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College code College Name Theme

1000609 Amrita School of Business Roles of Policies and Regulations

Role of NREGA in Replenishing CPRs and Livestock based Livelihoods: A Study in

Bundelkhand Region

NIKHIL CHANDALIA *, VARUN ULLATTIL, Dr. AMALENDU JYOTISHI

Abstract

National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) was passed with a mission to put up a floor to

poverty in the rural India thereby providing an opportunity to make jobs work for rural development.

It was also foreseen as a tool for ecological replenishment. Projects falling under the National Rural

Employment Guarantee Act usually targeted towards creating productive assets like water

conservation structures, land levelling, tree plantation etc., which are used for replenishing common

pool resources like land, water, forest, livestock etc. Even with the positive intend of the programme,

it is not spared from allegations and criticisms. There have been reports that found out poor

implementation in some states. There have been reports which suggest that people are moving away

from their primary livelihood activity like agriculture because of NREGA.

Considering all these aspects, in the present paper, we are briefly analyzing the overall scenario of

NREGA in the dry lands of the Bundelkhand Region (which constitutes a portion of two Indian states

Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh), its role in replenishing Common Pool Resources (CPRs) and its

significance in sustaining livestock based livelihoods of dry-lands of India. In this paper, thus, we

attempt to bring out an interrelation between NREGA implementation and the various facets covered

like livelihood issues, status of CPRs, livestock etc. These issues are synthesized considering the

macro aspects of the NREGA convergence with the other establishments and the gaps within as well

as its role in replenishing CPRs.

Keywords: NREGA, CPRs, Sustainability, Livelihood, Livestock, Bundelkhand.

JEL Classification: Q01, Q28, J43.

* Student at Amrita School of Business, Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram PO, Bangalore - 560035, Email id: nikhilchandalia9@gmail.com Student at Amrita School of Business, Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram PO, Bangalore - 560035,

Email id: varunull@buffalo.edu Associate Professor Amrita School of Business, Kasavanahalli, Carmelaram PO, Bangalore - 560035,

Email id: amalendu.jyotishi@gmail.com

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Role of NREGA in Replenishing CPRs and Livestock based Livelihoods: A Study in

Bundelkhand Region

NIKHIL CHANDALIA, VARUN ULLATTIL, Dr. AMALENDU JYOTISHI

1. Introduction

Bundelkhand is a part of India which has immense historical importance. Traditionally considered to

be culturally rich, has lost its much talked about sheen in the recent past. The situation has changed so

drastically in the last five to six years that people in this region find it difficult to have adequate

drinking water. It is a mere coincidence that the implementation of NREGA and draught in the region

started roughly about the same time. In our quest to find out the importance and the need of NREGA

in rejuvenating the Common Pool Resources, we could not have selected a better region for a study

The study examines the contribution of NREGA towards improving the productivity of Common Pool

Resources (CPR) and its significance on livestock economy. The secondary data collected gave us the

hint of the diversity amongst the various districts. The diversity in terms of forest cover, livestock,

groundwater levels, rivers, altitude of land above sea level, cropping patterns, cropping intensity, land

usage, land ownership, castes residing in different districts, occupations, population, population

density and other demographic differences. The diversification in the already mentioned aspects gives

the NREGA implementers enough reasons to customize and tweak the no. of activities and type of

activities that needs to be done in the various districts

2. Linkages of NREGA, CPR and Livestock: A Review of Literature

Common pool resources are defined in the Indian context as non-exclusive resources to which the

rights of use are distributed among a number of owners. These co-owners are generally identified by

their membership of some other group such as a village or a tribe or a particular community (K

Chopra 2002). Most micro-studies on use and access of common pool resources in India have adopted

This section is based on the data collected from 2002 BPL Survey data, District-wise Basic Data Sheets of Census 2001,

Female data from Census of India 2001, State-wise abstract of information from village schedule in Minor Irrigation Census

2000-2001, District-wise Land Use Statistics, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Department of Agriculture &

Cooperation, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, May 2008, District-wise Land Use Statistics, Union Ministry of

Agriculture, May 2008, Wastelands Atlas of India, 2005, Department of Land Resources, Ministry of Rural Development,

GOI, Agriculture Census Input Survey 2001-02, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, District-wise Land Use Statistics, Ministry of

Agriculture, GOI India, May 2008, District-wise Land Use Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, GOI, May 2008, State of

Forest Report 2005, Forest Survey of India, Union Ministry of Environment & Forests, Livestock Census of India 2003.

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this as a broad working definition. Common pool resources thus include community pastures and

forests, wastelands, common dumping and threshing grounds, watershed drainages, village ponds,

rivers and other common pool water bodies. Apart from these, there are systems of customary rights

which support traditional practices, and thereby represent common rights on private property in

certain situations such as when private land is lying fallow in between crop rotation cycles.

The confusion over the literature definition of CPR has lead many researchers to analyze the situation

under which a particular resource government system is likely to yield positive or negative results in

terms of an efficient, equitable and sustainable use of resources (Marothia 2002)

There is a lot of mismatch in the expected and the actual achievement of the various developmental

programmes, and one of the major reasons is the failure of the planners to integrate ecological,

economic and social factors in the development policy and planning on one hand and Lack of

appreciation of property rights dimensions of CPR type of resources (Singh 2002)

CPRs play an important role in Indias rural economy as a source of sustenance and income to

millions of the rural poor (Singh 2002). (Jodha 2002) study shows substantial dependence of poor on

CPR resources. He also suggested that depletion or degradation of this type of resources adversely

affect the poor especially from used area. In this output a study relating to role of NREGA in

replenishing CPR type of resources will be meaningful.

The diversity in terms of forest cover, livestock, ground-water levels, rivers, altitude of land above sea

level, cropping patterns, cropping intensity, land usage and ownership, castes residing in different

districts, occupations, population, population density and other demographic differences therefore a

one blanket approach to link NREGA with CPR may not be that appropriate.

According to Nadkarnis (2002) study There is a tendency for the commons**

to degrade or decline

in the course of economic development, though there ecological functions increase in importance,

requiring their conservation. This decline can hit the poor badly as they depend for their survival on

them; yet, their revival need not automatically benefit the poor more since the non-poor may corner

more benefits from the commons in absolute terms (if not in relative terms) (pp.88). Such findings

direct our attention not only towards meeting the dual objectives of conservation and development but

also the need for consideration of the poor whom the conservation activity hits badly and economic

development bypasses. This again requires institutional arrangements, which can ensure enhancement

of welfare of the poor.

According to Rais (2010) study, th

guarantee of corruption, unemploym

only regular feature in Bundelkhand

As mentioned earlier, the different

difference should be on the basis o

based on the availability of the natu

experience the activities done unde

research.

3. Objectives of the Study

The broader objective of the study i

While the specific objectives includ

1. To determine the role of NR

2. Understand the linkages bet

3. Recommendations and sugg

have positive implication on

4. Methodology and Conceptu

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the implementation of NREGA in Bundekhand, the

yment, poverty, hunger and humiliation. Irregularities

nd region of Uttar Pradesh.

nt regions of Bundelkhand require different type of

of the socio economic and demographic factors. It s

natural resources. To validate the logic, see the grou

der NREGA in the various villages, we felt the need

Study

y is to identify the links between NREGA with CPR

ude

REGA in livelihood enhancement

etween NREGA and CPR

ggestions to improve the NREGA implementation pr

on CPR and livestock based livelihood

onceptual Framework

here has been a

ies have been the

of projects. The

It should also be

ound reality and

ed to do primary

and Livestock.

process that will

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Fig1: Conceptual Framework

The above figure gives the conceptual framework indicating the linkages of NREGA and its

convergence initiatives its impact on CPR based livelihood and the underlying impact on the

livestock. The framework intends to highlight an ideal situation where the man power supplied by

NREGA and the technical and financial support provided by the converging bodies for projects

intended to improve in agricultural productivity, improve the deteriorating livestock count and also

providing a sustainable livelihood option.

The study will be conducted through secondary research and primary research method. Secondary

Research will consist of understanding the dynamics of the Bundelkhand region. Both area and

productivity issues of CPRs and its significance on livestock economy will be analysed using primary

data mainly through focus group interviews, personal interviews and observations. The role of

NREGA in the management practices of CPRs and peoples dependency on CPRs for their subsistence

and livelihoods also will be analysed using primary data. In short the study is going to address the

above said objectives in arid and semi-arid tracts of the region. Primary research included a transit

walk in the villages of Bundelkhand Region that involved focus group discussions with the villagers,

personal Interviews of the Bank manager, sarpanch or pradhan, district and block level officials and

also interactions with the NGOs. For rural appraisal, two districts were selected each from Uttar

Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh parts of Bundelkhand. Two blocks were identified in each of the

districts. Two to four villages were selected in each of the blocks based on the geographic and

demographic diversity. In our endeavour to get the right data we basically selected villages where

some or the other NREGA activities have happened. We visited a few sites where the work was in

progress. This study was undertaken for the Centre of Economics and Social Sciences, Hyderabad, to

provide feedback regarding various issues relating to NREGA. This particular study was focused on

Lalitpur and Jalaun Districts in Uttar Pradesh, and Tikamgarh and Chattarpur districts in Madhya

Pradesh. The surveys were done in the following locations.

The surveys are not comprehensive, but done with the purpose of providing some insights to enable

fine-tuning of implementation if possible. The survey carried out for the study was exploratory in

nature and there was an additional section to capture the perceptions of the beneficiaries regarding the

NREGAs utility.

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4. Official data of the activities undertaken as part of NREGA in 2010

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Table 1: State of activities and Expenditure incurred in the villages which were visited

Source: www.nrega.nic.in

The above table summarizes the status of the projects and the financials of the in the villages that

were visited in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh for 2010-11. It can be seen that most of the works

are either Work in process or suspended.

5. Impact of NREGA through Convergence with various central and

state Government Sponsored Programmes

In this section we will be looking at the impact of projects undertaken by NREGA in convergence

with other central and state sponsored programmes in building sustainable livelihood options through

CPR rejuvenation. The convergence would help provide right guidance and direction while

implementing projects through NREGA. The land, water and forest department will be well aware of

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the technicalities so that they can provide a proper insight so as to decide on the type of project that

would be suitable under the given conditions.

5.1 Irrigation Support Initiatives

There exists a gap between irrigation potential and resource utilization. Many irrigation projects

which we saw during our field visit were either not constructed properly or hasnt been utilized

optimally. This is one of the reasons for low irrigation efficiency at project level, which in turn results

in low productivity. NREGA works like the canal plantation, field channel construction, land shaping,

dug wells are complementary to the works under Water resources ministry which provides technical

assistance. Some of the works were not satisfactory; the canal plantation programmes which failed

because of lack of maintenance post project, some of the field channels dug in order to meet irrigation

requirement did not sustain because of lack of pucca component(material) due to which the canals

built gets damaged or washed off.

It is seen in most villages we visited that the villagers mainly asked for projects that show immediate

results Kapildhara is one such scheme which works on irrigation through wells. Banks provide

financial support to the beneficiaries; the financial support provided is for purchasing irrigation tools

like motor pumps etc. This has helped in increasing the agriculture produce. Some such projects

however have not benefitted to the extent it was expected to. Reasons mainly range from lack of

technical knowledge to lack of logic while sanctioning such projects, add to that less than average

rainfall in the last few years has lead to an increase in the magnitude of the problems. The

Sahastradhara scheme of NREGA is a convergence initiative of NREGA in association with the

Water Resources Department (WRD); the Kacha work (Earth Work) is funded through NREGA while

the technical support, material and labour requirements are funded by WRD for improving the area

under irrigation through construction of irrigation canals. This was seen in Talbehat block of Lalitpur

in Uttar Pradesh where the work was going. Efficient implementation of such schemes would help

upscale the works undertaken and thereby create long lasting sustainable assets.

5.2 Sericulture Initiatives

Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD) has selected thirteen districts from Uttar Pradesh (UP) to

conduct a pilot run of this initiative, out of which seven fall under Bundelkhand region which are

Banda, Chitrakoot, Hamirpur, Jalaun, Lalitpur, Mahoba, Jhansi. In Lalitpur a farm of 15 acres has

been taken up under sericulture through NREGA and about 35 acres is being developed by funds from

department itself. This is to mobilise farmers towards taking up sericulture as a livelihood activity,

this is highly remunerative as the demand for silk as a raw material in the Textile industry I always

high. The land used for Sericulture was a waste land which was left un-used by the irrigation

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department for quite a long time. The land was retrieved through levelling process which was then

processed using Vermicompost and made compatible for farming through NREGA. The progress of

this project and the projects in line has pushed the demand for Arjun Plants. This has led to setting up

of a plant nursery solely for this purpose. Self Help Groups have a major role to play in the

implementation of such projects.

5.3 Plantation Initiatives

Convergence between NREGA and National Afforestation Programme is mutually beneficial.

Ministry of Environment and Forests has the task of achieving one third of the land area under forest

and tree plantation as envisaged in the National Forest Policy, 1988. Achieving this is a humungous

task because of the amount of man power required. NREGA has the potential to suffice the manpower

requirements. The forest fringe areas and common pool forests can be developed on watershed

approach in a holistic manner. Such an integrated approach will benefit NREGA leading to better

quality, planning and selection of activities capable of generating sustainable employment.

Afforestation has been taken up on large scale in Bundelkhand. Many barren areas bear the fruits of

hard work put in by NREGA workers. Resources for the project are pooled in from three different

sources, i.e. Departmental Budget, State Budget and NREGA.

Forest Programmes have failed in most of the villages visited. The reasons range from lack of

maintenance to low rainfall to the lack of ownership among the villagers.

5.4 The Jatropha Effect

Another interesting convergence that has been taken up in Uttar Pradesh is of Jatropha plantation,

which intends to make use of barren land so that some benefits can be derived from it in the form of

Biodiesel. This Biodiesel obtained from Jatropha is a low cost substitute to conventional diesel and is

almost 95% as efficient as the conventional diesel; Biodiesel emits 30% less CO2 compared to

conventional diesel. Biodiesel thus obtained helps suffice the energy requirement of the nearby

villages. The Gram Panchayat is given the task of identifying the barren land. Land Management

Committee acts as a monitor as well as the evaluator for such projects. Technical support is provided

by BREL while the finance is done by NREGA. However, according to a BDO (Block Development

officer), the project is still on hold because of the fear that promotion of biodiesel would lead to

shortages in food supplies which would in turn prove to be an obstacle in governments effort on /

5.5 The Mentha (mint) Effect

In a few villages in Jalaun district, we found acres of Mentha (Mint) plantation. Mentha is a highly

profitable agricultural alternative and it is usually the elite class who carry out Mentha plantation.

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Mentha cultivation requires a lot of water that has lead to heavy decline in the underground water

table level in these regions causing many wells to have gone dry.

6. Dependence on Common Pool Resources

6.1 Dependence on Common Pool Water Resources

Table 2: Common Pool Water Resources Usage

Source: Through field visit observations

The table above shows the extent of water usage of common pool water resources for various reasons

such as irrigation, livestock rearing, household enterprise and fishing. In most of the villages the

dependence on common pool water resources is high for irrigation and household enterprise in the

surveyed villages. Livestock rearing the dependency varied erratically from villages. While the

dependency on fishing is very low owing to low rainfall and drying up of the water resources in

summer.

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6.2 Dependency of livestock on Common Pool Resources

Table 3: Level of dependency on CPR and Livestock as a source of revenue

Source: Through field visit observations

The above table intends to bring out the dependency of livestock rearing on CPRs; from the table the

yess represents the dependency of livestock rearing on various dimensions like possessing livestock,

collecting fodder, grazing and fodder cultivation. From our study we observed that both in MP and

UP the villages followed a similar trend in possessing livestock. But when it comes to fodder

collection the UP districts are very dependent on CPRs while in MP it is relatively low similar is the

case with grazing. In MP many of the villages we visited were on a higher altitude where the grazing

area was quite low while in UP dependency on CPRs for cultivation was relatively high. Fodder

cultivation followed similar trends in both the states.

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6.3 Dependence on Common Pool Land Resources

Table 4: Dependence of Common Property Land Resources

Source: Through field visit observations

The metrics high, medium and low are taken on a relative basis between each other. The common

pool land resources here are basically categorised into community pastures/ grazing land and village

forests / woodlots. There is another category that includes all the government land and reserve forests

which we have not taken into consideration here. Community pastures/ grazing land and Village

forests/ woodlots are more in the pilot districts of Uttar Pradesh when compared to the pilot districts

of Madhya Pradesh.

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7. Results and Analysis

7.1 Problems faced at all levels

The Implementation of NREGA is a major problem in rejuvenation of CPR in this region. In this

section we will discuss the first hand information collected on the problems of NREGA and its

implementation.

Table 5: A snapshot of the kind of problems faced by the Common Man and the Pradhan/Sarpanch

Source: Through field visit observations Note: Xs denote the presence of the problem in the village it is marked against, Green coloured rows is

intended to highlight the absence of any adversities related to NREGA in the respective villages

We had a discussion with the manager of one of the most prominent banks in India, who wished to

not be quoted. According to him shortage of staff is one of the major bottlenecks faced by the bank

Another bottleneck is dearth of coordination between the work allocation body which is the central

government and the monitoring body which is the Reserve Bank of India (RBI). Issue of ATM cards

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to the Job Card holders is not a viable solution according to the manager since many of the

beneficiaries are illiterates who may not be able to use the ATM. This increases chances of misuse.

APO (Assistant Program Officer) in Talbehat explicitly mentioned that implementation of the

program is being affected by the laid back attitude of the beneficiaries. The government seems to be

too lenient says the APO. According to the APO, local politics also plays a spoilsport sometimes.

APO goes ahead and states that lack of awareness and low literacy levels is a hindrance to the

possibility of sustainable development through NREGA. Some of the clauses like the one that states

that 60% of the total estimated cost to be allocated to labour and 40% to material should be

discontinued as it affect the quality of the project. He, along with the PD office staff, BDO, Madhopur

and many others, were vocal about problems created due to inadequate bank staff, payment delay

caused in the current system and the problems faced due of Neelgais and wild pigs. BDO Madhopur,

however has a unique take on the problems, which ranges from the rate of soil depreciation to the lack

of technical knowhow on part of the technicians, he also spoke about the quality of soil in the region

and said that the soil in this region is fractured, so whenever water comes during rainfall, it also

goes inside faster compared to other type of soil like clay soil etc., hence it is difficult for the water to

go through streams. Lack of inter department coordination and calibration has resulted in the long

term loss of many projects which were expected to give great returns.

7.2 Suggested remedial measures from stakeholders

One of the pradhans suggested that the panchayat heads should be appointed on a fixed salary and

also given incentives like travel allowance etc. This will help in keeping the pradhans away from

indulging in corrupt activities. He also suggested that revision of budget should take less time to get

processed. Scientific analysis before the commencement should be religiously carried out and

awareness be created of the work allowed under NREGA. He felt that Poultry farming needs to be

attached under NREGA as its maintenance cost is low and has the potential to be a sustainable

revenue generating source for the people. Even the pradhans felt the need to change the 60-40 ratio to

at least 50-50. Some also suggested that the no. of workdays be increased from 100 to at least 200.

Suggestions on the lines of assistance in maintaining the plants that have been planted under the

afforestation scheme of NREGA; as maintenance of plants is not an easy affair. He also states that a

rule needs to be passed which mentions compulsory six days of labour per person in order to avoid

half done works. In terms of the organizational convergence in the projects covered under NREGA,

there were two views given, one was to reduce the convergence to as less as possible, the other was to

converge everything under NREGA. Both the views however, will lead to the similar results.

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7. Intertwining NREGA, CPR and Livestock: A Discussion

Proper implementation of NREGA can help rejuvenate Common Pool Resources (CPR) to a major

extent. As we know that one of NREGAs goal is that it acts as a growth engine for sustainable

development of an agricultural economy. This is done through the process of providing employment

on works that address causes of chronic poverty such as drought, deforestation and soil erosion, the

Act seeks to strengthen the natural resource base of rural livelihood and create durable assets in rural

areas. If the scheme is not implemented correctly the purpose of the act is not met. As we visited

many villages, the importance of NREGA on the livelihood became more and more important.

First and foremost, the payment needs to be faster. Speed of payment will directly impact the interest

levels among the potential beneficiaries. In order to make the payment faster, we suggest the

following:

1. Have one Kiosk in each Gram Panchayat. Extra cost incurred will be compensated by more

and more people being satisfied by the payment procedure, resulting in better quality which

will lead to sustainable growth and development.

2. Have a separate NREGA Bank, in each block. This will help in reducing the burden on some

of the other national banks currently responsible for NREGA related payments.

3. Have one person responsible from each panchayat, who looks after the payment related

aspects. This person will help the locals to fill in the form and he will submit the form

himself. This will help only if a separate counter is made for NREGA related transactions in

each bank branch. Separate staff should be appointed by the government, who will be taking

care of NREGA related transactions. This will also help in negating all the troubles caused

due to illiteracy at an administrative level

Secondly, the Labour Material cost allocation ratio should be 50: 50 instead of 60: 40 this will reduce

the problems faced by the authorities while allocating funds for a particular work.

Thirdly, either converge all the schemes under NREGA and call it one or let NREGA be one separate

scheme whose successful implementation does not depend on other schemes. This will help in

increasing the ownership of the work done under NREGA, increased ownership will result in

individuals taking more responsibility. This will improve the overall efficiency and productivity

Fourthly, having regular awareness programmes will help in spreading the awareness about the

various schemes under NREGA, the advantages, the benefits, the facilities to be provided at the work

sites etc. The Pradhan (Panchayat President) should be appointed on salary. This will help reduce

corruption at this level. Poultry farming can be added in the list of schemes as it is low on

maintenance and does not require lot of grazing lands.

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The no. of guaranteed days should increase to 200 in order to meet the requirements of the people

who want to work. Some additional benefits can be given to the Job card holders who have consistent

and appreciable records of work. Moreover the work done should determine the allocation of funds,

not the no. of days worked. This will increase the efficiency levels.

Training should be provided to all the stakeholders of NREGA about the implementation and also the

responsibilities associated with it. Publications in the form of handbooks and also postings on the

internet will help address the problem of unavailability of authentic information which will be

acceptable to all.

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9. References

Chopra, Kanchan and Dasgupta, Poornima (2002) in Policy Implications of Common Pool Resource Knowledge

in India, Tanzania and Zimbabwe.

Marothia, Dinesh K 2002 Introduction and Overview in Marothia, Dinesh K (ed) in Marothia, Dinesh K (ed.)

Institutionalizing Common Pool Resources concept publishers New Delhi.

Singh, Katar (2002) Integrating Common Pool Resources Management with Rural Development Programmes

in Marothia, Dinesh K (ed) Institutionalizing Common Pool Resources concept publishers New Delhi.

Jodha, N.S. (2002) Decline of Rural Commons Role of Population Growth and Public Policies in Marothia,

Dinesh K (ed.) Institutionalizing Common Pool Resources concept publishers New Delhi.

Nadkarni, M V (2002), Commons, Development and the Poor in Marothia, Dinesh K (ed.) Institutionalizing

Common Pool Resources, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

Rai, Parshuram 2010, in Dalits of Bundelkhand: Living with Hunger and Dying of NREGA Mafia, Centre for

Environment and Food Security, Delhi.

Further Readings

Amir, Hasan (1972) in The Kols of Patha, Kitab Mahal, Allahabad.

Deshingkar, Priya and Farrington, John (2006), 'Rural Labour Markets and Migration in South Asia: Evidence

from India and Bangladesh', in World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development,

Overseas Development Institute, London.

Bassi, Nitin and Kumar, M. Dinesh 2010 in NREGA rural water management in India: Improving the welfare

Effects.

Parmarth Swayamsevi Sansthan, in Study and Effects of Mentha Farming in Bundelkhand, Centre for

Contemporary Studies and Research, Lucknow.

Rai, Parshuram 2010, Dalits of Bundelkhand: Living with Hunger and Dying of NREGA Mafia, Centre for

Environment and Food Security, Delhi.

Mahapatra, Richard with Sakhuja, Neha, with Das, Sandip and Singh, Supriya 2008 in The National Rural

Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) Opportunities and Challenges, Centre for Science and

Environment, New Delhi.

Inter Ministerial Central Teams Report on Draught Migration Strategy for Bundelkhand region of Uttar

Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.

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Guidelines on Convergence with NREGA, Department of Rural Development, Ministry of Rural Development,

Government of India.

Agrawal, Arun (2003) in Sustainable Governance of Common-Pool Resources: Context, Method and Politics,

Department of Political Science, McGill University, Montreal, Canada.

Concept Note for Project on Development of Bundelkhand Area (Silvi-Pasture Model of treatment of

forest Land), Forest Department, Government of Madhya Pradesh.

Guest Column by Jha, R with Gaiha, R and Shankar, S, on NREGA: An Employment Mirage.

Websites visited for further reading and data collection

http://www.environmentmagazine.org/Archives/.../July.../ostrom-full.html

http://www.bandacity.com/

http://bhaskargoswami.wordpress.com/2011/03/29/dependence-of-the-poor-on-commons-common-property-

resources-cpr/

http://www.bundelkhand.in/portal/tag/nrega

http://bundelkhandinfo.org/

http://apnabundelkhand.com/

http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/joint-convergence-guideline-nrega-and-programmes-water-

resources

http://www.tikamgarh.nic.in

http://www.chattarpur.nic.in

http://www.jalaun.nic.in

http://www.lalitpur.nic.in