light soy sauce); 4 large leaves of ), sliced; 2 chopped leeks (white
page
s), sliced; 2 chopped leeks (white (velvet foot) mushrooms; 4 shiitake mush-
page
s (velvet foot) mushrooms; 4 shiitake mush-rooms; 2 medium potatoes; ½ carrot, sliced thinly; 250 g of firm
page
srooms; 2 medium potatoes; ½ carrot, sliced thinly; 250 g of firm t
page
stō
page
sōtōt
page
stōt fu
page
sfu;
page
s; (see endnote 4) or vegetable stock ; 5–8 tbls of
page
s(see endnote 4) or vegetable stock ; 5–8 tbls of miso
page
smiso193
page
s193
mirin
page
smirin (sweet
page
s(sweet sake
page
ssake) to
page
s) to
1. Slice salmon fillet into bite-sized cubes. Marinate salmon cubes with page
s 1. Slice salmon fillet into bite-sized cubes. Marinate salmon cubes with
. Leave to marinate for 20 minutes.page
s. Leave to marinate for 20 minutes.
or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to page
sor vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to
3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are pa
ges
3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are
eschweizerbart_xxx
480 Part II
Put the nabe pot on a portable burner and arrange the remaining ingredients around the pot on serving plates.
Steam the potatoes for about 30 minutes. Soak kuzukiri (arrowroot starch noodles) or udon (wheat noodles) in water until softened. Cut potatoes into about 2 cm thick slices, bok choy, mushrooms, and tōfu into large bite-sized pieces.
Arrange salmon, potatoes, vegetables, mushrooms, noodles and tōfu on serving plates. Put ikura and butter in separate bowls with serving spoons. Then diners can put ingredients ac-cording to their preference in the pot. When the food is cooked, the diners put it in their own bowls with some liquid, and add some butter and ikura on top according to taste.
Figure 20.15. Ishikari nabe, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.
Sample
pot on a portable burner and arrange the remaining ingredients around the pot
Sample
pot on a portable burner and arrange the remaining ingredients around the pot
Steam the potatoes for about 30 minutes. Soak
Sample
Steam the potatoes for about 30 minutes. Soak (wheat noodles) in water until softened. Cut potatoes into about 2 cm thick slices,
Sample
(wheat noodles) in water until softened. Cut potatoes into about 2 cm thick slices, mushrooms, and
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mushrooms, and t
Sample
tō
Sample
ōtōt
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tōt fu
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fu into large bite-sized pieces.
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into large bite-sized pieces. fu into large bite-sized pieces. fu
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fu into large bite-sized pieces. fu
Arrange salmon, potatoes, vegetables, mushrooms, noodles and
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Arrange salmon, potatoes, vegetables, mushrooms, noodles and
and butter in separate bowls with serving spoons. Then diners can put ingredients ac-
Sample
and butter in separate bowls with serving spoons. Then diners can put ingredients ac-
cording to their preference in the pot. When the food is cooked, the diners put it in their
Sample
cording to their preference in the pot. When the food is cooked, the diners put it in their own bowls with some liquid, and add some butter and Sam
ple
own bowls with some liquid, and add some butter and
, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.
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, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.
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page
s, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.pa
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, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.page
s
eschweizerbart_xxx
Advanced ceramics XIX, 3, 9, 457, 458, 459
Alkaline glaze 49, 59Alkemade line 60, 62Alkemade theorem 62American Indian pottery 29Anagama kiln 118, 119, 468Anasazi pottery 377, 378Anatolian Grey ware 172Animal bones 95Anthropocene 2, 3, 4Anyang period 404, 405Apparent porosity 210, 211Apulian pottery 193Arettine ware 198Argolid pottery 174, 175Arismān culture 146Arita kiln 469, 471, 473Arita porcelain 473Arretine ware 193, 194, 196Ash glaze 50, 51, 119, 463,
466Assay kiln 124Asuka period 463Attic pottery 76, 133, 157, 177,
179, 180, 181Aztec ware 376
Badari ware 137, 139Badorf pottery 227, 228Ballas clay 143, 144Ban Chiang ceramics 441Barbotine technique 193, 200,
225, 226Basaltware 261, 355, 359Beehive kiln 105, 110, 111, 114Bellarmine jug 232, 233, 237Bending strength 14Bernoulli’s principle 118Bianco 292, 293Bilingual vases 180Biscuit XXI, 14, 16, 292, 321,
424, 470Bizen kiln 464, 465Bizen stoneware 464, 465, 471Black sigillata 193Black-figure technique 158, 176,
179, 180, 181, 192Black-topped ware 137
Blue-and-white porcelain 399, 427, 428
Bone ash 355, 357, 358, 359, 360
Bone china XIX, 95, 97, 262, 354, 355, 357, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 398
Bonfire 105Böttger porcelain 344, 346Böttger red stoneware 333, 339,
341, 342, 343, 344, 345Boudouard equilibrium 84, 90,
91, 93, 113, 175Bourry diagram 47Bow porcelain 355, 356, 357,
358Bowmaker plasticity factor 40British porcelain 355Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245Burial rites 185
Cacai colour 429Caerlean ware 203Cailloutage 269Campanian ware 192, 193, 194,
195Caneware 261, 359Cardium ware 130, 159Carolingian earthenware 227Castor ware 196, 197Celadon glaze 51, 53, 54, 419,
422, 423, 439, 445, 451, 466Celadon ware 53, 282, 413,
418Ceramic ecology 8, 9Ceramic phase diagrams V, XXI,
59, 64Ceramic reference group 201,
202Chalcolithic 135, 137, 144Changsha kiln 413, 415Changsha stoneware 413, 414,
415, 416Channel-type kiln 111, 112Chantilly frit 319Chantilly ware 314, 318, 324,
326, 469Chavin culture 371Chelsea porcelain 357, 469
Chimu ware 371China clay 29, 71China stone 16, 359Chinese porcelain 5, 284, 312,
333, 360, 395, 396, 411Chymie 320Circular kiln 109Clammins 125Closed porosity 210, 211Cluster analysis 273Cobalt aluminate 58Cobalt blue 142Coiling XXI, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43,
371, 382, 460Coloured earthenware 13, 17Compressive strength 14Conode 60, 62, 63, 69, 335Contubernium 338, 339, 344Cookbook 246, 247, 251, 300,
301, 302, 327, 394, 435Cooking pots XVIII, 10, 18, 19,
20, 21, 89, 133, 150, 248, 381, 389, 405
Cooking vessels XVII, 12, 394Coperta 280, 297, 299Corded ware 130Corinthian kiln 136Corinthian pottery 76, 82, 133,
157, 177, 178, 180Cornish stone 16, 29, 95, 354,
359, 362Cotectic triangle 60, 323Crack mouth opening displace-
ment 386, 387Crack propagation 387, 388Craquelée 420, 452Creamware 12, 15, 255, 259,
260, 261, 264, 269, 272, 357, 359
Cross-draught kiln 119, 120Crusted ware 161Cuisine ancienne 326, 327Cuisine moderne 326, 327Cupisnique culture 371Cycladic culture 170
Delft porcelainDendrogram 272Density coefficient 210
Ceramics index
Sample
Attic pottery 76, 133, 157, 177,
Sample
Attic pottery 76, 133, 157, 177,
Badari ware 137, 139
Sample
Badari ware 137, 139Badorf pottery 227, 228
Sample
Badorf pottery 227, 228Ballas clay 143, 144
Sample
Ballas clay 143, 144Ban Chiang ceramics 441
Sample
Ban Chiang ceramics 441Barbotine technique 193, 200,
Sample
Barbotine technique 193, 200, 225, 226Sam
ple
225, 226Basaltware 261, 355, 359Sam
ple
Basaltware 261, 355, 359Beehive kiln 105, 110, 111, 114Sam
ple
Beehive kiln 105, 110, 111, 114Bellarmine jug 232, 233, 237Sam
ple
Bellarmine jug 232, 233, 237Bending strength 14Sam
ple
Bending strength 14Bernoulli’s principle 118
Sample
Bernoulli’s principle 118
British porcelain 355
Sample
British porcelain 355Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245
Sample
Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245Burial rites 185
Sample
Burial rites 185
Cacai colour 429
Sample
Cacai colour 429Caerlean ware 203
Sample
Caerlean ware 203Cailloutage 269
Sample
Cailloutage 269Campanian ware 192, 193, 194,
Sample
Campanian ware 192, 193, 194,
195
Sample
195
Caneware 261, 359
Sample
Caneware 261, 359Cardium ware 130, 159
Sample
Cardium ware 130, 159Carolingian earthenware 227
Sample
Carolingian earthenware 227Castor ware 196, 197
Sample
Castor ware 196, 197Celadon glaze 51, 53, 54, 419,
Sample
Celadon glaze 51, 53, 54, 419,
page
sBow porcelain 355, 356, 357,
page
sBow porcelain 355, 356, 357,
Bowmaker plasticity factor 40page
sBowmaker plasticity factor 40
Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245page
sBunzlau stoneware 244, 245
Chinese porcelain 5, 284, 312,
page
sChinese porcelain 5, 284, 312,
333, 360, 395, 396, 411
page
s333, 360, 395, 396, 411
Circular kiln 109
page
sCircular kiln 109Clammins 125
page
sClammins 125Closed porosity 210, 211
page
sClosed porosity 210, 211Cluster analysis 273
page
sCluster analysis 273Cobalt aluminate 58
page
sCobalt aluminate 58Cobalt blue 142
page
sCobalt blue 142Coiling XXI, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43,
page
sCoiling XXI, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43,
371, 382, 460
page
s371, 382, 460
Coloured earthenware 13, 17
page
sColoured earthenware 13, 17Compressive strength 14page
sCompressive strength 14Conode 60, 62, 63, 69, 335page
sConode 60, 62, 63, 69, 335Contubernium 338, 339, 344page
sContubernium 338, 339, 344Cookbook 246, 247, 251, 300, page
sCookbook 246, 247, 251, 300,
eschweizerbart_xxx
538 Ceramics index
Differential thermal analysis 73, 74, 78
Dilatancy 32Dilatometry 271Dimini culture 160Dimini ware 162, 163Ding kiln 395, 397, 412, 417Ding ware 1, 7, 417, 419Discriminant function 243Dornrandkanne 237Doucai ware 427Downdraught kiln 119Dragon-type kiln XVI, 119, 121,
122, 123, 124, 423, 468Drying 6, 37, 38, 47, 48Dynastic Egyptian pottery 137,
138, 140
Earthenware 12, 76, 80, 228, 248, 371, 395, 403, 458
Egyptian faience 140, 284Egyptian Blue 57, 58,141Electrical porcelain 126Enamel 16Engobe 133, 134, 193, 248,
283Ephyrean goblet 173Etruscan bucchero 199European earthenware 393
Faience 12, 38, 50, 267, 269, 309, 334, 339
Faience fine 255, 265, 272Falangcai colour 428, 432, 433Falke group stoneware 236, 241,
243Famille jaune 431Famille noire 431Famille rose 347, 431, 432Famille verte 347, 431Feldspar porcelain 362Feldspathic glaze 50, 52, 346,
359, 466Figurative stamps 200Firing atmosphere 12, 20, 71,
180, 203, 204, 383Firing temperature XXI, 6, 12,
14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 63, 69, 71, 87, 94, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 122, 133, 157, 180, 203, 204, 231, 234, 235, 240, 271, 282, 321, 333, 343, 346, 348, 365, 383, 385, 389, 390, 420, 460
Firnis d-ware 133
Fisher linear discriminant analysis 426
Five famous kilns 423Flexural strength 14, 19Floral style 169Forced draught 104Forming 6, 37, 39Fracture energy 388Fracture toughness 14, 20, 364,
386, 388, 389Fuel economy 122, 126Fujiwara period 463Functional ceramics 3Funk stoneware 343
Gaulish pottery 197, 205, 212Gaulish workshops 199Geometric style 158, 176, 176German stoneware VI, 227, 228Gibbs’ phase rule 61, 62, 68Glass 16Glaze 37, 48, 248, 265, 274,
279, 283, 296, 297, 321, 324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452
Glaze formulation 54Glazed stoneware XIX, 395,
439, 442, 443Glazing 6, 14, 37, 48, 466Gournia ware 166Gouy layer 31, 34Grapen 248, 406Graphite 84, 90Grey Minyan ware 84Guan kiln 123, 419, 425
Haçilar ware 136Halaf culture 132, 133Halaf ware 148Hard-paste porcelain 13, 15, 16,
49, 52, 59, 71, 124, 313, 320, 321, 326, 333, 336, 339, 341, 345, 347, 351, 354, 358, 364, 411, 424, 469
Hassuna culture 132 , 133Hassuna ware 148HCM coral red 181Hedgehog jug 237Heian period 457, 463Helladic period 161, 163, 173,
174Helladic pottery 170, 171, 172,
185Hidasuki pattern 464, 465Hierarchical clustering 271Hispanic terra sigillata 205
Hittite culture 135Hittite pottery 137Hofmeister series 22, 34, 36Hohokam pottery 378Holistic technology V, , 1, 5, 6, 7Hovel 125Hui pigment 426Hui qing pigment 426
Imari porcelain 347, 469, 470, 473
Inca culture 373Intentional red 144, 180, 181Iranian pottery 144, 148Iridescence 281, 282Iro-e ceramic 472Ironstone china 262, 357, 362Istoriati plate 279, 289, 291Italian maiolica 289, 296, 298,
300, 470Italian sigillata 194, 195, 196Iznik ware 284
Jacoba jar 238Jagama kiln 119, 120, 468Japan Fine Ceramics Center 459Japanese stoneware 458Jasperware 261, 355, 359Jōmōn culture XVIIJōmōn pottery 458, 460, 461
Kakiemon porcelain 314, 347, 457, 458, 469, 470
Kakiemon style 356, 357Kalong ware 443, 450Kamakura period 464Kamares ware 64, 76, 157, 167,
168, 169Karatsu stoneware 457, 466,
467, 468Kiln XXI, 14, 45, 72, 91, 93,
100, 103, 128, 203, 206, 227, 234, 235, 339, 343, 360, 407, 442, 463
Kiln furniture 119, 122Kiyomizu porcelain 472Knossos ware 166, 168Kofun pottery 460, 461Ko-Imari porcelain 457, 474Kokutani porcelain 471Kottabos 186Kraak porcelain 399, 424
Ladjvardina ware 285Lan Na kiln 449
Sample
Faience 12, 38, 50, 267, 269,
Sample
Faience 12, 38, 50, 267, 269,
Faience fine 255, 265, 272
Sample
Faience fine 255, 265, 272Falangcai colour 428, 432, 433
Sample
Falangcai colour 428, 432, 433Falke group stoneware 236, 241,
Sample
Falke group stoneware 236, 241,
Famille jaune 431
Sample
Famille jaune 431Famille noire 431
Sample
Famille noire 431Famille rose 347, 431, 432
Sample
Famille rose 347, 431, 432Famille verte 347, 431Sam
ple
Famille verte 347, 431Feldspar porcelain 362Sam
ple
Feldspar porcelain 362Feldspathic glaze 50, 52, 346, Sam
ple
Feldspathic glaze 50, 52, 346, 359, 466Sam
ple
359, 466Figurative stamps 200Sam
ple
Figurative stamps 200Firing atmosphere 12, 20, 71,
Sample
Firing atmosphere 12, 20, 71,
324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452
Sample
324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452Glaze formulation 54
Sample
Glaze formulation 54Glazed stoneware XIX, 395,
Sample
Glazed stoneware XIX, 395, 439, 442, 443
Sample
439, 442, 443Glazing 6, 14, 37, 48, 466
Sample
Glazing 6, 14, 37, 48, 466Gournia ware 166
Sample
Gournia ware 166Gouy layer 31, 34
Sample
Gouy layer 31, 34Grapen 248, 406
Sample
Grapen 248, 406Graphite 84, 90
Sample
Graphite 84, 90Grey Minyan ware 84
Sample
Grey Minyan ware 84Guan kiln 123, 419, 425
Sample
Guan kiln 123, 419, 425
Haçilar ware 136
Sample
Haçilar ware 136Halaf culture 132, 133
Sample
Halaf culture 132, 133Halaf ware 148
Sample
Halaf ware 148
page
sImari porcelain 347, 469, 470,
page
sImari porcelain 347, 469, 470,
page
sGlaze 37, 48, 248, 265, 274, pa
ges
Glaze 37, 48, 248, 265, 274, 279, 283, 296, 297, 321, pa
ges
279, 283, 296, 297, 321, 324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452pa
ges
324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452
Inca culture 373
page
sInca culture 373Intentional red 144, 180, 181
page
sIntentional red 144, 180, 181Iranian pottery 144, 148
page
sIranian pottery 144, 148Iridescence 281, 282
page
sIridescence 281, 282Iro-e ceramic 472
page
sIro-e ceramic 472Ironstone china 262, 357, 362
page
sIronstone china 262, 357, 362Istoriati plate 279, 289, 291
page
sIstoriati plate 279, 289, 291Italian maiolica 289, 296, 298,
page
sItalian maiolica 289, 296, 298,
300, 470
page
s300, 470
Italian sigillata 194, 195, 196
page
sItalian sigillata 194, 195, 196Iznik ware 284page
sIznik ware 284
Jacoba jar 238page
sJacoba jar 238Jagama kiln 119, 120, 468page
sJagama kiln 119, 120, 468
eschweizerbart_xxx
539Ceramics index
Lan Na stoneware 452Langyao glaze 428, 430, 469LCM coral red 181Lead glaze 49, 50, 267, 272,
280, 282, 284, 286, 313, 334, 357, 399, 464, 468
Lead silicate glaze 359Lime blowing 371, 385, 386,
389, 391, 392Lime glaze 410, 414Longquan celadon 122, 395,
399, 401, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423
Longquan kiln 417, 423, 445Longquan stoneware 418, 420,
421, 446, 471Longshan culture 401, 402, 403Longshan ware 395Lost-wax technique 404Lustre 279, 284, 285, 287, 288,
288, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296Lustre effect 281, 282Lyon terra sigillata 202
Mahalanobis D-square test 211, 243
Maiolica 12, 38, 50, 290, 293, 295, 297, 334
Manganese-black technique 136, 142, 147
Man-tou kiln 121, 398Marine style 169Master stamp 209Mastico 318Maya Blue 30, 56Maya culture 374, 375Maya pottery 374, 376Mayen pottery 227Medici porcelain 334, 335Medieval life style 245Megarian bowl 182, 183, 198,
199Meidum ware 140, 141Meissen porcelain XIX, 336,
340, 341, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 352, 359, 469
Meme 8Mesolithic XVII, XVIII, 8, 460Microporosity 210, 211Middle Mississippian culture
380Mimbres ware 378Mina’i ware 281, 285, 287Ming dynasty 283, 399, 423,
424
Ming gap 443Ming ware 399, 426Minoan Crete XIX, 184Minoan pottery 88, 164, 169Minyan pottery 171, 172, 176Mississippian ceramic-ceramic
ware 393Mississippian culture 379, 380Mississippian pottery 371, 380,
382, 383, 388, 390Mochica (Moche) pottery 371,
372, 373Modulus of elasticity 101, 102Mogollon 56Mogollon pottery 378Mohammedan blue 425Momoyama ware 466Mortarium 216Mössbauer spectroscopy 78, 79Moundville ware 381, 384Mud glaze 244Muffle furnace 114Muromachi period 459, 464Mussel shells 382, 386, 391,
392, 460Mycenaean koine 173Mycenaean pottery 133, 172,
176
Nabeshima porcelain 457, 458, 472, 473
Nahrawan clay 132Nanshan-Qingling divide 122,
395, 404, 408Naqada ware 138, 140Nara period 463Narikawa pottery 463Natural draught 104, 119, 121,
122Nazca pottery 371, 372Nene River ware 196Neolithic XVII, XVIII, XXI, 4, 8,
10, 42, 65, 72, 76, 87, 88, 89, 92, 105, 129, 131, 135, 144, 148, 149, 157, 159, 160, 163, 166, 395, 401, 402, 405, 441, 457, 458
Nernst potential 36New Forest ware 203New Kingdom ware 144New world pottery 371Nile effect 134Nile silt 132, 143, 144Nishiki ware 474Nixtamalization 381
Noborigama kiln 119, 468Nodena culture 383
Octopus style 174Old Kingdom pottery 140Oneota culture 380Open pit firing 106Oribe ware 466, 466, 467Orientalising style 158, 176Overglaze colours 341, 359,
361, 474Overglaze decoration 264, 284,
285Overglaze enamel 321, 427,
430, 470, 473Overglaze painting 50, 472Oxford ware 203Oxidising firing 71, 72, 76, 77,
78, 80, 82, 91, 92, 94, 147, 157, 166, 177, 178, 180, 193, 320
Oxygen fugacity 71, 89, 90, 91
Paddle-and-anvil technique 382Painting 6, 55, 56Palaeolithic 8, XVII, XVIIIPalatial style 169Palissy ware 255, 257, 258, 270,
271, 272Paracas Cavernas culture 372Paracas Cavernas ware 371Pâte tendre 309, 320Peach bloom glaze 429Pearlware 262, 357, 359Peptisation 38Persian porcelain 311Petuntse 16, 341, 344, 354, 355,
359, 398, 408, 409, 411, 420, 422
Pfefferkorn plasticity number 40Phaistos ware 166Phan ware 443, 451Phayao ware 451, 452Phosphate glass equation 362,
364, 365Phosphatic porcelain 97, 354,
357Piatto di pompa 294Pictorial style 173, 174Pigment 16, 30, 37, 55, 56, 57,
58, 89, 92, 141, 147, 178, 262, 264, 280, 290, 348, 414, 424, 426
Pingsdorf pottery 227, 228, 229Pit furnace 107
Sample
Maya Blue 30, 56
Sample
Maya Blue 30, 56Maya culture 374, 375
Sample
Maya culture 374, 375Maya pottery 374, 376
Sample
Maya pottery 374, 376Mayen pottery 227
Sample
Mayen pottery 227Medici porcelain 334, 335
Sample
Medici porcelain 334, 335Medieval life style 245Sam
ple
Medieval life style 245Megarian bowl 182, 183, 198, Sam
ple
Megarian bowl 182, 183, 198, 199 Sam
ple
199Meidum ware 140, 141Sam
ple
Meidum ware 140, 141Meissen porcelain XIX, 336, Sam
ple
Meissen porcelain XIX, 336, 340, 341, 345, 346, 347, Sam
ple
340, 341, 345, 346, 347,
Mussel shells 382, 386, 391,
Sample
Mussel shells 382, 386, 391, 392, 460
Sample
392, 460Mycenaean koine 173
Sample
Mycenaean koine 173Mycenaean pottery 133, 172,
Sample
Mycenaean pottery 133, 172, 176
Sample
176
Nabeshima porcelain 457, 458,
Sample
Nabeshima porcelain 457, 458,
472, 473
Sample
472, 473
Nahrawan clay 132
Sample
Nahrawan clay 132Nanshan-Qingling divide 122,
Sample
Nanshan-Qingling divide 122,
395, 404, 408
Sample
395, 404, 408
Naqada ware 138, 140
Sample
Naqada ware 138, 140Nara period 463
Sample
Nara period 463Narikawa pottery 463
Sample
Narikawa pottery 463Natural draught 104, 119, 121,
Sample
Natural draught 104, 119, 121,
page
sOverglaze colours 341, 359,
page
sOverglaze colours 341, 359,
Overglaze decoration 264, 284,
page
sOverglaze decoration 264, 284,
Overglaze enamel 321, 427,
page
sOverglaze enamel 321, 427, 430, 470, 473
page
s430, 470, 473Overglaze painting 50, 472
page
sOverglaze painting 50, 472
page
sMuromachi period 459, 464pa
ges
Muromachi period 459, 464Mussel shells 382, 386, 391, pa
ges
Mussel shells 382, 386, 391,
Oxford ware 203
page
sOxford ware 203Oxidising firing 71, 72, 76, 77,
page
sOxidising firing 71, 72, 76, 77,
78, 80, 82, 91, 92, 94, 147,
page
s78, 80, 82, 91, 92, 94, 147, 157, 166, 177, 178, 180,
page
s157, 166, 177, 178, 180, 193, 320
page
s193, 320
Oxygen fugacity 71, 89, 90, 91page
sOxygen fugacity 71, 89, 90, 91
Paddle-and-anvil technique 382page
sPaddle-and-anvil technique 382Painting 6, 55, 56page
sPainting 6, 55, 56
eschweizerbart_xxx
540 Ceramics index
Porcelain V, XVI, XXI, 12, 16, 17, 68, 73, 121, 122, 126, 269, 282
Porcelain microstructure 348, 351
Pore size distribution 94Pores 97, 98Porosity 12, 14, 21, 48, 94Potbank 125Potter’s wheel 39, 43, 47, 157,
164, 295, 371, 463Predynastic Egyptian pottery
137, 138Prescriptive technology 1, 5, 6,
7Principal component analysis
418Proto-celadon 407, 412Protogeometric style 176Protomaiolica 289Proto-porcelain 52, 68, 121,
122, 395, 407, 409, 410, 411, 412
Proto-stoneware 227, 231, 235
Pyrgos style 166Pyrgos ware 167
Qena clay 143, 144Qi hong glaze 427, 428Qing dynasty 399Qing porcelain 430Qingbai porcelain 397, 423,
425Queen’s ware 255, 261, 262,
263, 264, 267, 357
Raeren stoneware 233Rain cloud-grey glaze 450Raku glaze 52, 53Raku kiln 119Raku ware 12, 466, 472R-curve behaviour 388, 389Réaumur porcelain 334Rectangular kiln 109Red earthenware 49Red stoneware 355Red-figure technique 158, 176,
179, 180, 181Reducing firing 71, 72, 77, 83,
91, 93, 94, 179, 180, 392, 465
Relative porosity parameter 210, 211
Residual stress 351, 391
Rhenish stoneware 229, 234, 235, 238, 336, 407, 448
Rietveld refinement 84, 86Ringelkrug 242Rosso di maiolica 293
Saggar 114, 119, 122, 125, 280, 320, 413
Saint-Cloud ware 311, 312, 313, 320, 324, 469
Saint-Porchaire ware 255, 256, 270, 271, 272, 274
Salt glaze 52, 234, 235, 240, 267
Salt-glazed stoneware 52, 230, 232, 260
Samarra culture 132, 133Samarra ware 148Samian ware 193San Kamphaeng ware 443, 450,
451, 452Sancai colour 428, 464Sancai ware 415, 416, 463Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429Sangkhalok stoneware 442Sanitary porcelain 50Sawankhalok stoneware 232,
443Saxon stoneware 236Schnelle 230, 231Scove kiln 107, 131Seger formula 49, 50, 54, 55Seleucia clay 132Seljuk culture 135Sesklo culture 159Sesklo ware 162, 163Seto kiln 464, 465Seto ware 465, 466, 466, 467Shang bronze casting 404Shang dynasty 50, 51, 404, 406,
407Shang pottery 405, 410Shear modulus 101, 102Shell 19, 38Shell temper 380, 381, 381, 391Shell-tempered pottery 371,
381, 382, 387, 388, 389, 392Shi pigment 426Shino ware 466Shufu porcelain 425Si Satchanalai kiln 439, 444,
445Si Satchanalai stoneware 447,
448, 449Siebenlehn rock 345
Siegburg stoneware 230, 231, 232, 335
Silphium 216, 217Sintering 12, 16, 71, 73, 94, 98,
99, 100, 102, 211, 234Six Old Kilns 457, 464Slabbing XXISlip casting XXI, 142Smoking 90, 193Soft-paste porcelain XIX, 16,
309, 313, 314, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 326, 334, 341, 354, 357, 358, 411
Soft-paste porcelain glaze 325Solar furnace 338Song dynasty 122, 399, 401,
417, 446Staffordshire 125Staffordshire earthenware 360Stamp 209Stamped stoneware 407Standardisation 200Steatitic porcelain 356Stern layer 31, 34Stern potential 36Stone china 262, 357Stoneware 12, 14, 15, 17, 49,
50, 67, 121, 124, 247, 359, 362, 403
Stoneware glaze 55Stoneware kiln 117Strange attractor 6, 8Structural viscosity 32, 33Sturzbecher 230, 231Sue ware 462, 463, 463, 464Sui dynasty 395, 412Sukhothai kiln 439, 444, 445Sukhothai stoneware 232, 443,
445, 447Sumali pigment 426Sun furnace 337Symposion 184, 185
Tang dynasty 283, 395, 412, 413, 416, 463
Tang porcelain 283, 416Tao yao kiln 122, 398Tell-el-Amarna period 142Tenmuku glaze 53Tensile strength 14Tepe Hissar kiln 144Tepe Sialk ware 145, 146, 147Terra Helvetica 202Terra nigra 193
Sample
Qingbai porcelain 397, 423,
Sample
Qingbai porcelain 397, 423,
Queen’s ware 255, 261, 262,
Sample
Queen’s ware 255, 261, 262,
263, 264, 267, 357
Sample
263, 264, 267, 357
Raeren stoneware 233
Sample
Raeren stoneware 233Rain cloud-grey glaze 450
Sample
Rain cloud-grey glaze 450Raku glaze 52, 53Sam
ple
Raku glaze 52, 53Raku kiln 119Sam
ple
Raku kiln 119Raku ware 12, 466, 472Sam
ple
Raku ware 12, 466, 472R-curve behaviour 388, 389Sam
ple
R-curve behaviour 388, 389Réaumur porcelain 334Sam
ple
Réaumur porcelain 334Rectangular kiln 109
Sample
Rectangular kiln 109
Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429
Sample
Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429Sangkhalok stoneware 442
Sample
Sangkhalok stoneware 442Sanitary porcelain 50
Sample
Sanitary porcelain 50Sawankhalok stoneware 232,
Sample
Sawankhalok stoneware 232, 443
Sample
443
Saxon stoneware 236
Sample
Saxon stoneware 236Schnelle 230, 231
Sample
Schnelle 230, 231Scove kiln 107, 131
Sample
Scove kiln 107, 131Seger formula 49, 50, 54, 55
Sample
Seger formula 49, 50, 54, 55Seleucia clay 132
Sample
Seleucia clay 132Seljuk culture 135
Sample
Seljuk culture 135Sesklo culture 159
Sample
Sesklo culture 159Sesklo ware 162, 163
Sample
Sesklo ware 162, 163Seto kiln 464, 465
Sample
Seto kiln 464, 465Seto ware 465, 466, 466, 467
Sample
Seto ware 465, 466, 466, 467
page
sSoft-paste porcelain XIX, 16,
page
sSoft-paste porcelain XIX, 16,
309, 313, 314, 316, 317,
page
s309, 313, 314, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322,
page
s318, 319, 320, 321, 322,
page
sSan Kamphaeng ware 443, 450,
page
sSan Kamphaeng ware 443, 450,
Sancai ware 415, 416, 463page
sSancai ware 415, 416, 463Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429pa
ges
Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429Sangkhalok stoneware 442pa
ges
Sangkhalok stoneware 442
323, 324, 326, 334, 341,
page
s323, 324, 326, 334, 341, 354, 357, 358, 411
page
s354, 357, 358, 411Soft-paste porcelain glaze 325
page
sSoft-paste porcelain glaze 325Solar furnace 338
page
sSolar furnace 338Song dynasty 122, 399, 401,
page
sSong dynasty 122, 399, 401,
417, 446
page
s417, 446
Staffordshire 125
page
sStaffordshire 125Staffordshire earthenware 360
page
sStaffordshire earthenware 360Stamp 209
page
sStamp 209Stamped stoneware 407page
sStamped stoneware 407Standardisation 200page
sStandardisation 200Steatitic porcelain 356page
sSteatitic porcelain 356Stern layer 31, 34page
sStern layer 31, 34
eschweizerbart_xxx
541Ceramics index
Terra sigillata VI, XIX, 1, 7, 12, 14, 38, 45, 46, 64, 76, 77, 80, 99, 102, 126, 133, 180, 182, 192, 193, 194, 196, 203, 210, 222, 224, 225, 231, 259
Terra sigillata forms 199Terra sigillata kiln 114, 115,
116, 117, 127, 207, 208Terra sigillata mould 209, 210,
212Terra sigillata workshop 206Terracotta 12, 21, 56, 76, 295Terre de Lorraine 267Terre de pipe 259, 267, 268Thera eruption 169, 171Thermal conductivity 1, 18, 71,
386Thermal expansion coefficient
203, 326, 346, 425, 452Thermal shock 18, 20, 354, 357Thermal shock resistance 19,
354, 357, 381, 386Thermal transformation in
phosphatic ceramics 95Thermal transformation of illite
76Thermal transformation of
kaolinite 73Thessalian pottery 161Thixotropy 32Three-phase firing 177, 180Tiahuanaco pottery 371, 373Time-of-flight neutron diffraction
235, 236Tin glaze 50, 280, 283, 284,
286, 299, 300Tin-glazed pottery 279, 282,
284, 287, 288, 289, 292, 309Toploader kiln 115Tournai frit 319Transfer printing 262, 263, 264Triaxial porcelain 13, 16, 67,
344, 348, 350
Trichterbecher 232Troy pottery 175Tureng Tepe kiln 144Tzakol ware 374
Ubaid culture 133, 134Ubaid ware 144, 148Ultrasonic impulse 101Ultrasonic wave propagation
102Underglaze decoration 16, 264,
321, 346, 348, 414, 424, 427, 439, 446
Underglaze-blue porcelain 425, 427, 430, 470, 473
Updraught kiln 108, 109, 119, 133
Upward draught 125
Vasiliki ware 137, 166, 167Vauxhall ware 358Villanova culture 192Vincennes/Sèvres frit 319Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315,
318, 324Vitrification 98, 204, 205Vitrified stoneware 126
Waldenburg stoneware 236, 237, 238, 239, 241
Waritake kiln 119Warring States 50Water absorption capacity 12,
14, 210 , 211, 382Wellenfuß 238West Slope style 182Western Han dynasty 412Westerwald stoneware 230, 233Wheel turning XXIWhite earthenware XXI, 12, 13,
14, 15, 17, 49, 255, 259, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273, 274, 334, 355, 357
White Mountain Red ware 379White-ground technique 181,
182, 183Whiteware 12Wicket 125Wood ash 51, 334, 410, 422,
452Wood ash glaze 234, 235, 240Woodland culture 379, 381,
393Work of fracture 387, 388, 389Wucai colour 428, 430
Xia dynasty 403Xing kiln 395, 397, 412Xing ware 282X-ray diffraction 84, 86, 100,
324, 470
Yale culinary tablets 149Yamato pottery 460, 461Yangshao culture 401, 402,
403Yangshao ware 92, 395, 403Yao-chou kiln XVIYayoi pottery 458, 460, 461,
462Yingcai colour 431Yingqing porcelain 397Yixing stoneware 260Yuan dynasty 283, 401, 423,
424Yuan porcelain 425Yuan stoneware 422, 426Yuancai colour 431Yue celadon 51, 409, 413, 416,
422Yue kiln 413
Zen principles 459Zeta potential 22, 35, 36, 386Zhou dynasty 405, 406Sam
ple
Three-phase firing 177, 180
Sample
Three-phase firing 177, 180Tiahuanaco pottery 371, 373
Sample
Tiahuanaco pottery 371, 373Time-of-flight neutron diffraction
Sample
Time-of-flight neutron diffraction
Tin glaze 50, 280, 283, 284,
Sample
Tin glaze 50, 280, 283, 284,
286, 299, 300
Sample
286, 299, 300
Tin-glazed pottery 279, 282,
Sample
Tin-glazed pottery 279, 282,
284, 287, 288, 289, 292, 309
Sample
284, 287, 288, 289, 292, 309Toploader kiln 115Sam
ple
Toploader kiln 115Tournai frit 319Sam
ple
Tournai frit 319Transfer printing 262, 263, 264Sam
ple
Transfer printing 262, 263, 264Triaxial porcelain 13, 16, 67, Sam
ple
Triaxial porcelain 13, 16, 67, 344, 348, 350Sam
ple
344, 348, 350
Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315,
Sample
Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315, 318, 324
Sample
318, 324Vitrification 98, 204, 205
Sample
Vitrification 98, 204, 205Vitrified stoneware 126
Sample
Vitrified stoneware 126
Waldenburg stoneware 236,
Sample
Waldenburg stoneware 236,
237, 238, 239, 241
Sample
237, 238, 239, 241
Waritake kiln 119
Sample
Waritake kiln 119Warring States 50
Sample
Warring States 50Water absorption capacity 12,
Sample
Water absorption capacity 12,
14, 210 , 211, 382
Sample
14, 210 , 211, 382
Wellenfuß 238
Sample
Wellenfuß 238West Slope style 182
Sample
West Slope style 182Western Han dynasty 412
Sample
Western Han dynasty 412Westerwald stoneware 230, 233
Sample
Westerwald stoneware 230, 233
page
sWork of fracture 387, 388, 389
page
sWork of fracture 387, 388, 389Wucai colour 428, 430
page
sWucai colour 428, 430
Xia dynasty 403
page
sXia dynasty 403Xing kiln 395, 397, 412
page
sXing kiln 395, 397, 412Xing ware 282
page
sXing ware 282
page
sVincennes/Sèvres frit 319 pa
ges
Vincennes/Sèvres frit 319Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315, pa
ges
Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315,
X-ray diffraction 84, 86, 100,
page
sX-ray diffraction 84, 86, 100,
324, 470
page
s324, 470
Yale culinary tablets 149
page
sYale culinary tablets 149Yamato pottery 460, 461
page
sYamato pottery 460, 461Yangshao culture 401, 402, page
sYangshao culture 401, 402,
403page
s403
Yangshao ware 92, 395, 403page
sYangshao ware 92, 395, 403Yao-chou kiln XVIpage
sYao-chou kiln XVI
eschweizerbart_xxx
Aachen 230, 232Achaia 174Aegean Sea 157, 193Aegina 172Agen 257Agios Syllas 167Albano 303Albrechtsburg 339Alicante 319Almeria 288Alsace-Lorraine 276Altranstädt 339Amarna 58American Bottom 19, 22, 380,
382, 389Amlash 146Anatolia XIXAngel 380, 383, 392Ankara 136Antiochia 193Anyang 405, 406, 407Ao 404Apple River 382Aquileja 301 , 303Aquitaine 257Arezzo 193, 195, 199, 202, 203Argenteuil 319Argolid 171, 174Argos 176, 185Arismān 144, 146, 147, 148,
150Arita 399, 457, 468, 469, 470,
472, 473Arkansas River 384Armstrong 380, 383Arretium 193, 197Asomatos 128Assisi 297Athens 159, 160, 176, 179, 181,
186Attica 157, 158, 172, 177, 179,
180, 183, 187Audun-le-Tiche 267Aue 342Augsburg 251Augusta Raurica 206Augusta Treverorum 225Avdat 80Aveyron 201
Avil 167Ayutthaya 441, 443Aztalan 380, 382, 385, 390, 392
Babel 131Badonviller 269Badorf 227, 228Baghdad 132, 279, 282, 283,
286Balkans 50, 92, 130, 147Balkh 80Bampur 144Ban Chiang 439, 441, 442Banassac 76, 196, 205Bangkok 441Banpo 402Basel 302Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242Beijing 402, 406Beizhouling 403Belize 375Beni Hasan 110Berlin 50, 110, 133, 134, 203,
338, 341Bicester 196Bizen 457, 464, 465Black Forest 52Black Sea 186Blickweiler 196, 199, 205, 213Bo 434Boeotia 172Bois d’Epense 273Boleslawiec 244Bologna 299Bonn 227, 230Bordeaux 257Bradwell 257Bunzlau 16, 227, 244, 245Burslem 255, 260, 261Byzantium 284
Cafaggiolo 290, 292, 293Cahokia 380, 381, 385, 390,
392Cales 193, 194Calleva Atrebatum 196Cambridgeshire 196Caminau 345
Campania 187Camulodunum 196Can Hasan 130Canton 283, 396Capua 195Casas Grandes 378Caspian Sea 146Castel Durante 289, 293, 295Castelli 298Çatal Höyük 130, 135Caucasus 187Caughley 357Ceri 56Ceylon 283Champigneulles 267Changan 416Changsha 413, 414, 415Chantilly 313, 314, 318, 322,
324, 325, 326, 469Chao Phraya River 440, 441Charleston 357Château de Choisy-le-Roi 329Châteaudun 267Chelsea 262, 354, 357, 469Chémery 196, 199, 205, 213Chemnitz 236Chiang Mai 443, 445, 452Chiang Rai 451, 452Chihuahua 378Cholula 374Cinque Ports 275Çiradere 135Clinch River 384Coalport 359Colchester 115, 196Colditz 342Cologne 15, 214, 229, 230,
231, 269Como 303Copenhagen 341Corinth 157, 158, 173, 176,
177, 178, 179Cornwall 264, 359Crambeck 196Cremona 302Crete XIXCrimean peninsula 206Cuipingshan 412Cumberland River 384
Location index
Sample
Arezzo 193, 195, 199, 202, 203
Sample
Arezzo 193, 195, 199, 202, 203
n 144, 146, 147, 148,
Sample
n 144, 146, 147, 148,
Arita 399, 457, 468, 469, 470,
Sample
Arita 399, 457, 468, 469, 470,
472, 473
Sample
472, 473Arkansas River 384Sam
ple
Arkansas River 384Armstrong 380, 383Sam
ple
Armstrong 380, 383Arretium 193, 197Sam
ple
Arretium 193, 197Asomatos 128Sam
ple
Asomatos 128
Athens 159, 160, 176, 179, 181, Sam
ple
Athens 159, 160, 176, 179, 181,
Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287
Sample
Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242
Sample
Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242Beijing 402, 406
Sample
Beijing 402, 406Beizhouling 403
Sample
Beizhouling 403Belize 375
Sample
Belize 375Beni Hasan 110
Sample
Beni Hasan 110Berlin 50, 110, 133, 134, 203,
Sample
Berlin 50, 110, 133, 134, 203,
338, 341
Sample
338, 341
Bicester 196
Sample
Bicester 196Bizen 457, 464, 465
Sample
Bizen 457, 464, 465Black Forest 52
Sample
Black Forest 52Black Sea 186
Sample
Black Sea 186Blickweiler 196, 199, 205, 213
Sample
Blickweiler 196, 199, 205, 213Bo 434
Sample
Bo 434Boeotia 172
Sample
Boeotia 172
page
sBasra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287pa
ges
Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242pa
ges
Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242
Casas Grandes 378
page
sCasas Grandes 378Caspian Sea 146
page
sCaspian Sea 146Castel Durante 289, 293, 295
page
sCastel Durante 289, 293, 295Castelli 298
page
sCastelli 298Çatal Höyük 130, 135
page
sÇatal Höyük 130, 135Caucasus 187
page
sCaucasus 187Caughley 357
page
sCaughley 357Ceri 56
page
sCeri 56Ceylon 283
page
sCeylon 283Champigneulles 267
page
sChampigneulles 267Changan 416page
sChangan 416Changsha 413, 414, 415page
sChangsha 413, 414, 415Chantilly 313, 314, 318, 322, page
sChantilly 313, 314, 318, 322,
eschweizerbart_xxx
543Location index
Cunetio 196Cyclades 171, 174Cyprus XIX, 92
Dakhla 142Dangstetten 195Danube River 130, 208Davenport 359Dayao 417, 418, 420, 421Deir el Bahari XVDeir Tasa 137Delft 344, 469, 473Deqing 123, 407, 409Derby 359Deruta 279, 284, 293, 296, 298,
299Dijon 267Dimini 157, 159, 160, 161, 163Dingzhou 419Dodecanese 172, 174Dolni Vĕstonice XVIIDomévre 267Dongshan 123Dreihausen 242Dresden 240, 300, 338, 339,
341Duck River 384Dümrek River 84Düren 117Durobrivae 196
Echizen 457Egypt XIXEl-Badari 90, 137, 139, 141El-Ballas 143, 144Elis 174El-Kharga 142El-Tarif 138Enkomi 173Ephyre 173Épinal 265Eridu 134Erlitou 403Erzgebirge 336, 342, 345, 348Eskişehir 363Essex 196Etruria 180, 193Euphrates River 82, 131
Faenza 291, 292, 293, 296, 296, 299, 334
Faras 140Fenghao 404Fenton 260Ferrara 299
Fertile Crescent 146Florence 290, 294, 295, 309,
334Forli 299Fort Ancient 380Fort Apache 379Franchthi Cave XVIII, 161Frankenthal 341Frechen 15, 227, 229, 230, 233,
235, 239Freiberg 124, 125, 227, 236,
336, 337, 338, 342, 344, 345Fribourg XXII, 203Frohnsdorf 239Fukien 283Fulda 214Fulham 259, 260Fürstenberg 341Fustat 283, 284, 286
Gaojitou 421Gaul 50, 76, 102, 192, 196,
203, 206, 225, 227, 369Gela 183Geneva 261Genova 296Gila Valley 377Gladstone 126Gökeyüp 106Gongxian 412Görlitz XXIIGöttingen Forest 52Gournia 166, 167Grasshopper Pueblo 379Grenzau 230Grenzhausen 230Guangxi 123Gubbio 279, 289, 293, 294,
296, 299
Haçilar 130, 135, 136Haghia Triada 88, 111, 112, 167Halaf 91, 129, 132, 133, 133,
134, 148Halsbrücke 342, 345Haltern 195Hamburg 230Hangzhou 123, 396, 420Hanley 260Harabebezikan 82Hasanlu 146Hassuna 129, 132, 133, 148Hawaii 276Heraklion 167, 168Hersonissos 167, 168
Heybridge 196Höchst 341Hofheim 195, 197Höhr 230Höhr-Grenzhausen 52Huangbu 416Huang-pan 121Huangye 416
Indus River 146Iran XIXIshikari River 478Izumiyama 468
Jbeil 129Jericho 129Jerusalem 110Jiaotanxia 123Jincun 417, 418Jingdezhen 29, 123, 341, 355,
397, 398, 409, 417, 423, 424, 425, 427, 469
Jockgrim 76, 77, 78, 83, 204
Kairouan 288Kaiseraugst 206Kalach 135Kalhu 135Kalong 439, 442, 443, 449,
450Kalymnos 172Kanto 461Karamenderes River 84Karatsu 466, 467Karkamış 82Karlsbad 345Kashan 146, 147, 148, 150,
284, 285, 287Katakolo 174Kaufungen Forest 52Kayseri 137Kemmlitz 345Kinsay 396Knossos 41, 42, 76, 164, 166,
167, 168, 174Koblenz 227, 230, 269Koh Khram 442, 444Köln 52Kommos 112Konstanz 200, 247, 248Kültepe 137Kutani 471Kyoto 119, 459, 466, 467,
472
Sample
El-Badari 90, 137, 139, 141
Sample
El-Badari 90, 137, 139, 141El-Ballas 143, 144
Sample
El-Ballas 143, 144
El-Kharga 142
Sample
El-Kharga 142El-Tarif 138
Sample
El-Tarif 138Enkomi 173
Sample
Enkomi 173Ephyre 173Sam
ple
Ephyre 173Épinal 265Sam
ple
Épinal 265Eridu 134 Sam
ple
Eridu 134Erlitou 403Sam
ple
Erlitou 403Erzgebirge 336, 342, 345, 348Sam
ple
Erzgebirge 336, 342, 345, 348
Geneva 261
Sample
Geneva 261Genova 296
Sample
Genova 296Gila Valley 377
Sample
Gila Valley 377Gladstone 126
Sample
Gladstone 126Gökeyüp 106
Sample
Gökeyüp 106Gongxian 412
Sample
Gongxian 412Görlitz XXII
Sample
Görlitz XXIIGöttingen Forest 52
Sample
Göttingen Forest 52Gournia 166, 167
Sample
Gournia 166, 167Grasshopper Pueblo 379
Sample
Grasshopper Pueblo 379Grenzau 230
Sample
Grenzau 230Grenzhausen 230
Sample
Grenzhausen 230Guangxi 123
Sample
Guangxi 123Gubbio 279, 289, 293, 294,
Sample
Gubbio 279, 289, 293, 294,
page
sGaul 50, 76, 102, 192, 196, pa
ges
Gaul 50, 76, 102, 192, 196, 203, 206, 225, 227, 369pa
ges
203, 206, 225, 227, 369
Ishikari River 478
page
sIshikari River 478Izumiyama 468
page
sIzumiyama 468
Jbeil 129
page
sJbeil 129Jericho 129
page
sJericho 129Jerusalem 110
page
sJerusalem 110Jiaotanxia 123
page
sJiaotanxia 123Jincun 417, 418
page
sJincun 417, 418Jingdezhen 29, 123, 341, 355,
page
sJingdezhen 29, 123, 341, 355,
397, 398, 409, 417, 423,
page
s397, 398, 409, 417, 423, 424, 425, 427, 469page
s424, 425, 427, 469
Jockgrim 76, 77, 78, 83, 204page
sJockgrim 76, 77, 78, 83, 204
Kairouan 288page
sKairouan 288
eschweizerbart_xxx
544 Location index
La Chapelle-Biron 257La Graufesenque 76, 116, 127,
196, 197, 199, 201, 205, 208, 213
La Madeleine 196La Péniche 80Langerwehe 117, 235Larnaka 173Laterza 296Lausanne 80Leiden 148Leijre 108Leipzig 236Leptis Magna 197Lerna 171, 185Les Martres de Veyre 196Levant 129, 130Lezoux 196, 197, 199Lianokladhi 160Limhamn 107, 108Limoges 317, 341Liverpool 264, 357, 359Londinium 196London 194, 196, 216, 245,
262, 276, 310, 354, 355, 356, 358, 365
Longquan 417, 421, 422, 423Longshan 402Longton 260Longuan 442Longwy 269Lorraine 247, 255, 265, 267,
269, 272, 273, 274, 275Lot-et-Garonne 257Lucerne 109Ludwigsburg 341Lunéville 265, 267, 268, 269,
272, 273Luoyang 416Luristan 148Lyon 196, 199, 202, 203, 215,
267, 302
Macedonia 171Mainz 116, 206, 246Makrychori 161Malaga 288, 289Mallorca 289Manises 288, 292Mannheim 240, 241Maroni 173Marseille 288Mayen 227Medinet Medi 156Mediterranean Sea 283
Meissen XIX, 103, 124, 125, 228, 313, 326, 333, 339, 340, 342, 343, 345, 346, 347, 411, 469
Mennecy 313, 322Mero 380, 385Mesara 112Mesopotamia XIX, XXMexico City 376Milano 301Milk River 384Mimbres Valley 377Mingkunglu 407Minton 359Mississippi River VI, 29, 371,
379, 384, 389Missouri River 384, 385Mochlos 167Mogontiacum 206Montans 196, 205Monte Albán 374Montelupo 296, 297, 298Montereau 265, 266, 267Montmartre 319Moret 265Moritzburg 338Moselle River 225Moundville 384Mount Olympus 187Moyen 267Mudaikou 421Münster 86Murcia 288Mycenae 171, 174, 175Myrtos 41
Nahrawan 132Nakhlak 146Nanyang 442Naples 58, 193, 194, 301Naqada 138Narmouthis 156Naumburg 237Negev 80Nene River 196Neuvy-sur-Allier 267Nevers 292New Forest 196Newcastle-under-Lyme 259, 260Niderviller 267, 273Nile River XVI, 132, 137, 143Nimptsch 110, 111Nimrud 135Ningpo 413Nippur 58
Nishapur 146, 289, 413Nordhausen 342North Africa 186, 192Nubia 140Nürnberg 250Nymphenburg 341
Oare 196Oaxaca 374, 376Ohio River 384, 385, 389Ōkawachi 472Okrilla 342Oristano 195Orléans 267Orvieto 289, 290, 293Osaka 466Otterbach Creek 76, 77, 78, 83,
97, 209Oxford VI, 112, 196
Padana 195Palaiokastro 166Panuco River 376Paracas Cavernas 371, 372Paris 113, 145, 182, 255, 258,
259, 265, 265, 266, 267, 271, 276, 295, 310, 311, 313, 315, 355
Passau 340Paterna-Manises 281, 288Pavia 299Peloponnese 161, 172, 174, 185Penig 236Persepolis 144Pesaro 289, 293, 297, 299Peterborough 196Petra 80Pexonne 267Phaistos 76, 166, 167, 168, 174Phan 439, 442, 443, 451Phayao 439, 442, 451, 452Phthiotis 160Piadena 302, 303Pingsdorf 227, 228Pisa 195Pitsidia 167, 168Plateia Magoula Zarkou 160,
161Platte River 384Plessis-Chenet 266Poitou 257Pompeii 197Pont Sainte Maxence 314Pseira 167Puducun 405
Sample
Lorraine 247, 255, 265, 267,
Sample
Lorraine 247, 255, 265, 267,
269, 272, 273, 274, 275
Sample
269, 272, 273, 274, 275
Ludwigsburg 341
Sample
Ludwigsburg 341Lunéville 265, 267, 268, 269,
Sample
Lunéville 265, 267, 268, 269,
272, 273
Sample
272, 273
Luoyang 416
Sample
Luoyang 416Luristan 148Sam
ple
Luristan 148Lyon 196, 199, 202, 203, 215, Sam
ple
Lyon 196, 199, 202, 203, 215, 267, 302Sam
ple
267, 302
Macedonia 171Sample
Macedonia 171Mainz 116, 206, 246
Sample
Mainz 116, 206, 246
Montmartre 319
Sample
Montmartre 319Moret 265
Sample
Moret 265Moritzburg 338
Sample
Moritzburg 338Moselle River 225
Sample
Moselle River 225Moundville 384
Sample
Moundville 384Mount Olympus 187
Sample
Mount Olympus 187Moyen 267
Sample
Moyen 267Mudaikou 421
Sample
Mudaikou 421Münster 86
Sample
Münster 86Murcia 288
Sample
Murcia 288Mycenae 171, 174, 175
Sample
Mycenae 171, 174, 175Myrtos 41
Sample
Myrtos 41
Nahrawan 132
Sample
Nahrawan 132Nakhlak 146
Sample
Nakhlak 146
page
sOhio River 384, 385, 389
page
sOhio River 384, 385, 389
Orléans 267
page
sOrléans 267Orvieto 289, 290, 293
page
sOrvieto 289, 290, 293
page
sMontelupo 296, 297, 298 pa
ges
Montelupo 296, 297, 298Montereau 265, 266, 267 pa
ges
Montereau 265, 266, 267
Osaka 466
page
sOsaka 466Otterbach Creek 76, 77, 78, 83,
page
sOtterbach Creek 76, 77, 78, 83,
97, 209
page
s97, 209
Oxford VI, 112, 196
page
sOxford VI, 112, 196
Padana 195
page
sPadana 195Palaiokastro 166page
sPalaiokastro 166Panuco River 376page
sPanuco River 376Paracas Cavernas 371, 372page
sParacas Cavernas 371, 372Paris 113, 145, 182, 255, 258, page
sParis 113, 145, 182, 255, 258,
eschweizerbart_xxx
545Location index
Puteoli 194Pyrgos 166, 167, 168
Qamsar 287Qena 143, 144Qijiaping 401
Raeren 52, 227, 229, 232, 233, 234, 235, 239
Rajj 146, 284, 288, 413Rambersviller 267Rapa 115Raqqa 413Ravenna 299Reading 367Rheinzabern 21, 76, 99, 100,
101, 102, 196, 198, 199, 200, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 225, 226
Rhine River 43, 208, 209Rhineland VI, 117, 227, 230Rio Azul 375Rizhao 412Rodez 201Rome 56, 192, 193, 215, 289,
299, 302Rouen 267, 309, 311Royal Nanhai 442, 446
Sacalum 30Saint-Amand 322Saint-Avit 257Saint-Clément 265, 267, 268,
272, 273, 274Saint-Cloud 311, 313, 314, 318,
320, 322, 324, 325, 326, 334, 469
Saintes 257, 258, 259Saint-Germain en Laye 314Saint-Omer 267Saint-Porchaire 256, 257, 270,
271Saint-Vallier-sur Rhône 128Saint-Yrieix-La-Perche 317Sakai 466Salt Valley 377Samarra 91, 129, 133, 148, 279,
283, 287, 416Samos 193San Kamphaeng 439, 442, 443,
450, 451Sandwich 275Sandwich Islands 276Santorini 170Sardinia 195
Sarreguemines 269Sawankhalok XIX, 119, 439,
443, 444, 447Saxony VI, 227, 236, 337, 338,
340, 342, 345Sceaux 267, 313Schneeberg 345Schwabmünchen 115Scoppieto 194Sedan 258Seilitz-Löthain 345Seleucia 132Septfontaines 267Sesklo 88, 157, 159, 160, 161,
162, 163Seto 457, 465, 466Sevilla 288Sèvres 25, 142, 313, 315, 316,
317, 318, 319, 321, 322, 324, 326, 340, 341, 357, 411, 430
Shaoxing 413Shigaraki 457Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441,
442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449
Siam XIXSicily 127, 183, 186, 187,
193Siebenlehn 345Siegburg 15, 52, 227, 229, 230,
231, 232, 232, 233, 235, 236, 236, 238, 239, 243
Siena 296, 298Silchester 196Silesia VI, 227, 247Sinai 141Siraf 415Skaane 107Skinias 167Skopi 167Soufli 161Sparta 187St. Albans 216St. Petersburg 261, 341St. Urban 109Staffordshire 15, 103, 125, 126,
255, 259, 260, 261, 272, 274, 355, 360, 366
Stare Nakonowo XVIIIStockholm 341Stoke-on-Trent 126, 260, 355,
360, 361, 362Strasbourg 267, 341Sudan XVI
Sukhothai XIX, 199, 439, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447
Sumer 43Susa 130, 134, 144, 145, 146,
148Sybaris 187, 188Syria 133
Tabernae 99, 100, 102, 198, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212
Tabriz 285Tak 442Talas 282Talavera-Puente 288Tal-il-Iblis 144Tamba 457Taras 193Tell el-Amarna 128, 142Tell Qaramel 129Tell-i-Bakun 144, 148Tennessee River 384Tenochtitlan 376Teotihuacan 374, 376Tepe Ghabristan 144, 146Tepe Giyan 130, 146, 148Tepe Guran 144Tepe Hissar 144, 146Tepe Sialk 144, 145, 146, 148Tepe Sohz 134Tepe Yahya 144Testar del Moli 281Tharros 195Thebes 80, 155Thera 169, 170Thessaly 88, 92, 130, 157, 161,
163, 169, 171Thonburi 441Ticul 30Tigris River 131, 282, 416Tihuanaco 371Timna 141Tingui 396Tingziqiao 123Tiryns 174, 175Tokoname 457Tokyo 479Toronto 356Torrita di Siena 194Toul-Bellevue 267Tournai 313, 319, 322, 325Tours 267Trier 196, 201, 225Troy 77, 84, 85, 86, 171, 172,
175, 176Tübingen 84
Sample
Saint-Clément 265, 267, 268,
Sample
Saint-Clément 265, 267, 268,
Saint-Cloud 311, 313, 314, 318,
Sample
Saint-Cloud 311, 313, 314, 318,
320, 322, 324, 325, 326,
Sample
320, 322, 324, 325, 326, 334, 469
Sample
334, 469
Saintes 257, 258, 259
Sample
Saintes 257, 258, 259Saint-Germain en Laye 314
Sample
Saint-Germain en Laye 314Saint-Omer 267Sam
ple
Saint-Omer 267Saint-Porchaire 256, 257, 270, Sam
ple
Saint-Porchaire 256, 257, 270, 271 Sam
ple
271Saint-Vallier-sur Rhône 128Sam
ple
Saint-Vallier-sur Rhône 128Saint-Yrieix-La-Perche 317Sam
ple
Saint-Yrieix-La-Perche 317
Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441,
Sample
Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446,
Sample
442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449
Sample
447, 448, 449Siam XIX
Sample
Siam XIXSicily 127, 183, 186, 187,
Sample
Sicily 127, 183, 186, 187,
193
Sample
193
Siebenlehn 345
Sample
Siebenlehn 345Siegburg 15, 52, 227, 229, 230,
Sample
Siegburg 15, 52, 227, 229, 230,
231, 232, 232, 233, 235,
Sample
231, 232, 232, 233, 235, 236, 236, 238, 239, 243
Sample
236, 236, 238, 239, 243
Siena 296, 298
Sample
Siena 296, 298Silchester 196
Sample
Silchester 196Silesia VI, 227, 247
Sample
Silesia VI, 227, 247Sinai 141
Sample
Sinai 141Siraf 415
Sample
Siraf 415
page
sSi Satchanalai 119, 439, 441, pa
ges
Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, pa
ges
442, 443, 444, 445, 446,
206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212
page
s206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212
Talavera-Puente 288
page
sTalavera-Puente 288Tal-il-Iblis 144
page
sTal-il-Iblis 144Tamba 457
page
sTamba 457Taras 193
page
sTaras 193Tell el-Amarna 128, 142
page
sTell el-Amarna 128, 142Tell Qaramel 129
page
sTell Qaramel 129Tell-i-Bakun 144, 148
page
sTell-i-Bakun 144, 148Tennessee River 384
page
sTennessee River 384Tenochtitlan 376page
sTenochtitlan 376Teotihuacan 374, 376page
sTeotihuacan 374, 376Tepe Ghabristan 144, 146page
sTepe Ghabristan 144, 146Tepe Giyan 130, 146, 148page
sTepe Giyan 130, 146, 148
eschweizerbart_xxx
546 Location index
Tucson 114, 378Tula 376Tunstall 260Tureng Tepe 144Turiang 442Turin 263Tuscany 193, 195Tyunju 396
Ubaid 129, 132, 133, 148Urbino 279, 289, 291, 293,
297Uruk 132
Valencia 292, 293Vasanello 194Vasiliki 166, 167Vathypetro 167, 168Vauxhall 357Venice 289, 341, 396Versailles 31, 309, 315, 317Verulanium 216Vesnoveh 146Viannos 167, 168Vichy 196
Vidy 80Vienna 142, 341, 411, 3340Vincennes 265, 313, 314, 315,
316, 318, 319, 319, 321, 322, 324, 325, 326, 341
Vistula River XVIIIViterbo 293Volos 159Vulci 180, 182
Wabash River 384Waldenburg 15, 227, 236, 237,
238, 239Washington 109, 380Water Newton 196Weddinghusen 110, 111Westerwald 52, 100, 227, 229,
230, 233, 269Wiltshire 196Wloclawek XVIIIWolica Nowa XVIIIWorcester 356, 357, 359, 469
Xialongjing 412Xian 402, 416
Xikou 417, 418Xuande 442
Yangshao 92, 401Yao-chou XVI, 121Yao-tian-ling 123Yaozhou 423Yarim Tepe 103, 108Yellowstone River 384Yo’ Sah Kab 30Yuandi 421Yuanjunmiao 403Yucatán 30, 389
Zagros Mountains 129, 144, 148Zaitun 396Zaros 168Zayton 396Zeitz 236Zhangzhou 396Zittau 227, 236, 242Zongzhou 404Zürich 215Zwickau 236
Sample
Xialongjing 412
Sample
Xialongjing 412Xian 402, 416
Sample
Xian 402, 416 page
sWorcester 356, 357, 359, 469pa
ges
Worcester 356, 357, 359, 469
Yuanjunmiao 403
page
sYuanjunmiao 403Yucatán 30, 389
page
sYucatán 30, 389
Zagros Mountains 129, 144, 148
page
sZagros Mountains 129, 144, 148Zaitun 396
page
sZaitun 396Zaros 168
page
sZaros 168Zayton 396
page
sZayton 396Zeitz 236
page
sZeitz 236Zhangzhou 396
page
sZhangzhou 396Zittau 227, 236, 242
page
sZittau 227, 236, 242Zongzhou 404page
sZongzhou 404Zürich 215page
sZürich 215Zwickau 236page
sZwickau 236
eschweizerbart_xxx
Abu’l Qasim V, 285, 287Achilles 181, 182Actaeon 201Agathon 215Agricola 103Aidoneus 4Akhenaten 58, 142Alcinous 184al-Jowhar 285Allah XVal-Mansur 282al-Mu’tasim 416al-Neyshâpuri 285Amenhotep II 58Amenhotep III 58Amenhotep IV 58Amun 58, 142Andersson 401Andreoli 294, 296Apicius 189, 213, 214, 215,
216, 217, 218, 220, 223, 300, 302, 369
Archestratos 186Aristophanes 187ar-Rashid 283Astbury 260Ateius 195Athena XVAthenaios 188, 190, 213Augustus II 336Augustus the Strong 5, 333, 336,
338, 339, 351Austrus 199Ayrton 365, 369
Bassus 199, 200Beaufils 267Belli 304Benson 260Bentley 267Biringuccio 103Birouni 285Booth 260Böttger 5, 124, 333, 338, 339,
340, 342, 343, 344, 398, 399Boucher 328Boyle 4Braccioli 214Breughel 232
Brongniart 317Brühl 348Buddha 459Butler 186Butrio 199Buturrus 199
Caillat 318Calamelli 293Carter 156Catherine de Médici 258Catherine II the Great 261Caussy 318Céladon 424Cerialis 199Chambrette I 267Chambrette II 255, 267, 269Chardin 310, 311Chaucer 248, 365, 366Cheng Tang 434Chenghua 426, 427Chicaneau 311Chnum XVChojiro 459, 467Chollo XVIChrysippos 190, 213Cincelli 199Cinnamus 199Cirou 318Cnaeus Ateius 194, 199Coelus 199, 200Columbus 305Comitialis 199, 206, 207, 208,
210, 211Conrade 292Cook 276Craft 356Cyfflé 269, 272, 273
d’Entrecolles V, 318, 355, 397, 398
d’Etiolles 315d’Urfé 424da Forli 302Damonus 199Dandolo 396Darwin 8de Châteauroux 315de Choiseul 315
de la Varenne 327de Montmorency 256, 257, 258de Pompadour 315, 326, 327,
328, 329de Rossi 301, 303de Soubise 326, 328de Tournon 296Defoe 365della Robbia 293, 294, 295,
299, 300della Rovere 302Demeter 187Democritos 4Dentes 290Dickens 365Dionysos 187D gen Zenji 466Dragendorff 209, 219, 224, 225du Barry 315du Paquier 340Dubois 265, 314, 318Duplessis 261Dwight 259, 260, 309
Eberlin 348Elers 259Empedokles 4Enki XV, 150Eos 182Ercker 103Evans 164, 165Exekias 179
Francesco de Medici 309, 334Francesco Sforza 301François I 295Frederic Augustus I 336, 351Frederic the Great 340Friedrich I 338Frye 355Funk 343, 344
Galen 214Gellius 199, 202George III 261Gérin 255, 265, 266, 267, 314,
315, 318Geshtu-e XVGlauber 339
Names index
Sample
Athenaios 188, 190, 213
Sample
Athenaios 188, 190, 213Augustus II 336
Sample
Augustus II 336Augustus the Strong 5, 333, 336,
Sample
Augustus the Strong 5, 333, 336,
338, 339, 351
Sample
338, 339, 351
Austrus 199
Sample
Austrus 199Ayrton 365, 369Sam
ple
Ayrton 365, 369
Bassus 199, 200Sample
Bassus 199, 200Beaufils 267Sam
ple
Beaufils 267
Chardin 310, 311
Sample
Chardin 310, 311Chaucer 248, 365, 366
Sample
Chaucer 248, 365, 366Cheng Tang 434
Sample
Cheng Tang 434Chenghua 426, 427
Sample
Chenghua 426, 427Chicaneau 311
Sample
Chicaneau 311Chnum XV
Sample
Chnum XVChojiro 459, 467
Sample
Chojiro 459, 467Chollo XVI
Sample
Chollo XVIChrysippos 190, 213
Sample
Chrysippos 190, 213Cincelli 199
Sample
Cincelli 199Cinnamus 199
Sample
Cinnamus 199Cirou 318
Sample
Cirou 318Cnaeus Ateius 194, 199
Sample
Cnaeus Ateius 194, 199Coelus 199, 200
Sample
Coelus 199, 200Columbus 305
Sample
Columbus 305
page
sChambrette II 255, 267, 269pa
ges
Chambrette II 255, 267, 269
de Soubise 326, 328
page
sde Soubise 326, 328de Tournon 296
page
sde Tournon 296Defoe 365
page
sDefoe 365della Robbia 293, 294, 295,
page
sdella Robbia 293, 294, 295, 299, 300
page
s299, 300
della Rovere 302
page
sdella Rovere 302Demeter 187
page
sDemeter 187Democritos 4
page
sDemocritos 4Dentes 290
page
sDentes 290Dickens 365
page
sDickens 365Dionysos 187page
sDionysos 187Dpage
sDpage
spa
ges
gen Zenji 466page
sgen Zenji 466
Dragendorff 209, 219, 224, 225page
sDragendorff 209, 219, 224, 225du Barry 315page
sdu Barry 315
eschweizerbart_xxx
548 Names index
Gravant 314, 315, 318, 320Green 263, 264Gryphius 215Guyon 328
Hades 183Hancock 356Harpestraeng 249Hatshepsut XVHeath 260Heket XVHellot 265, 315, 318, 320,
321Henckel 347Henri II 256, 257, 259Hera 4Hesiod 187Heuchler 124, 337Heylyn 355Hideyoshi Toyotomi 466, 467Hill 266Hofmann 420Homer 184, 186, 187Hongwu 426Hongxi 426, 443Höroldt 341, 347Hu Szu-hui 435Hummelberg 215Hunger 340, 341
Ibn Batuta 396ibn-Isa 282Intef VII 80
Jacoba 238Jiajing 426, 428Jingjian 417John Paul II 305Juok XVI
Kagemasa 466Kakiemon I 469Kakiemon XIV 470Kändler 347, 348Kangxi 428, 430, 431, 433, 469,
474Karl IX 258Karl XII 339Keats 365Kitchen god 435, 436, 437Köhler 346, 347Korfmann 84Kublai Khan 396, 440Kunckel 339
la Chapelle 326, 328Lamarck 8Laozi 434le Quieu 311le Vau 309Leszczynska 328Leszczynski 267, 275, 276Leukippos 4Libernus 199Libertus 199Liebig 339Lin Hong 435Lister 312Livia 56Louis XIV 309, 311, 313, 327,
441Louis XV 276, 314, 315, 317,
326, 327, 328, 329, 341Louis-Henri de Bourbon 314
Maestro Cencio 296Maestro Jacopo 290, 292Maestro Martino 301, 302,
303Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272Marcolini 340, 346, 347Marin 327Martino da Como 301Massaliot 327Mazois 266Mei Cheng 434Mengrai 439, 449Menna 155Mennicken 233Menon 327Mercato 199Mignon 265, 266Minyas 171Montagu 275Montanus 199Montereau 267Morin 312
Nabeshima Naoshige 472Nammu XVNarai 441Naresuan 441Needham 399Nestis 4Nicolà di Urbino 290, 291Nikander 188Nikias 186Nobunaga Oda 466Nonomura Ninsei 472
Ogata Kenzan 472Okuda Eisen 472Oribe 466, 467Orry 355Orry de Fulvy 314, 315
P. Cornelius 199Pabst von Ohain 338Palissy 255, 257, 258, 259, 270,
271Pan 187Pan Geng 404Paternus 199Paulus Aegineta 214Paxamos 213Peleus 181, 182Pellipario 290Pepys 365Persephone 183Pfefferkorn 40Phraya Chakri 441Phraya Taksin 441Piccolpasso V, 51, 208, 279,
295, 296, 299Pierfrancesco Medici 290Pintoricchio 294Platina 214, 300, 302, 303Pliny 214, 216Poisson 315, 329Polo V, 333, 395, 396, 397Poterat 309, 311, 318Prince de Condé 314Prometheus XVPutz 300
Qianlong 430, 431Qin Shi Huang 56Queen Charlotte 261
Rama I 441Rasinius Pisanus 199Rekh-mi-Re 155Respectus 199Révérend 311Ri Sam-p’young 468Ri Sampei 468Riario 302Richard II 248, 366Robinson 360Roger of Helmarshausen 103Rumpolt 246
Sacchi 302, 303Sadler 263, 264Sakaida 469
Sample
Jiajing 426, 428
Sample
Jiajing 426, 428Jingjian 417
Sample
Jingjian 417John Paul II 305
Sample
John Paul II 305Juok XVI
Sample
Juok XVI
Kagemasa 466Sample
Kagemasa 466Kakiemon I 469Sam
ple
Kakiemon I 469Kakiemon XIV 470Sam
ple
Kakiemon XIV 470Kändler 347, 348Sam
ple
Kändler 347, 348Kangxi 428, 430, 431, 433, 469,
Sample
Kangxi 428, 430, 431, 433, 469,
Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272
Sample
Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272Marcolini 340, 346, 347
Sample
Marcolini 340, 346, 347Marin 327
Sample
Marin 327Martino da Como 301
Sample
Martino da Como 301Massaliot 327
Sample
Massaliot 327Mazois 266
Sample
Mazois 266Mei Cheng 434
Sample
Mei Cheng 434Mengrai 439, 449
Sample
Mengrai 439, 449Menna 155
Sample
Menna 155Mennicken 233
Sample
Mennicken 233Menon 327
Sample
Menon 327Mercato 199
Sample
Mercato 199Mignon 265, 266
Sample
Mignon 265, 266Minyas 171
Sample
Minyas 171
page
sMaestro Jacopo 290, 292 pa
ges
Maestro Jacopo 290, 292Maestro Martino 301, 302, pa
ges
Maestro Martino 301, 302,
Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272page
sMahalanobis 211, 243, 272
Paulus Aegineta 214
page
sPaulus Aegineta 214Paxamos 213
page
sPaxamos 213Peleus 181, 182
page
sPeleus 181, 182Pellipario 290
page
sPellipario 290Pepys 365
page
sPepys 365Persephone 183
page
sPersephone 183Pfefferkorn 40
page
sPfefferkorn 40Phraya Chakri 441
page
sPhraya Chakri 441Phraya Taksin 441page
sPhraya Taksin 441Piccolpasso V, 51, 208, 279, page
sPiccolpasso V, 51, 208, 279,
295, 296, 299page
s295, 296, 299
Pierfrancesco Medici 290page
sPierfrancesco Medici 290
eschweizerbart_xxx
549Names index
Satto 199Saturninus 199Schliemann 171Schönburg-Waldenburg 236Schuberth 344Secundinus Aviti 99, 100Seneca 214Sen-no Riky 459, 465, 466Serrurier 265Shakespeare 368Shamshi-Adad 152, 153Shibuemon 469Shilluk XVISima Qian 434Sixtus IV 302Soderini 290Sollus 216Sonyu 459, 467Spode I 264, 355, 359Spode II 264, 359, 362Stöltzel 340, 341, 344Suleiman 397
Thackeray 365Thénard 142Theophilus Presbyter 103Thetis 181, 182
Thutmose III 58Thutmose IV 58Tiberius 195, 214Tigranus 194, 199Tithonus 181Titus 56Tōshirō 466Trevisan 301Trimalchio 215Trivulzio 302Tutankhamun 142Tydeus 178
Ulgi 150Ulysses 184
Vermeer 232Villette 337Vitalis 199Voltaire 267von Falke 242von Oppenheim 133, 134von Schönberg 338von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320,
333, 337, 338, 339, 342von Virmont 340
Wanli 426, 427, 428, 430, 473Wedgwood 15, 267Wedgwood I 255, 260, 261,
262, 264, 359Wedgwood II 360Whieldon 260, 261
Xanthus 199Xuande 426, 427, 428
Yi Yin 434Yongle 425Yongzheng 431, 474Yu Huang 436Yung Lo 425
Zaojun 435, 436Zeus XV, 4Zhang Lang 435Zheng He 443Zhengde 426, 427Zhengtong 426Zhou Wu Wang 404
Sample
von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320,
Sample
von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320, 333, 337, 338, 339, 342
Sample
333, 337, 338, 339, 342von Virmont
Sample
von Virmont 340
Sample
340 page
svon Oppenheim 133, 134 pa
ges
von Oppenheim 133, 134
von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320, page
svon Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320,
333, 337, 338, 339, 342page
s333, 337, 338, 339, 342
Yongzheng 431, 474
page
sYongzheng 431, 474Yu Huang 436
page
sYu Huang 436Yung Lo 425
page
sYung Lo 425
Zaojun 435, 436
page
sZaojun 435, 436Zeus XV, 4
page
sZeus XV, 4Zhang Lang 435
page
sZhang Lang 435Zheng He 443
page
sZheng He 443Zhengde 426, 427
page
sZhengde 426, 427Zhengtong 426page
sZhengtong 426Zhou Wu Wang 404page
sZhou Wu Wang 404
eschweizerbart_xxx
A fine supper at the Château de Choisy-le-Roi 329
Aepffel-Kräpfflein 353Ain Bubenpfulben 252Amursânu (Wild pigeon in broth)
151Aper in furno coctum (Wild boar
ancient Roman style) 218Ashshuriâtum shirum (Boiled
lamb ‘Shamshi-Adad’) 152Ashshuriâtum shirum (Meat
Assyrian style) 151Asparagus à la Pompadour 330
Blamensir 251Blancmange 248
Ein gůt salse (Swallenberg’s salse) 254
Elgi (Egyptian sweet based on beer and flour) 156
Fennel soup 305Filets of lamb in puff pastry 307
Gastris (Greek honey-nut-poppy squares) 190
Greek ‘fig leaf’ 188Greek kid goat, lamb or chicken
in broth 188Greek stuffed kid or lamb 189
Hoy Lai Prig Phao (Stir-fried clams in roasted chilli paste) 455
Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot) 478
Kamo-nanban soba (Soba with duck and spring onions) 477
Melon salad with shrimps 306Mirsu (Traditional cake) 150
Oxtail in parsley sauce 351
Pineapple with caramel sauce and vanilla ice cream 308
Pla Chorn Yang Sep (North-east-ern roasted serpent head fish) 454
Pollo all’agresto 304Pompadour-style sole fillets 331
Porcellum oenococtum (Suckling pig ancient Roman style) 223
Pullum frontonianum (Chicken ancient Roman style) 220
Quails with grapes 369
Rum Baba 278
Shepherd’s pie 368Soufflé Pompadour 332
Tarru (Fowl stew) 154The classic sandwich 277To bake a buttock piece of beef
367To stew a rump of beef 367To stew mutton or veal in broth
368
White cabbage with grapes 308
Recipe index
Sample
Filets of lamb in puff pastry 307
Sample
Filets of lamb in puff pastry 307
Gastris (Greek honey-nut-poppy
Sample
Gastris (Greek honey-nut-poppy
Oxtail in parsley sauce 351
Sample
Oxtail in parsley sauce 351
Pineapple with caramel sauce
Sample
Pineapple with caramel sauce and vanilla ice cream 308
Sample
and vanilla ice cream 308
Pla Chorn Yang Sep (North-east-
Sample
Pla Chorn Yang Sep (North-east-
ern roasted serpent head fish)
Sample
ern roasted serpent head fish) 454
Sample
454
Pollo all’agresto 304
Sample
Pollo all’agresto 304Pompadour-style sole fillets 331
Sample
Pompadour-style sole fillets 331
page
sancient Roman style) 220
page
sancient Roman style) 220
Quails with grapes 369
page
sQuails with grapes 369
Rum Baba 278
page
sRum Baba 278
page
sduck and spring onions) 477
page
sduck and spring onions) 477
Melon salad with shrimps 306page
sMelon salad with shrimps 306Mirsu (Traditional cake) 150pa
ges
Mirsu (Traditional cake) 150
Oxtail in parsley sauce 351page
sOxtail in parsley sauce 351
Shepherd’s pie 368
page
sShepherd’s pie 368Soufflé Pompadour 332
page
sSoufflé Pompadour 332
Tarru (Fowl stew) 154
page
sTarru (Fowl stew) 154The classic sandwich 277
page
sThe classic sandwich 277To bake a buttock piece of beef
page
sTo bake a buttock piece of beef
367page
s367
To stew a rump of beef 367page
sTo stew a rump of beef 367To stew mutton or veal in broth page
sTo stew mutton or veal in broth
eschweizerbart_xxx
Robert B. Heimann • Marino Maggetti
Ancient and Historical CeramicsMaterials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions
ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7www.schweizerbart.de
By stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and food and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic science. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science and engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of cera-mic objects by the authors has been guided by historical signi� cance, techno-logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.
Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-logy, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient mas-ter potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stoneware and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook-book.
This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and � gu-res not only addresses professionals and students of archaeology, art history, and archaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical ceramics, ceramic materials and production techniques of ancient ceramics.
9 783510 652907
Sample
logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.
Sample
logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.
Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-
Sample
Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-logy, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient mas-
Sample
logy, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient mas-ter potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to
Sample
ter potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan
Sample
the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to
Sample
Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stoneware and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and
Sample
the celadon stoneware and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups
Sample
ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and
Sample
are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and
Sample
served on these ceramic objects in the distant past.
Sample
served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook-
Sample
As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook-book. Sam
ple
book.
This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and � gu-Sample
This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and � gu-Sample
res not only addresses professionals and students of archaeology, art history, Sample
res not only addresses professionals and students of archaeology, art history, and archaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical
Sample
and archaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical
page
sBy stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and
page
sBy stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and food and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic
page
sfood and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic science. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science
page
sscience. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science and engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of cera-
page
sand engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of cera-mic objects by the authors has been guided by historical signi� cance, techno-pa
ges
mic objects by the authors has been guided by historical signi� cance, techno-logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship. pa
ges
logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.
Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-page
sReaders are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-pa
ges
eschweizerbart_xxx
Schweizerbart Science Publishers Johannesstr. 3A, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany., Tel. +49 (0)711 351456-0, Fax: +49 (0)711 351456-99, [email protected], www.schweizerbart.deE
Robert B. Heimann & Marino Maggetti
Ancient and Historical CeramicsMaterials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions
2014. XXII, 550 pp., 303 mostly coloured figures, 47 tables, paperback, 24 x 17 cm.
ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79,–Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907
By stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and food and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic science. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science and engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of ceramic objects by the authors has been guided by historical significance, technological interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.
Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their technology, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient master potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stonewa-re and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook book.
This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and figures not only addresses professionals and students of archaeology, art history, and archaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical ceramics, ceramic materials and production techniques of ancient ceramics.
E Ceramics, Archeology
sample pages
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Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their
Sample
Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their technology, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned
Sample
technology, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient master potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from
Sample
by ancient master potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the
Sample
Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British
Sample
Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stonewa-
Sample
bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stonewa-re and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient
Sample
re and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups
Sample
Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been Sam
ple
are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. Sam
ple
cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a Sam
ple
As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a Sample
Sample
page
s2014. XXII, 550 pp., 303 mostly coloured figures, 47 tables,
page
s2014. XXII, 550 pp., 303 mostly coloured figures, 47 tables,
ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79,–
page
sISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79,–Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907
page
sInformation on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907
page
spa
ges
page
s
eschweizerbart_xxx
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VAcknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIITable of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IXExordium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV
Part I Fundamentals1 The nature of ceramics . . . . . . . . 11.1 Materials and technological evolution
of societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Ancient roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologies . . 51.4 Ceramics and their production environ-
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.5 Ceramics and cooking . . . . . . . . . . 101.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry . . 112 Classification and properties of ce-
ramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.1 Classification and types of ceramics . . . 122.2 Definitions of common ceramic types . . 132.3 Properties and functions of ceramic
cooking pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Clay raw materials: origin, composi-
tion, and properties . . . . . . . . . . 223.1 Types of raw materials . . . . . . . . . . 223.2 The formation of clay minerals . . . . . . 233.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay mi-
nerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for
pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283.5 Clay-water interactions . . . . . . . . . 314 Processing of clay, and forming and
finishing of pottery . . . . . . . . . . . 374.1 The operational sequence of making
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374.2 Preparation of clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 374.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies . . . . 394.4 Drying of green pottery . . . . . . . . . 474.5 Glazes and glazing . . . . . . . . . . . 484.6 Post-firing painting . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Ceramic phase diagrams . . . . . . . 595.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595.2 Anatomy of three-component (ternary)
phase diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.3 Selected model ceramic phase diagrams 656 Materials science of ceramics . . . . . 706.1 Ceramics as man-made ‘rocks’ . . . . . 706.2 Firing temperature vs. state of sintering . 716.3 Thermal transformations in kaolinitic
clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736.4 Thermal transformations in illitic clays . . 766.5 Thermal transformations in phosphatic
ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956.6 Densification during firing . . . . . . . . 976.7 Determination of firing temperatures . . . 997 Pottery kilns and firing technology 1037.1 Pottery firing structures and devices . . 1037.2 Fuel consumption and production eco-
nomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Part II Selected ceramics and culinary traditions
8 Ancient Near Eastern wares . . . . . 1298.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East . . . 1298.2 Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318.3 Anatolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358.4 Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378.5 Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1448.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic coo-
king pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron
Age pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579.1 Setting the stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579.2 Neolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pot-
tery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599.3 Cretan pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery . . . . . 1709.5 Iron Age Greek wares . . . . . . . . . 1769.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies
revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 19210.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . 19210.2 Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Si-
gillata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19410.3 Manufacturing technique . . . . . . . . 19810.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata . . . 20310.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in
Tabernae, 2nd century CE . . . . . . . 20610.6 What distinguishes a mould from the
Terra Sigillata pottery? . . . . . . . . . 20910.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his
legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21311 Medieval and early modern German
stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22711.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware:
Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf . . . . . . . 22711.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Fre-
chen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren . 22911.3 Saxon stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . 23611.4 Bunzlau stoneware . . . . . . . . . . 24411.5 Of late medieval broth and mush . . . 24512 English and French white earthen-
ware (creamware, faïence fine) . . . 25512.1 French Renaissance precursors . . . . 25512.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 25912.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 26512.4 Scientific analyses of English and
French white earthenware . . . . . . . 27012.5 Fast food and sweet cake . . . . . . . 27513 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near
East and Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27913.1 Technological background . . . . . . . 27913.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze tech-
nique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28213.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology
in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28813.4 Italian maiolica . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28913.5 Renaissance gastronomy . . . . . . . 300
14 French soft-paste porcelain . . . . . 30914.1 A short history of selected French ma-
nufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30914.2 Technology of French soft-paste porce-
lain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31814.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32614.4 The ‘plaisirs de table’ of Louis XV and
his favourite, Marquise de Pompadour 32615 The first European hard-paste por-
celain: Meissen . . . . . . . . . . . . 33315.1 Historical beginnings . . . . . . . . .
33315.2 The invention of European porcelain at
Meissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33615.3 Material basis and technology of Bött-
ger stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34115.4 Development of porcelain microstruc-
ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34815.5 From the royal table of Augustus the
Strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35116 English bone china . . . . . . . . . . 35416.1 Early developments . . . . . . . . . . 35416.2 Forerunners of bone china . . . . . . . 35716.3 The invention of bone china . . . . . . 35916.4 Microstructure of bone china . . . . . . 36216.5 Staffordshire potter’s favourite dishes . 36517 Prehistoric New World pottery . . . 37117.1 South American pottery . . . . . . . . 37117.2 Central American pottery . . . . . . . 37417.3 South-western United States . . . . . 37717.4 Mississippian culture . . . . . . . . . . 37917.5 Native cuisine of the Americas . . . . . 39318 Chinese pottery: From earthenware
to stoneware to porcelain . . . . . . 39518.1 The European perspective . . . . . . . 39518.2 Chinese history and pottery . . . . . . 39818.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics . . . . 40118.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia
and Shang dynasties . . . . . . . . . 40318.5 Chinese proto-porcelain . . . . . . . . 40718.6 True Chinese porcelain . . . . . . . . 41118.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of
plenty, perfectly balanced . . . . . . . 43319 Thai ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43919.1 Historical account . . . . . . . . . . . 44019.2 Neolithic pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . 44119.3 High-fired glazed stoneware . . . . . . 44219.4 Northern Thai (Lan Na) kilns . . . . . . 44919.5 Ancient Thai cuisine . . . . . . . . . . 45220 Japanese ceramics . . . . . . . . . . 45720.1 A philosophy of natural aesthetics . . . 45720.2 Jōmōn, Yayoi and Kofun (Yamato) pot-
tery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46020.3 Asuka, Nara and Heian periods . . . . 46320.4 Kamakura and Muromachi period . . . 46420.5 Momoyama wares . . . . . . . . . . . 46620.6 Edo period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46820.7 Ancient Japanese cooking: what Sa-
murai and Sumōtori enjoyed . . . . . . 475
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481Ceramic index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537Location index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542Names index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547Recipe index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
Table of Contents
R.B. Heimann & M. Maggetti: Ancient and Historical Ceramics
Sample
nerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Sample
nerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Sample
pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5 Clay-water interactions . . . . . . . . . 31
Sample
3.5 Clay-water interactions . . . . . . . . . 314 Processing of clay, and forming and
Sample
4 Processing of clay, and forming and
. . . . . . . . . . .
Sample
. . . . . . . . . . . 37
Sample
37
4.1 The operational sequence of making
Sample
4.1 The operational sequence of making
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sample
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Sample
374.2 Preparation of clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Sam
ple
4.2 Preparation of clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 374.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies . . . . 39Sam
ple
4.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies . . . . 394.4 Drying of green pottery . . . . . . . . . 47Sam
ple
4.4 Drying of green pottery . . . . . . . . . 474.5 Glazes and glazing . . . . . . . . . . . 48Sam
ple
4.5 Glazes and glazing . . . . . . . . . . . 484.6 Post-firing painting . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Sam
ple
4.6 Post-firing painting . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies
Sample
9.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Sample
revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 192
Sample
10 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 19210.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . 192
Sample
10.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . 192Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Si-
Sample
Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Si-gillata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Sample
gillata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.3 Manufacturing technique . . . . . . . . 198
Sample
10.3 Manufacturing technique . . . . . . . . 19810.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata . . . 203
Sample
10.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata . . . 20310.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in
Sample
10.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in
Tabernae, 2
Sample
Tabernae, 2nd
Sample
nd century CE . . . . . . . 206
Sample
century CE . . . . . . . 206
10.6 What distinguishes a mould from the
Sample
10.6 What distinguishes a mould from the
Terra Sigillata pottery? . . . . . . . . . 209
Sample
Terra Sigillata pottery? . . . . . . . . . 209
10.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his
Sample
10.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his
legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Sample
legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
11 Medieval and early modern German
Sample
11 Medieval and early modern German
11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Sample
11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware:
page
s 157
page
s 157
Setting the stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
page
sSetting the stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Neolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pot-
page
sNeolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pot-tery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
page
stery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.3 Cretan pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
page
s9.3 Cretan pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery . . . . . 170pa
ges
9.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery . . . . . 1709.5 Iron Age Greek wares . . . . . . . . . 176pa
ges
9.5 Iron Age Greek wares . . . . . . . . . 1769.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies pa
ges
9.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184pa
ges
revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 192pa
ges
10 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 192
The invention of European porcelain at
page
s The invention of European porcelain at Meissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
page
sMeissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33615.3 Material basis and technology of Bött-
page
s15.3 Material basis and technology of Bött-ger stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
page
sger stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34115.4 Development of porcelain microstruc-
page
s15.4 Development of porcelain microstruc-ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
page
sture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
15.5 From the royal table of Augustus the
page
s15.5 From the royal table of Augustus the
Strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
page
sStrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
16 English bone china . . . . . . . . . . 354
page
s16 English bone china . . . . . . . . . . 35416.1 Early developments . . . . . . . . . . 354
page
s16.1 Early developments . . . . . . . . . . 35416.2
page
s16.2 Forerunners of bone china
page
sForerunners of bone china
16.3 The invention of bone china . . . . . . 359page
s16.3 The invention of bone china . . . . . . 35916.4 Microstructure of bone china . . . . . . 362page
s16.4 Microstructure of bone china . . . . . . 362
eschweizerbart_xxx
Selected titles on Archeology (in German language)
Walter Noll
Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente Studien zu Material und Technologie
1991. VI, 334 Seiten, 88 Abbildungen, 26 Tabellen, broschiert, 17 x 24 cm.
ISBN 978-3-510-65145-0 € 39.80Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510651450Mit modernsten Methoden hat der Autor W. Noll die Herstellungsverfahren alter Keramiken untersucht. Er benutzte dazu die zerstörungsfreie chemische und mineralogische Analyse mit Hilfe der Röntgenfluoreszenz und des Rasterelekt-ronenmikroskops.Der Verfasser verstand es, seine reichen beruflichen Erfahrungen und seine Neigungen zu kultur- und kunstgeschichtlichen Betrachtungen erfolgreich zu verknüpfen. Seine Aktivitäten in den letzen Jahrzehnten galten bevorzugt den
keramischen Objekten der alten Kulturzentren Ägyptens, Griechenlands, der Inselwelt des Mittelmeeres sowie der heutigen Türkei und des Irans.Die konsequente Anwendung der neuen Analyseverfahren erbrachte eine Fülle neuer, gesicherter Daten zur histo-rischen Entwicklung der Herstellungsverfahren, der Herkunft der Rohmaterialien und insbesondere auch über die Farbgebung dieser Scherben.Walter Noll hat die keramischen Objekte als technikgeschichtliches Dokument betrachtet und für die Historiker viele interessante Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt. Dieses einzigartige Buch ist von großer Bedeutung für die Zusammenar-beit zwischen Archäologen und Naturwissenschaftlern, eine junge, als Archäometrie bezeichnete Forschungsrich-tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen. Freunde und Kollegen gaben dem Text den letzten Schliff.Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-schaftliche und Allgemeine Bibliotheken
Karl Hans Wedepohl
Glas in Antike und MittelalterGeschichte eines Werkstoffes
2003. X, 227 Seiten, 45 Abbildungen, 29 Tabellen, 32 Farbbilder, broschiert, 17 x 24 cm.
ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5 € 39.80Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652075Dieses Buch bietet den Archäologen, Historikern und einschlägig interessierten Naturwissenschaftlern eine ausführliche Zusammenfassung über die Rohstoffe, Zusammensetzung, Herstellung und Nutzung von Gläsern, die für viele Kulturen und Regionen von der Antike bis zum Mittelalter charakteristisch sind.Glas wurde erstmals vor rund 3500 Jahren in der Bronzezeit hergestellt und war zunächst ein kostbares Gut. In Ägypten wurde es für Schmuck zur Imitation von Edelsteinen und für bunte Gefäße verwendet. Die Römer schufen daraus Vorrats- und Tafelgeschirr, aber auch prächtige Behälter. Im Mittelalter waren die meist farbigen Kirchen-fenster Teile der Architektur. Gut erhaltene zeittypische Gefäße und Fenster werden in beispielhaften Farbabbildun-gen gezeigt.In jeder Epoche, im antiken Mesopotamien und Ägypten, in Persien, dem römischen Reich und Byzanz, in der Zeit der Karolinger und im hohen wie späten Mittelalter wurden langzeitig tradierte Methoden und zeittypische Aus-gangsstoffe wie Quarzsand, Soda und Pflanzenasche für die Glasherstellung benutzt; auch darüber gibt das Buch einen guten Überblick.Der Autor hat in 28, teils mehrseitigen Tabellen Analysen alter Gläser aus der Literatur und eigenen Untersuchun-gen zusammengetragen, die heute fast zerstörungsfrei erstellt werden können. Aus der chemischen Zusammenset-zung eines Glasbruchstücks, das meist aus archäologischen Grabungen stammt, kann bei günstigen Bedingungen die Region und die Epoche abgelesen werden, in der dieses Glas entstand. So kann der Kulturgeschichtler daraus oft erstaunliche Handelswege ableiten.
Sample
tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen.
Sample
tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen. Freunde und Kollegen gaben dem Text den letzten Schliff.
Sample
Freunde und Kollegen gaben dem Text den letzten Schliff.Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-
Sample
Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-
Sample
Glas in Antike und Mittelalter
Sample
Glas in Antike und Mittelalter
Sample
Geschichte eines Werkstoffes
Sample
Geschichte eines Werkstoffes
2003. X, 227 Seiten, 45 Abbildungen, 29 Tabellen, 32 Farbbilder, broschiert, 17 x 24 cm.
Sample
2003. X, 227 Seiten, 45 Abbildungen, 29 Tabellen, 32 Farbbilder, broschiert, 17 x 24 cm.
ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5 Sample
ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5 € 39.80Sample
€ 39.80Sample
Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652075Sample
Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652075Dieses Buch bietet den Archäologen, Historikern und einschlägig interessierten Sam
ple
Dieses Buch bietet den Archäologen, Historikern und einschlägig interessierten Naturwissenschaftlern eine ausführliche Zusammenfassung über die Rohstoffe,
Sample
Naturwissenschaftlern eine ausführliche Zusammenfassung über die Rohstoffe,
page
sDer Verfasser verstand es, seine reichen beruflichen Erfahrungen und seine
page
sDer Verfasser verstand es, seine reichen beruflichen Erfahrungen und seine Neigungen zu kultur- und kunstgeschichtlichen Betrachtungen erfolgreich zu
page
sNeigungen zu kultur- und kunstgeschichtlichen Betrachtungen erfolgreich zu verknüpfen. Seine Aktivitäten in den letzen Jahrzehnten galten bevorzugt den
page
sverknüpfen. Seine Aktivitäten in den letzen Jahrzehnten galten bevorzugt den keramischen Objekten der alten Kulturzentren Ägyptens, Griechenlands, der Inselwelt des Mittelmeeres sowie der
page
skeramischen Objekten der alten Kulturzentren Ägyptens, Griechenlands, der Inselwelt des Mittelmeeres sowie der
Die konsequente Anwendung der neuen Analyseverfahren erbrachte eine Fülle neuer, gesicherter Daten zur histo-
page
sDie konsequente Anwendung der neuen Analyseverfahren erbrachte eine Fülle neuer, gesicherter Daten zur histo-rischen Entwicklung der Herstellungsverfahren, der Herkunft der Rohmaterialien und insbesondere auch über die
page
srischen Entwicklung der Herstellungsverfahren, der Herkunft der Rohmaterialien und insbesondere auch über die
Walter Noll hat die keramischen Objekte als technikgeschichtliches Dokument betrachtet und für die Historiker viele
page
sWalter Noll hat die keramischen Objekte als technikgeschichtliches Dokument betrachtet und für die Historiker viele interessante Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt. Dieses einzigartige Buch ist von großer Bedeutung für die Zusammenar-pa
ges
interessante Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt. Dieses einzigartige Buch ist von großer Bedeutung für die Zusammenar-beit zwischen Archäologen und Naturwissenschaftlern, eine junge, als Archäometrie bezeichnete Forschungsrich-pa
ges
beit zwischen Archäologen und Naturwissenschaftlern, eine junge, als Archäometrie bezeichnete Forschungsrich-tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen. pa
ges
tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen.
Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-pa
ges
Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-
eschweizerbart_xxx
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____ Ex. R.B. Heimann & M. Maggetti, Ancient and Historical Ceramics, ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7____ Ex. W. Noll, Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente, ISBN 978-3-510-65145-0____ Ex. K.H. Wedepohl, Glas in Antike und Mittelalter, ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5____ Ex. A. Hauptmann, Archäometrie, ISBN 978-3-510-65232-7Name: Address:
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Selected titles on Archeology (in German language)
Andreas Hauptmann, Volker Pingel (Hrsg.)
ArchäometrieMethoden und Anwendungsbeispiele naturwissenschaftlicher Verfahren in der Archäologie
2008. 264 Seiten, 138 Abbildungen, 7 Tabellen, 16 Farbtafeln, gebunden, 18 x 25 cm.
ISBN 978-3-510-65232-7 € 49.80Weitere Informationen zu diesem Titel: www.schweizerbart.de/9783510652327
Die moderne Archäologie hat sich in ihrem methodischen Ansatz rasant weiterentwickelt und bedient sich heute in zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-linen mitarbeiten.In 13 Beiträgen beschreiben Fachleute der verschiedensten naturwissenschaftlichen Fachrichtungen, auf welche Weise Methoden und Konzepte (z.B. der Anthropologie, Biologie, Chemie, der Geowissenschaften und der Physik) Beiträge zur Beantwortung archäologischer und historischer Fragen leisten können. Es werden Verfahren zur Un-tersuchung archäologischer Funde organischer und anorganischer Zusammensetzung vorgestellt. Antiken Land-schaftsveränderungen durch den Menschen wird z.B. mit Methoden der Geoarchäologie nachgespürt.Mehrere Beiträge befassen sich mit der Bedeutung und Anwendung radiometrischer Datierungsverfahren in der Altertumsforschung. Auch Prospektionsmethoden, die in der Archäologie besondere Bedeutung erlangt haben, werden besprochen. Anwendungsbeispiele, u.a. aus der Luftbildarchäologie und der Geophysik illustrieren den praktischen Einsatz der vorgestellten Methoden.Dieses Buch soll Forschern und Studierenden sowie allen an der archäologischen Forschung Interessierten die notwendigen Grundlagen der Archäometrie nahe bringen.
Sample
zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu
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zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-
Sample
lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-
In 13 Beiträgen beschreiben Fachleute der verschiedensten naturwissenschaftlichen Fachrichtungen, auf welche
Sample
In 13 Beiträgen beschreiben Fachleute der verschiedensten naturwissenschaftlichen Fachrichtungen, auf welche Weise Methoden und Konzepte (z.B. der Anthropologie, Biologie, Chemie, der Geowissenschaften und der Physik)
Sample
Weise Methoden und Konzepte (z.B. der Anthropologie, Biologie, Chemie, der Geowissenschaften und der Physik) Beiträge zur Beantwortung archäologischer und historischer Fragen leisten können. Es werden Verfahren zur Un-
Sample
Beiträge zur Beantwortung archäologischer und historischer Fragen leisten können. Es werden Verfahren zur Un-tersuchung archäologischer Funde organischer und anorganischer Zusammensetzung vorgestellt. Antiken Land-
Sample
tersuchung archäologischer Funde organischer und anorganischer Zusammensetzung vorgestellt. Antiken Land-schaftsveränderungen durch den Menschen wird z.B. mit Methoden der Geoarchäologie nachgespürt.
Sample
schaftsveränderungen durch den Menschen wird z.B. mit Methoden der Geoarchäologie nachgespürt.Mehrere Beiträge befassen sich mit der Bedeutung und Anwendung radiometrischer Datierungsverfahren in der
Sample
Mehrere Beiträge befassen sich mit der Bedeutung und Anwendung radiometrischer Datierungsverfahren in der
Sample
Altertumsforschung. Auch Prospektionsmethoden, die in der Archäologie besondere Bedeutung erlangt haben,
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Altertumsforschung. Auch Prospektionsmethoden, die in der Archäologie besondere Bedeutung erlangt haben, werden besprochen. Anwendungsbeispiele, u.a. aus der Luftbildarchäologie und der Geophysik illustrieren den
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werden besprochen. Anwendungsbeispiele, u.a. aus der Luftbildarchäologie und der Geophysik illustrieren den praktischen Einsatz der vorgestellten Methoden.
Sample
praktischen Einsatz der vorgestellten Methoden.Dieses Buch soll Forschern und Studierenden sowie allen an der archäologischen Forschung Interessierten die
Sample
Dieses Buch soll Forschern und Studierenden sowie allen an der archäologischen Forschung Interessierten die
Sample
Sample
Sample
notwendigen Grundlagen der Archäometrie nahe bringen.
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notwendigen Grundlagen der Archäometrie nahe bringen.
page
s2008. 264 Seiten, 138 Abbildungen, 7 Tabellen, 16 Farbtafeln, gebunden, 18 x 25 cm.
page
s2008. 264 Seiten, 138 Abbildungen, 7 Tabellen, 16 Farbtafeln, gebunden, 18 x 25 cm.
€ 49.80
page
s€ 49.80Weitere Informationen zu diesem Titel: www.schweizerbart.de/9783510652327
page
sWeitere Informationen zu diesem Titel: www.schweizerbart.de/9783510652327
Die moderne Archäologie hat sich in ihrem methodischen Ansatz rasant weiterentwickelt und bedient sich heute in page
sDie moderne Archäologie hat sich in ihrem methodischen Ansatz rasant weiterentwickelt und bedient sich heute in zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu pa
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zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-pa
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lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-
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