COMPORTAMENTO ORGANIZACIONAL E GESTÃO, 1995, VOL. 1, N° 2,145-156

Work & Organizational Psychology as a basic discipline.An alternative view and its implications. *

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Robert A. Roe **

Work & Organization Research Centre. Tilburg University, The Netherlands

Introduction

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Dear colleagues,

Let me express my gratitude for the invitation to give a presentation at this important

symposium. In my capacity of president of EAWOP I am happy that we have established linkswith the Portuguese Association of Psychology. This symposium clearly acknowledges that wehave found the roads that connect Portugal and the other European countries at least in the field of

work and organizational psychology. I hope that many of you ~ill use these roads, and will call

upon EAWOP for cooperation and support. I think that the contacts with Portugal are importantsince much of the work that is being done in this country is still unknown in the other countries,

.and maybe vice versa as well. This symposium marks a change. I am sure that we will see more

Portuguese work presented at the European platform in the near future.I have chosen a theme for my presentation that most of you might not have expected: a view

of W&0 psychology as a basic science. Vou may wonder what sense it makes to speak about this

seemingly academic subject at the start of a symposium that deals with practical problems oforganizations and activities of professional psychologists. Am I going to speak about pure scienceand a return ofW&O psychology into the ivory tower? The answer is no. But I will try to draw your

attention away from the fiel~ and the issues there, in order to speak about what W&0 psychology

really represents, and to learn ,somelessons about our research and applied work in the future.Let me explain why I have proposed this theme. In fact, after having worked 25 years in the

area I am dissatisfied with the way in which our field of study has been defined and perceived, andI am concemed about the future. There are two views that I find difficult to accept, but that dopersevere and seem to receive increasing support from certain sides.

* Invited paper presented at the 3rd Symposium on Organizational Behavior, Lisbon, June 15-17, 1994.** President ofthe European Association ofWork & Organizational Psychology

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1) Most practitioners who have lefi the university as psychologists, consider W&0 psychologyas a mere collection of facts, data, techniques, labels and trics that can be used to solve problems ofpeople in organizations. In other words: a body of practical knowledge and methods without a

structure and without an underlying theoretical base. Many of them doubt whether there is any realtheory behind the facts, and they consider the theories that they had to learn as students as largelyirrelevant to their work. This view sees W&0 psychology as a field of applied psychology in thesense of Anastasi (1964): what psychologists do in their daily professional work.

2) Psychologists working at universities and research institutes usually see W&0 psychologyas a field of 'applied psychology' as well, but they look at it from a different angle. They definepsychologyas the search for general knowledge on human behaviour and experience, and point outthat it has produced a body of knowledge that is valid for a great variety of people under a widerange of conditions. Their a,ssumption is that this knowledge, as laid down in scientific joumalsand books (as far as not contested), can be used in applied settings if anyone desires soo In this

view W&0 psychology is nothing but the application to the problems of work of what of generalpsychology has produced.

Both views refer to W&0 psychology as applied psychology, but they differ in their focus.The first view concentrates on the products of psychological research and their practical value, but

it ignores the scientific character ofW&O psychology and its connections with general psychology.Jt implicit1yaccepts an isolation of the professional field, as if there were no need for a scientificbase, nor a real opportunity to profit from science.

The second view, with its focus on general psychology, ignores the peculiarities of work and

organization, and puts the professional in a marginal position. It separates the science of psychologyfrom the world of work, and leaves application and so-called applied research to people withpractical interests who cannot be supposed to contribute to psychology as a science.

Although both views are correct in some respect, I perceive the situation with regard to

W&0 psychology to be different, and to become increasingly sooStating that W&0 psychology isidentical to doing applied research or applied work is, in my opinion, incorrect, unfruitful, andrisky with regard to the future. It denies a very important development, taking place since the lastdecades, that opens new perspectives for the development of psychology as a whole, and for the

profession of W&O-psychologist. This development is the emergence of W&0 psychology as abasic science, in between general psychology and applied work. I would like to draw your attentionto this development, to discuss what it brings to both sides, and to explore its implications for ourfuture work.

The developrnent of W&0 psychology

In my view one can discem three major phases in the development of W&0 psychology:

1. Applied psychology (J890-1940)

The first period started almost a century ago with occupational studies and research on

vocational fitness, work methods and fatigue. The work done in that period had an applied character

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indeed: psychological methods of assessment and analysis were applied to practical problems ofindustry and transportation. There was no or little distinct theory on these issues. In fact, the methodsand instruments of psychology were simply used to solve practical problems of recruitment,

productivity ~d safety posed by firms.The notion of 'applied psychology' became widespread, especially in the United States,

since the start ofthe 'Joumal of Applied Psychology' in 1917. In Europe the predominantnotionwas tlÍat of 'Industrielle Psychotechnik' (Moede, 1924), which practically meant the same, but atthe same time implied a relationship between the applied work and basic science as existedbetween technology and science in the physical sciences.

2. Industrial psychology (1940-1960)

The start of the second period can be located around the beginning of the Second WorldWar. This period is marked by the relatively autonomous development of applied research onproblems of industry, leading to several new and spedalized methods, as well as empirical dataand theories. Industrial psychology became a distinct field of applied psychology, focusing on suchissues as selection,job evaluation,human factorsat the work place, safety,etc. Its gradual developmentis well illustrated by the successive editions of the handbook of Industrial Psychology by Tiffin andMcCormick (first edition 1942). It is important to note that although some notions from general

psychology were adopted in the field, the largest part of the developments was initiated and directedby demands from industry on the one hand, and notions from other branches of applied science(including engineering, educational science, clinical psychology etc.) on the other hand. The overallthrust of the field was still the resolution of practical problems, particularly in industry, with thehelp of psychological tools.

3. Work& Organizational Psychology (1960-..)

The 1960's mark the beginning of a new period characterized by an expansion ofresearchand an effort to develop theories and models. Compared to the past, there are some significantchanges. First, psychologists with an interest in work and organization no longer take the problemsof industry for granted; but prefer to find out where these problems come from and what is behind.Secondly, they no longer accept the theoretical fruits of general psychology and the accumulatedmethodology of industrial psychology as the sole basis for their work, but start to build their owntheoretical base. In doing so they refuse to cut down their reality into pieces that match the knowledgeof general psychology, but prefer to ~túdy work related phenomena in their full complexity. Thisshift in focus and way working is well illustrated in the major joumals (e.g. Joumal of AppliedPsychology, Journal of Occupational & Organizational Psychology, Journal of VocationalBehavior, Persollilel Psychology, Academy ofManagement Joumal) and handbooks (e.g. Drenth etaI, 1984; Dunnette & Hough, 1990-1993).

In order to illustrate the development I use the case of absenteeism and turnover. Theselong-known problems have first been studied as empirical variables as such. Correlational studies

have been performed in order to find individual predictors that might De used for selectingemployees with lower chance of absenteeism and tumover. In more recent studies these variables

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have been related to other variables and interpreted as reflecting patterns of organizational

behaviour, characterized by high or low organizational commitment among employees (Griffin &

Bateman, 1986). And efforts have been made to establish links between such patterns of behaviourand features of organizational structure and climate. A growing number of theoretical studies is

now building an explanatory framework around the notion of adaptation which helps to understandhow and when commitment grows or declines, and when absenteeism and turnover are expected tobe high (Hulin, 1991). Theoretical work of this kind then provides a renewed basis for intervention,

which is much broader than that provided by the predictive studies of the past. Similar examplescould be given with regard to problems of fatigue, errors, conflict, or productivity.

In retrospect one can note that during the last 30 years W&O psychology has displayed amarked change in character. While the initial focus was on the problems of industry and elements

from general psychology were indeed used to solve them, the problems are now called into questionand considered as symptoms of organizational phenomena. Even the concepts that were used to

phrase the problems are increasingly subject to critical analysis, as is exemplified by the conceptsof 'job', 'leadership', 'culture', and 'organization'.

The relationship of W&0 psychology with the field has changed as well. While at the timeof 'applied psychology', managers, workers and unionists were seen as clients or members of aclient system, they are now also seen as subjects of study. And even the psychologist himself,when interacting with members ofthe organization, has become a subject rather than a mere actor,as is shown by research on the role of the selection interviewer, or the organizational consultant.All this can be interpreted as showing that W&0 psychology is becoming a mature branch ofscientific psychology that studies behavioral phenomena in the field ofwork and organization.

W&O psychology, a basic discipline?

Let me now try to present my view on the domain and contents of present-day W&0

psychology, and on its position vis-a-vis general psychology and professional practice. I shouldnote beforehand that W&0 psychology cannot be delineated in a very strict sense. Its boundariesare as difficult to draw as it the case with psychology as a whole, and any other field of science.

And its contents can be described in many different ways, stressing certain aspects and ignoring

certain others. In this connection we should remind ourselves that our field is differently defined inthe US, Japan, and Europe, and aiso that significant differences exist inside Europe. Yet, it seems

feasible to give a description of our discipline that catches its typical charactyristics.

W&0 psychology can be defined as the scientific study of the behav(our of people engagedin work. As work is typically done in collaboration with other people on the basis of some division

of tasks - in other words in an organization - the object of W&0 psychology comprises three typesofbehaviour, that are the subject ofthree specialities (Roe, 1990):

a) work behaviour in sensu strictu, i.e. the executionofwork tasks - studiedby work psychology;b) organizational behaviour, i.e. behaviour related to the fulfilment of roles in an

organization -studied by organizational psychology;

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c) relational behaviour, i.e. behaviour aiming at the establishment, maintenance, developmentand termination of a labour relationship between an individual and an organization - studied bypersonne1psychology.

These types of behaviour cannot be distinguished very sharply. E.g. task performance is partof executing an organizational role, and changing an organizational role can be seen as redefining alabour relationship. Therefore these three specialties show some overlap. Yet, this differentiationmakes sense, since each type of behaviour is looked at from another perspective, characterized byanother way of defining situations and interpersonal relationships. E.g. work behaviour is typicallyseen as activity of a single individual, while organizational behaviour concems the social aspectspeople in their mutual relationships, and re1ational behaviour typically concems the individual inhis relationship with several other people (i.e. the organization).

Table I gives some examples of behavioral phenomena that are studied in the three areas of

W&0 psychology. Work psychology deals with situations defined in terms of jobs and tasks,equipment and physical environment, time structure, etc. and studies their relationships withbehavioral phenomena known as work activity, performance, work load, effort, fatigue, boredom,stress and bumout, errors and accidents. Organizational psychology studies organizational structure(division of labour), organizational change, innovation and automation, etc. in connection with

such behavioral phenomena as communication, decision making, conflict, leadership, delegation,participation, boundary spanning, organizationalleaming etc. Personnel psychology deals withjobs and occupations, employment, career stages, in connection with career behaviour (orientation,planning, choice), occupational socialization, organizational entry, etc.

Table I

Some examples of situations and behaviors studied byWOP

Conto

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Situátion Behavior

Job ActivityTask PerformanceEquipment Sensorimotor learningPhysical environment Work loadInformation FatigueProduction process Boredom ,.Time structure Stress

BurnoutErrorsAccidents

Occupations Career orientationJob characteristics Career choiceLife career stages ApplicationRetirement Occupational socializationJob loss Entrepreneurial activityUnemployment Leisure activity

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Table I

Some examples of situations and behaviors studied by WOP (Cont.)

Situation Behavior

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Division of labour

Organizational structureOrganizational changelnnovation

Computerization

SatisfactionCommunicationDecision makingConflict

ParticipationManagementLeadershipDelegationBoundary spanning activityAbsenteeismTurnoverClimateCulture

Organizational performance

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It is noteworthy that many of the phenomena listed here, and many of the issues that are to

be discussed at this symposium falI outside the range of events studied by general psychology. Of

course, W&0 psychology can and does rely on general psychology, but many issues in the field ofwork and organization are simply not addressed by its concepts and theories. Its publications contain

no reference to notions like consideration and initiating structure, rotating shift, compressed workweek, hygiene factors, motivating potential, environmental uncertainty, double loop learning, jobfamily, career ladder, linking pin, job satisfaction and organizational _commitmentthat are of keyimportance in W&0 psychology.

In comparison with gen~ral psychology (in which I,include developmental, personality and

social psychology), there are some important differences in the.object ofstudy ofW&O psychology.A first difference is that W&0 psychology concentrates on reiatively. complex phenomena. Thebehaviours that W&0 psychology investigates constitute molar unities studied as a whole in order

to understand their internal structure and the processes by which they are organized. Such unities

cannot be broken down into smalIer elements, as general psychology tends to do, without loosing~the view of the interrelations of such element.E.g. the regulation of a complex activity, like operating

a automated system, cannot be understood from knowledge of isolated acts such as detecting signalsand moving levers. Nor can strategic management be understood from fragmented knowledge onindividual decision making, communication, and conflict resolution. Studying more complex

unities of behaviour means that several facets of human activity that are isolated in the study ofmore basic processes become interconnected. Task fulfilment, applying for ajob, and organizational

learning thus comprise aspects of information processing, attitude formation, emotional expressionand management of self-esteem, alI at the same time. As the higher leveI of complexity brings theobject of study closer to the roles fulfilIed by people in daily life, it opens the possibility of studying

the facet of meaning and sense-giving, which is absent in most of general psychology.

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A second difference is that the phenomena studied by W&0 psychology are more specificthan those of general psychology. Looking at the reality at a lower leveI of abstraction not only

means greater complexity, but also less generality. In this sense sales performance is more specificthan performance in general, and organizational conflict is more specific than conflict in general.

W&0 psychology has indeed this tendency to differentiate. It studies e.g. informal groups,autonomous work groups, quality circ1es, works councils, rather than groups in the way social

psychology does. Similar1y it distinguishes between types of organizations, and categories ofworkers, thereby generating knowledge of a more focused nature.

The third difference is that, compared to general psychology, W&0 psychology has a much

stronger tendency to account for contextual factors. The more complex and specific the phenomenaof study are, the greater the likelihood is that they are dependent on contextual factors. E.g.cognitive processes and social comparison may appear to be the same regardless the type industry

were the subjects are taken from, the society in which they are observed, and the year in which thestudy is done. But job performance, and responses to different wage systems may not be the same.

In fact, many of the phenomena that W&0 psychology studies seem to some degree dependent onthe type of industry, the economy, culture, demographic factors, etc. (I).Several studies in W&0

psychology have shown the influence of so-called 'contingency factors' that determine the

relationships between the variables under study. Well known examples are studÍes on leadershipstyles and on organizational performance. The influence of the societal context is demonstrated bymany cross-cultural studies (Bhagat et aI., 1990).

These differences in the delineation of the object of study constitute a matter of dispute

about the scientific character of W&0 psychology. It is sometimes contended by generalpsychologists that by concentrating on more complex and context dependent phenomena, W&0psychology does not observe the principIe that science must strive to produce knowledge of a

generic nature. Its findings are held to be too specific and too much conditioned by other factors tobe of real worth. In my opinion this view is incorrect. W&0 psychology does strive for generalknowledge on work-related behaviour, but it also respects and acknowledges the boundaries of

generalization. Even though its theories may show only local or temporal validity, they representr,efforts to be as general as reality allows(2).One might also reverse the argument and say that general

psychology tends to neglect relevant factors, and that a lesser validity if the price for its generality.I see the aim of W&0 psychology as fundamentally the same as of the other behavioral sciences,i.e. to provide a valid description and explanation of reality.

Although theoretical research in the WO field has started only recently, considerableprogress has been made in developing theories and models. In addition to such theories as

'Attribution theory', 'Behavioral decision theory', 'Sociallearning theory', 'Role theory' and'Achievement motivation theory' coming from general psychology, it has developed several theories

(1) This explains why W&0 psychology theory has muItiple links with other disciplines in which such factors are centralrather contextual, and can also be considered as part of a wider interdisciplinary science of work and organization.

(2) I will not go any deeper into this matter, but I would like to stress that efforts are undertaken to structúre theoreticalknowledge in such a way that it allows both specific and generic interpretations (e.g. Ten Horn & Roe, 1992).

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on work related behaviour, inc1uding 'Activity theory', 'Value expectancy theory', a variety of

leadership theories, e.g. 'Path-goal theory', 'Situationalleadership theory', 'Vertical-dyad-linkagetheory', 'Substitutes for leadership theory', and 'Socio-technical theory'.

In addition a large number of theoretical models has been developed which depict the

factors that determine work motivation, work-related stress, organizational performance etc. (e.g.Dunnette & Hough, 1990/1993).

Thus there is indeed sufficient evidence that W&0 psychology has left the stage of beingjust an applied science and has become a basic discipline, complementary to the other basic

disciplines in psychology, that has its own body of knowledge, inc1uding concepts, models andtheories (cf. Von Rosenstiel, 1993), as well as methods and empirical data. This conc1usion is

supported by the observation that a considerable part of the research in W&0 psychology is nolonger driven by problems directly coming from organizational life, but rather by the interests ofresearchers, which according to Drenth (1993) is a feature of'basic' science.

W &0 psychology, a field of technology

It would, of course, be incorrect to suggest that W&0 psychology has now become a basic

science without an interest in solving problems of the field. As a result of decades of appliedresearch W&0 psychology also comprises a vast range of methods, techniques and instruments,

for both diagnosis and intervention. As is illustrated by table 2 they inc1ude techniques for job

analysis, organizational assessment, as well as several methods for job design, career development,organizational structuring, productivity enhancement, etc.

Table 2

Some examples oftechnologies in WOP

Technologies

Task analysisTask designWork schedulingErgonomic equipment designSoftware ergonomicsJob analysisJob evaluationPerformance appraisalRecruitmentSelection

Employment testingTraining & developmentTraining needs analysisCareer planningCareer counselingVocational guidance (Cont.)

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Table 2

Some examples oi technologies in WOP (Con.t.)

Technologies

Job designJob enrichmentOrganizational assessmentOrganizational developmentProductivity managementMBOSelf-managementTeam buildingOrganizational behavior modificationOrganizational designOrganizational developmentSurvey-feedback-methodSocio-technical systems design

While in the past many of these methods stood on their own, constituting a tool-kit for the

professional, they now have become embedded in 'theories of application'. One may say that overthe years a technology has developed, containing several models and theories that indicate how to

proceed in order to achieve certain objectives. The case of personnel selection offers an excellentexample. The work in this area has started with little more than tests and principIes of validation.Now there is a vast body ofprinciples for prediction and decision making, as well as for designing

and evaluating selection procedures, along with a wide array of tests and other instruments, andsets ofvalidity data (Herriot, 1989).The design and evaluation ofwork time schedules, remuneration

schemes, training programmes, organizational change projects etc. are other examples.More than on the explanatory side, in its technology W&0 psychology relies on contributions

from other fields of science. Many valuable methods and techniques have come from such fields aspsychometrics, educational technology, management sciences, etc. But again specialists in W&0psychology have delivered the greatest share in the development of the technology, tuning it to thereal needs ofthe work and organizational field.

W &0 psychology and the professional

What does this view of W&0 psychology, emancipating from applied psychology into afield basic science and technology imply for the professional practice? Will it increase the distancebetween the researcher and the professional, and widen the gap between theory and practice? Quitethe opposite, I think. In my view, the theoretical knowledge of modem W&0 psychology is moreadequate to the problems encountered by management consultants, human resources specialists,and trainers. First, it matches the complexities of real-life problems better than the knowledge fromgeneral psychology used to. Findings on the performance of work tasks are easier to apply thanthose on elementary tasks, such as pushing a button in response to a signal. Secondly, it's specificity

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makes W&0 psychology knowledge more relevant for the problems under study. E.g. whendealing with problems of 'Quality circles' research evidence on such groups is more relevant than

findings on 'groups' in general. In the third place, the theoretical knowledge of W&0 psychologyis more complete as it fills at least some ofthe gaps left open by that general psychology, e.g. whenit comes to problems of task design, comparing reward systems, or when inducing cultural change.

As for the technological side of W&0 psychology, I perceive a tendency to pay moreattention to the development of techniques and instruments that are geared to the needs of the

profession. Good examples can be found in the domains of personnel selection (Smith &Robertson, 1989) and productivity management (Pritchard et aI., 1989). I think that the further

development of the technology and of applied methods confronts the professional with an

opportunity and a need to bring his performance to a higher leveI. With the shortage of under1yingtheory that existed in the past, the professional had more freedom in choosing the approaches andmethods to deal with the problem of the client, but also less certainty about the appropriateness of

his choice and the ultimate effectiveness ofhis intervention. Now that more technological theory isbecoming available, and more evidence is accumulating about the effectiveness of certain

approaches and methods, the professional is challenged to exercise a higher leveI of expertise.There is a call to upgrade one's expertise, and to invest more in finding the optimal approach to thesolution of his clients problems. Professional ethics has an important role to play here. Given the

obligation to carry out one's work at the best possible leveI that science allows, the development ofW&0 psychology will force professionals to set higher standards and to give up some of theautonomy that they have enjoyed in the past, in exchange for higher status and greater satisfaction.

A great advantage that I see for the professional W&0 psychologist is that the theoretical

work on behaviour in organizations is becoming more congruent with the developmental work at

the technical side. There are already signs that basic research on organizational phenomena, e.g. onculture and commitment, becomes integrated with the development of instruments and methods to

diagnose and change these phenomena. I expect that in the future such connections will onlybecome stronger, thereby providing much more support to the professional than he has everreceived from psychology in the past.

Conclusion

Dear colleagues,

What I have pointed out is, in my view, of importance for all W&0 psychologists, especiallyin Europe. History has always been a history of conflict, and conflicts are likely to remain in the

future. There are forces in Europe that tend to promote general psychology at the expense of W&0psychology and other 'applied' disciplines in both education and research. Unless we act, there is arisk that W&0 psychology will be marginalized in both education and research, and it will bemanoeuvred into the position of 'just a psychological profession'. In order to counteract this

tendency and promote the interests of the W&0 psychology community, I feel we should begin to

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acknowledgewhere W&0 psychology presently is and what it is able to do. This is why I have

emphasizedthat W&0 psychology is both theory and practice, and tha! much of its theory is of abasic nature.

If we succeed in making our position clear, and educate policy makers and fellowpsychologistsin other fields, we may expect a continuation of what I have described above. More

focus~dresearch on behavioral phenomena in the field of work and organization, supported by afurthertechnologicaldevelopment, will bring theory closer to practice, and help the practitioner todo more with the theory. I don't want to be unduly optimistic about what will happen to the cleftbetween theory and practice, as I know well enough that it exists and that it is wide. But I do

believethat the developmentof W&0 psychology and the upgrading of the profession help a lot in

bridgingthe gap, thereby making our work more interesting, valuable and rewarding.

References

Bhagat, R. S., Kedia, B. L., Crawford, S. E., & Kaplan, M. R. (1990). Cross-cultural issues in organizationalpsychology: Emergent trends and directions for research in the 1990s. In C. L. Cooper & L T.Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (VoI. 5, pp.59-99). Chichester: Wiley.

Campbell,1. P. (1990). The role oftheory in industrial and organizational psychology. In M. D. Dunnette &L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial & Organizational Psychology (VoI. I, pp. 39-74). PaIoAlto: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Drenth, P. J. D. (1993). Scientific and social responsibility: A dilemma for the psychologist as a scientist?European Work & Organizational Psychologist, 3 (1),45-57.

Drenth, P. J. D., Willems, P. J., Wolff, Ch. J. de, & Thierry Hk. (Eds.) (1984). Handbook of Work &Organizational Psychology (2 Vols.). Chichester: Wiley.

Dunnette, M. D., & Hough, L. M. (Eds.) (1990/1993). Handbook ofIndustrial & Organizational Psychology(4 Vols.). PaIo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Dunnette, M. D. (1990). Blending the science and practice of industrial and organizational psychology:Where are we and where are we going? In M. D. Dunnette & L. M. Hough (Eds.), Handbook ofIndustrial & Organizational Psychology (V01.I, pp.I-28). PaIo Alto: Consulting Psychologists Press.

Griffin, R. W., & Bateman, T. S. (1986). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment. In C. L. Cooper,& L T. Robertson (Eds.), International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (VoI. I,pp.157-188). Chichester: Wiley.

Herriot, P. (Ed.) (1989). Selection and assessment in organizations. Chichester: Wiley.

Horn, L. A. Ten, & Roe, R. A. (1992). Modelling in organizational diagnosis. In C. Lemoine (Ed.),Evaluation et innovation dans les organisations. Issy-Ies-Moulineaux: Editions EAP.

Hulin, C. (1991). Adaptation, persistence and commitment in organizations. In M. D. Dunnette, & L. M.Hough (Eds.), Handbook of Industrial & Organizational Psychology (V01.2, pp. 445-506). PaIo Alto:Consulting Psychologists Press.

Moede, W. (1924). Zum Geleit. Industrielle Psychotechnik, 1, 1-12.

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Pritchard, R. D., Jones, S. D., Roth, P. L., Stuebing, K. K., & Ekeberg, S. E. (1989). The evaluation of anintegrated approach to measuring organizational productivity. Personnel Psychology, 42 (1),69-116.

Roe, R. A.(1990). Arbeids-en organisatiepsychologie. In P. J. van Strien, & J. F. H. van Rappard (Eds.),Grondvragen van de psychologie. Een handboek theorie en grondslagen (pp. 180-195). Assen: VanGorcum.

Rosentiel, Lutz von (1993). Nichtanwendungsorientierte Theorien in de Arbeits-, Organisations- undMarktpsycho10gie. In W. Bungard, & T. Herrman (Hrsg.), Arbeits-und Organisationspsychologie imSpanningsfeld zwischen Grundlagenorientierung und Anwendung (pp. 65-73). Bem: Huber.

Smith~M., & Robertson, I. T. (Eds.) (1989). Advances in selection and assessment. Chichester: Wiley.

Tiffin, J., & McCormick, E. 1. (1965). Industrial Psychology (5th ed.). New York: Prentice Hall.

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