Roles and Responsibilities · 4 Chapter 1: Roles and Responsibilities Ensure all necessary...

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Roles and Responsibilities

Chapter 1

Chapter 1: Roles and Responsibilities

2 Chapter 1: Roles and Responsibilities

33Chapter 1: Roles and Responsibilities

Role of Ground Search Team Leader

The Ground Search Team Leader (GSTL) plays a critical role in a Search and Rescue response. While SAR Management oversees operations from the Incident Command Post, the GSTL is in the field with a team of searchers, ensuring that the mission/assignment is carried out appropriately. The SAR Glossary offers the following definitions:

SAR Team: ■ A SAR team is a number of volunteers (usually 2-7) that are sent out in the field on a specific mission during a SAR Response and operate under the direction of a team leader.SAR Team Leader: ■ The leader of a set number of SAR resources of the same kind and type, which have an established minimum number of personnel (e.g. ground search teams, rope rescue teams, avalanche rescue teams, etc.).

These definitions are applied specifically to the GSTL role as follows:Ground Search Team: ■ A SAR team sent out in the field on a specific mission/assignment during a ground search response and operating under the direction of a Ground Search Team Leader.Ground Search Team Leader: ■ The SAR team leader of a ground search team.

Authority and Accountability

By accepting the role of team leader, the GSTL receives not only the authority to direct a search team, but also accountability for the actions and conduct of the team. It is important, therefore, that the GSTL generates a safe, cooperative, and cohesive team environment in order to maximize effectiveness of the response. The responsibility and personal accountability of individual team members should also be emphasized by instilling the first priority of the British Columbia Emergency Response Management System (BCERMS), to “provide for the safety and health of all responders.”

The GSTL is the eyes and ears of SAR Management in the field.

Responsibilities

The primary responsibilities of a GSTL are to plan, organize, lead, supervise, execute, debrief, and report on a ground search team mission/assignment. Specific GSTL duties include, but are not limited to, those that are listed below, which will be described in greater detail throughout this course.

Prepare a written plan for executing a ground search team mission/assignment ■and brief team members Allocate appropriate personnel and equipment ■Assign an Assistant Team Leader, as required, and delegate appropriate duties ■


Ensure all necessary Logistics for team deployment ■Supplies -Team equipment -Special equipment -Team transport -Assess need and submit request for specialized resources -

Monitor and maintain safety, health and well-being of team members in the ■field as a SAR supervisor, as defined in the SAR Safety Program Guide, [See Appendix C] e.g.

Rest, water/food intake -Equipment/load inspection -Foot inspection -Appropriate level of clothing in relation to the physical activity -Pace of march – move as fast as the slowest person (maintain team -integrity)Safe transport -Hypo and hyperthermia -Understanding of the Public Safety Lifeline Volunteers Safety Policy, [See -Appendix C] and the SAR Safety Program GuideCritical incident stress -Ensure team follows the BCERMS priority for the safety and health of all -responders

Maintain situational awareness ■Monitor, anticipate and react to changing situations (e.g. weather, injuries, -wildlife alert, new information)Assess and manage risk (i.e. do not expose team to unreasonable risk) -Be aware of activities of team members -Be aware of activities of other teams -Maintain overview of search status -Delegate tasks; keep “hands in pockets” -

Monitor and evaluate individual and team performance throughout the ■mission/assignment

Guide and support team members during mission/assignment -Assign tasks fairly and coach team members, as required -Lead by example -Treat members with respect -Communicate clear expectations -Keep members fully briefed -Correct, discipline or reassign team members as necessary -Provide timely recognition and feedback on performance -


Follow approved PEP, police, and other requesting agencies’ procedures and ■protocols, including

Dealing with fatalities -Evidence searches -Clue protection -Legal responsibilities -

Approve methods before team members perform individual tasks ■Navigate the team safely to and from search site, through the search site, and ■to alternate locationsEnsure appropriate communications protocols are followed ■

With Incident Command Post (ICP) -Within team -Ground to air -

In accordance with the helicopter operational guidelines in the ■ SAR Safety Program Guide, and under the direction of the helicopter pilot, manage team during helicopter operations

Select suitable helicopter landing sites -Vector/signal helicopter -Supervise approach, entry, and exit of helicopter, including stowing of gear -and hazardous material (i.e. flares, bear spray)Supervise loading of patient/litter into and out of helicopter -Personally handle all communications with the pilot -

Ensure the safety, health and well-being of subject during transport is ■maintainedManage media, witnesses or family members encountered in the field ■

Follow ICP protocol for communicating with media, witnesses or family -(e.g. refer to ICP for approved information and/or designated Information Officer or interview personnel)Monitor and control family/friends, if assigned to search team -

Initiate, maintain, complete and submit all required documentation ■Briefings -Team roster -Search log -Forms (e.g. ICS204, ICS204A) -Debriefing notes -

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Knowledge, Skills and AbilitiesThe ideal GSTL brings a broad range of skills, training, and experience to the role, including the following:

Successful completion of GSAR training and sufficient experience through ■operations and exercisesMaintains currency in GSAR skills and procedures ■Successful completion of GSTL training and evaluation through the Justice ■Institute of BC [equivalent training/experience may, in whole or in part, be recognized at the discretion of PEP staff]Physically and mentally capable of performing all required tasks ■Good communication, leadership and organizational skills ■Ability to prioritize ■Ability to delegate effectively ■Ability to plan quickly and effectively ■Ability to remain calm under pressure ■Ability to deliver effective written and verbal reports ■Strong GSAR skills, particularly in navigation, search techniques, and subject ■transportSupervisory experience preferred ■

In SAR responses, communication is a critical factor that can significantly impact the success of a mission. It is essential for a GSTL to possess competent written and verbal skills. Writing skills are primarily required for briefings, debriefings, and recording notes, while verbal communication is a continuous and ongoing element of the team leader role.

Assigning an Assistant Team Leader

There are many reasons to assign an Assistant Team Leader (ATL). Even when the mission/assignment can be easily managed by the team leader, designating a team member to act as “second in command”, prior to deployment of the team, is an excellent precaution to ensure continuity of leadership in case of mishap or other unexpected situations. It also provides an opportunity for the ATL to gain experience in a supervisory role.

When a GSTL from the local SAR group is leading a mixed team of local and mutual support volunteers, it is considered good practice to assign an ATL from the mutual support team to help promote team integration and cohesiveness.

Utilizing an ATL saves valuable time by allowing for concurrent activity; while the team leader is preparing the team briefing, the ATL can be attending to such things as:

Identifying specialized skills and qualifications of team members (e.g. First ■aid, navigation, radio communications)



Ensuring required equipment and supplies are obtained and distributed (e.g. ■food, clothing, water and equipment for both the team members and the subject)Performing pack and equipment checks with team members ■Making necessary arrangements through Logistics (e.g. transportation to ■search site, food, or refreshments on return to base, etc.)Documenting (logging) information and search activities on the ICS 204 ■(Team Assignment Sheet) throughout the mission/assignment

The ATL can also support the team leader with personal preparations, as needed, and ensure he/she is, along with the rest of the team, fully equipped and ready to move.

When delegating tasks to an ATL, it is important to remember that the responsibility still remains with the GSTL, so it would be prudent to check periodically to ensure assigned tasks are completed.

GSTL Role - Lessons Learned

After years of search experience, there are three lessons that appear repeatedly in SAR debriefs:

“Winging it”: Making a conscious decision to forego any formal planning or ■organizing, or being directed to do so by SAR Management, can substantially increase the risks to safety and potential for wasted resources. While training and experience may partially compensate for a lack of planning, it is always preferable to conduct a critical briefing before deployment.Inadequate planning: Taking the time to fully prepare the team and provide a ■detailed briefing, wherever possible, will help avoid situations in the field, such as insufficient information, equipment, or supplies, that can not only waste time, but could possibly affect the safety of team members or subjects.Lack of situational awareness: Forgetting to step back from completing ■detailed tasks—“keeping your hands in your pockets” —can result in a team leader missing important situations affecting the search.

Role of Ground Search Team in Incident Command System (ICS)

Emergency management organizations in British Columbia have adopted an operational model known as BC Emergency Response Management System (BCERMS), which is based on the Incident Command System (ICS).

In addition to providing a standard emergency management model, BCERMS has also established overall response goals which are, in order of priority, to:

Provide for the safety and health of all responders1. Save lives2. Reduce suffering3.

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Protect public health4. Protect government infrastructure5. Protect property6. Protect the environment7. Reduce economic and social losses8.

In alignment with BCERMS, Search and Rescue operations also use an ICS-based organizational structure, and the role of the ground search team is well-defined within this model.

Overview of ICS for SAR

The purpose of this section is to provide an overview of how ICS is applied to SAR operations. ICS charts will demonstrate where the ground search team fits into the overall structure of both a SAR response, and within a local authority emergency management model.

ICS Features

To better comprehend and work within the ICS structure, GSTLs are required to take ICS 100 training. A reminder of some key features of ICS is provided below:

Modular Organizational Structure: ■The ICS structure delineates the chain of command, or lines of authority, within five basic sections—Command, Operations, Planning, Logistics and Finance/Administration—with specific pre-identified subsections activated as required. Single or Unified Command Structure: ■ICS allows for two possible Command structures. SAR uses Unified Command, consisting of a representative from the requesting agency with jurisdictional authority (SAR Commander), and the SAR Manager who manages the operational component. These roles are described in more detail later in this Chapter.Management by Objectives: ■Within the ICS framework, all incidents are managed by the establishment of objectives that are clearly communicated to all involved parties.Common Terminology: ■Organizations using ICS also share common terminology, enabling individuals from various participating organizations to work together without confusion about roles or responsibilities.Expandability and Contractibility: ■When using ICS, only those positions and sections that are required for the response are activated. Command is the only position that must always be activated.Unity of Command: ■This refers to the concept by which each person within an organization reports to one, and only one, designated person.



Span of Control: ■This concept ensures that the number of people or organizational elements reporting to any one person remains manageable. Under ICS, the optimal span of control is a ratio of 1:5 (i.e. one supervisor to five reporting elements) with the maximum span being 1:7.

For a more comprehensive understanding of ICS, GSTLs are required to complete ICS 100 (available online from the Justice Institute of BC, or through self-study manuals available from PEP Regional Offices). Completion of ICS 200 is recommended.

ICS Organizational StructuresThe typical SAR response will often involve activation of only a few of the potential ICS positions, as shown below:

Comms Operator

Rescue Team(s)

Ground SearchTeam(s)

INCIDENT COMMAND

SAR Commander SAR Manager(Police)

Operations Section Chief

Figure 1-1: Typical SAR response


In a larger or more complex response, a fully expanded organizational structure may be required:

Safety Officer

Liaison Officer

Information Officer

Deputy SAR Manager

Staging Area (s)Comms Operator Interview & Investigate

Incident Status

Resource Status

Brief / Debrief

Demobilization

Documentation

Service Director

Check-in/out

Medical

Food & Shelter

Support Director

Facilities

Supplies

Transport

Security

Procurement

Task Claims

Operation Expenses

Air DirectorGround Director

Heli Coordinator

Heli Base Manager

Fixed Wing Coordinator

Rescue

Rescue Team (s)

Search

Dog Team(s)

Ground Search Team(s)

INCIDENT COMMAND

Water Director

Boat Coxwain

Boat Coxwain

Boat Coxwain

Boat Coxwain

SAR Commander SAR ManagerPolice


Planning Section Chief

Logistics Section Chief

Admin/Finance Section Chief

Commun.

Tracker (s)

Figure 1-2: Large SAR response

SAR assistance may also be requested for incidents outside what is considered a normal ground search and rescue operation, for instance to deliver evacuation notices during a disaster response, perform a shoreline search for the Coast Guard during a missing vessel search, or search a valley for a missing plane in support of an air search. Local authorities or other agencies involved in the response may request assistance from local SAR groups.

In such situations, SAR personnel may be incorporated into the ICS-based emergency response structure of the local authority or agency, with SAR involvement falling under the Operations Section, most likely at the Strike Team or Task Force levels, which are described in the SAR Glossary and in ICS 100. This reporting structure does not normally have a significant impact on the GSTL, who will still report to a SAR Manager.


An example of a local authority or agency structure is shown below:

Safety Officer

Liaison Officer

Information Officer

Staging Areas

INCIDENT COMMAND

Incident Command


Planning Section Chief

Logistics Section Chief

Admin/Finance Section Chief

Branch Coordinator

Divisions & Groups

Strike Teams

Task Forces

Single Resources

SAR Manager

Team Leader

Team Leader

Team Leader

Team Leader

or

Figure 1-3: SAR in a Local Authority response

Lines of Authority

The lines of authority, or “chain of command”, are clearly demonstrated in the ICS org charts. The GSTL always reports upwards to the closest function on the org chart that has been activated for the current response. For instance, in a large SAR response where the Ground Director is activated, the GSTL would report to that position; in a smaller, more typical SAR response, the GSTL may be reporting directly to the SAR Manager, or if the reporting responsibility has been delegated, possibly to the Operations Chief , Planning Chief, or other Command Staff.

While the lines of authority demonstrate the prescribed path for reporting channels, they are not meant to limit other communications that are operationally required. For instance, at the direction of SAR Management, the GSTL regularly interacts directly with other functions, such as Logistics and the Radio Communications Operator. However, SAR Management should be kept aware of any communications outside the usual reporting structure, which often occur by cell phone or satellite phone, that are pertinent to the response activities; proper documentation can help ensure this occurs.


Unified Command

The ICS feature of Unified Command refers to the concept that agencies with jurisdictional responsibility for the incident, either geographical or functional, should establish a common set of incident objectives, strategies, and action plans. This is accomplished without abdicating agency authority, responsibility, or accountability.

During SAR operations in British Columbia, Unified Command means that the Incident Command function consists of a SAR Manager plus a SAR Commander representing the authorized agency requesting the SAR response (e.g. Police, BCAS, Coroner, or Parks Canada).

Roles and Responsibilities of SAR Commander

The SAR Commander is the person designated by the requesting authority with jurisdiction to oversee and direct the operation on behalf of the agency. For the typical response, the SAR Commander would be a police officer; in a National Park, where Parks Canada has jurisdiction, the SAR Commander would be a Park Warden.

While it is generally anticipated that the SAR Commander would be physically on-site at the Incident Command Post, there may be situations where he/she feels it is appropriate to delegate some responsibilities; however, as the agency representative, the SAR Commander still retains authority for the response.

Responsibilities of the SAR Commander include: Commencement of operation ■Extent of operation ■Suspension of operation ■ Investigation of any suspected criminal activity relating to the incident ■Liaison with SAR Manager ■Participating in SAR Management briefings, debriefings, meetings ■Providing additional information regarding the subject that may affect safety ■of SAR personnelAccessing agency resources (i.e. police helicopters, dog teams, etc.) ■Liaison with media and subject’s family ■Management of the Information Officer function ■Providing death notification to next-of-kin, if required ■


Roles and Responsibilities of SAR Management

SAR Management refers to the SAR Manager plus any other activated Command positions and/or Section Chiefs. In accordance with ICS principles, the SAR Manager fulfills the responsibilities of all Management roles on the organization chart that are not activated or otherwise delegated, with the exception of the Information Officer (IO) function, which should be filled by the SAR Commander or a delegate from the requesting agency. There may be occasions when the SAR Commander requests that the SAR Manager either fulfill the function of IO or delegate the duties. If this is the case, there must be a clear understanding of what is expected. Should the role become a distraction to the SAR Manager, the SAR Commander should be notified.

Although the requesting agency has overall responsibility for the response, the SAR Manager is given authority through PEP and the requesting agency to functionally organize the SAR response from start to finish, and ensure that activities are carried out in accordance with established policy and safety standards. In addition, the SAR Manager is responsible for working in consultation with the SAR Commander to ensure that the response is planned, organized, managed, and properly documented.

Other duties of the SAR Manager or delegated SAR Management personnel include:Initiating “call out” of SAR members ■Activating ICS functions required for a response ■Ensuring proper documentation and communication protocols are followed ■Briefing SAR Management Team and team leader(s) ■Developing the Incident Action Plan for each operational period ■Liaise with the SAR Commander and providing updates on search progress ■Updating the PEP Emergency Coordination Centre (ECC) on a regular basis ■Reviewing mission debriefings and modifying overall objectives if necessary ■Coordinating additional resources needed ■Determining strategies and tactics to be used ■Managing the teams in the field ■

Determining Ground Search Team Assignments/Missions

Process

SAR Management personnel—generally the Operations and Planning Chiefs, when activated—are responsible for developing ground search team assignments, or missions, based on the Incident Action Plan objectives.

In most cases, the GSTL is not actively involved in this process. However, there may be occasions when a GSTL has the opportunity to assist in developing assignments/missions; for instance, when the GSTL has local knowledge of the area that is not available at the SAR Management level, or when the management team requests assistance in determining Probability of Area (described later in this chapter).


As GSTLs are responsible for carrying out the assignments/missions, they should have an understanding of some of the considerations that go into this decision-making process. Many of the following tactics and techniques are discussed in GSAR training, and presented in greater detail in the SAR Management course; for the purposes of this course, only a brief overview is provided.

Strategies and Techniques

Key strategies and techniques used by SAR Management in developing assignments/missions include:

Incident Action Plan (IAP): An IAP contains objectives reflecting the overall incident strategy, specific objectives, and supporting actions for each operational period. The initial IAP for a SAR response will often be unwritten—SAR Management generally begins to formulate the plan with the first pieces of information that are received. A more complete, written IAP should ideally be in place before teams are deployed, and revised prior to each new operational period.

Based on the incident information, including subject profile, terrain, and weather, the IAP generally defines the following elements:

Operational Periods ■ Command Structure ■Incident Objectives ■Safety Plan ■Operations Plan ■Communications Plan ■Medical Plan ■

Operational Periods: An operational period is the length of time scheduled for execution of a given set of actions specified in the IAP. Operational periods are 12 hours or less; the first operational period will usually end at 06:00 or 18:00 with 12 hour increments after that.

Response Urgency: Once initial information is received, SAR Management must determine the level of urgency required for the search, based on key survivability factors, such as subject’s age, medical condition, experience, equipment, terrain and known hazards. The Response Urgency Chart shown below provides an effective tool to assist SAR Management with this decision-making process.


RESPONSE URGENCY

The lower the numerical rating of the factor, the higher the relative urgency.

FACTOR RATING

SUBJECT AGE

Very Young 1

Very Old 1

Other 2-3

*

SUBJECT MEDICAL CONDITION

Known or Suspected Injured, Ill or Mental Illness 1-2

Healthy 3

Known Fatality 3

*

NUMBER OF SUBJECTS

One Alone 1

More Than One (Very Young, Very Old) 1-2

More Than One (Unless separation suspected) 2-3

*

SUBJECT EXPERIENCE PROFILE

Not Experienced, Does Not Know Area 1

Not Experienced, Knows Area 1-2

Experienced, Not Familiar With Area 2

Experienced, Knows Area 3

*

WEATHER PROFILE

Past And/Or Existing Hazardous Weather 1

Predicted Hazardous Weather, (8hrs or Less) 1-2

Predicted Hazardous Weather, (More Than 8hrs) 2

No Hazardous Weather Predicted 3

*

EQUIPMENT PROFILE

Inadequate For Environment And Weather 1

Questionable For Environment And Weather 1-2

Adequate For Environment And Weather 3

*

TERRAIN/HAZARDS PROFILE

Known Hazardous Terrain Or Other Hazard 1

Few or No Hazards 2-3

*

Consider Elapsed Time In Response Determination FACTOR TOTAL

* If any of the factors rate as a one (1) regardless of totals, the SAR response may require the highest level of urgency.

RESPONSE DECISION 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

HIGHEST INTERMEDIATE LOWEST URGENCY URGENCY URGENCY

Figure 1-4: Response Urgency Chart


Lost Person Behaviour: An important consideration when determining the search area and appropriate techniques and tactics is the anticipated behaviour of the subject. There has been extensive research and statistical data collected on this topic, including from BC; one of the most useful resources currently available is the book Lost Person Behavior, A search and rescue guide on where to look – for land, air and water (Koester, 2008).

It can be valuable, as part of the planning process, to consider various possible scenarios regarding what may have happened to the subject before looking at the lost person behaviour statistics. The subject may :

be lost or stranded ■be injured or deceased ■have made a deliberate effort to disappear ■have changed plans ■not have clearly communicated his/her intentions or itinerary ■be a victim of a crime ■be unaccounted for as a result of other reasons ■

The police may want to investigate some of these possibilities and discuss others with the SAR Manager. When the most likely scenarios have been identified, careful examination of lost person behaviour statistics will then be a valuable part of the planning process.

The subject profile developed by SAR Management should provide not only the subject’s physical description and other factual information, but also aspects of his or her personality or other characteristics that may influence behaviour or actions in the current situation. The subject’s data can then be compared to statistical information regarding lost person behaviour, and used to assess probable behaviours that could influence search strategies, such as:

Subject movements – ■ for instance, whether the subject is most likely to stay still or continue to move, speed and possible distance traveled, type of terrain he/she may be comfortable moving in, probable direction and incline (uphill or downhill), reactions to weather conditionsSurvivability – ■ subject’s mindset, skills, training, clothing and equipment as well as environmental conditionsSubject cooperation – ■ whether a subject may actively or passively cooperate with searchers in trying to locate him/her, or may be unable or unwilling to cooperate (e.g. a deaf subject during a sound sweep; a child instructed not to respond to strangers)


Search Area Definition: Based on the Initial Planning Point (IPP), SAR Management must define the location, size, and shape of the area to be searched in order to understand the extent and potential challenges of the operation and determine the resources required. As the search progresses, new clues or other factors may warrant revisions to the search area.

There are three methods that are generally used in combination to determine a search area, although at times only one or two may be required. They are:

Theoretical Search Area – ■ defined as the distance that the subject could have traveled, based on travel speed and elapsed time, (range).Statistical Search Area – ■ determined by the use of statistical data that reflects the distances other similar subjects have been found from their Point Last Seen (PLS) or Last Known Position (LKP) given similar conditions. In addition to the standard reference tables of lost person statistics, some SAR groups may also use statistical data collected for their area based upon the local terrain, activities and type of people using the area. Subjective Search Area – ■ involves an evaluation of factors about the specific response and subject, including anticipated lost person behaviour, terrain limitations, equipment, supplies, experience, etc. This includes analysis of the scenario(s) being considered in the planning phase.

Regions and Segments: While initial response searches are frequently undertaken in areas initially believed to have extremely high Probability of Area (as determined by past experience, lost person behaviour, subject profile, etc.), concurrent planning for Type II Sweep searches should be underway, in case those initial response tactics are unsuccessful.

To maximize the effectiveness of limited resources, a process to assist SAR Management in prioritizing the search area has been developed.

The ultimate goal is to break down the search area into manageable sections that can be adequately searched by one field resource (e.g. search team, dog team, etc) within a 4-6 hour period, not including access and exit times.

The first step is to divide the area into regions, which can then, if necessary, be further divided into segments. The boundaries of a region are defined by probable subject behaviour (both physical and psychological), as well as natural boundaries or obstacles (such as fences, trails or watercourses) where there is a higher probability of the subject being on one side rather than the other.

A region that can be searched by a field resource within 4-6 hours is called a segment, and is usually given a single search assignment /mission. Regions that are too large to be searched in that time frame are divided into more segments. With sufficient resources, several segments can be searched simultaneously.


Probability of Area (POA): POA is the probability, expressed as a percentage, that the subject (or a clue) is in a given search area, region, or segment. Once regions and segments have been defined, the next step in the process is to rate the Probability of Area for the regions by using the Modified, Simplified Mattson (MSM) Method.

The MSM Method is a mathematical approach to determine probability of area (POA) for a region by averaging the opinions of several people in order to remove a single person’s bias and arrive at a consensus decision. Each participant assigns to each defined region a value representing the probability that the subject, or a clue, is in that region.

If there is more than one possible scenario, then an MSM is done for each scenario. Evaluators may then choose, by consensus, to address one scenario at a time or merge the different scenarios together.

Evaluators use their knowledge and experience while considering lost person behaviour, subject profile, history, terrain and weather to independently assign values to the regions, just as individual judges at the Olympic games independently assign scores. Valuations are not discussed or shared while going through the process. Values should first be written on a separate piece of paper before being recorded on the MSM form; this way, evaluators are not influenced by the assessments of their colleagues.

The steps for completing the MSM are provided on the form, along with a subjective rating scale, and the formulas for calculating POA. Each participant individually and independently assigns a number to each region/segment representing their estimation of the likelihood that the missing person is in that region/segment. To do this, participants should:

Use their knowledge of the area.1. Ignore the size of regions/segments.2. First determine which region has the highest probability of the subject being 3. there and give this region the highest value that is appropriate, using the rating scale provided.Compare the probability of each of the remaining regions to the first, and 4. assign the most appropriate value to each region/segment.

Once all participants have entered their values for all regions/ segments on the MSM form, each column is sub-totaled, and the sub-totals are then added up and entered as the grand total. POA is calculated by dividing the sub-total of each column by the grand total, and then multiplying by 100. This will give a percentage rating of each region/segment’s POA.

The resulting POAs are used by the SAR Management Team, often in conjunction with an additional calculation for Probability Density (Pden), to determine where and how to apply resources. Pden is determined by considering not only the probability of the subject being in the region, but also the size of the region in relation to that probability. [Note: Pden is presented in more detail in the SAR Management course.]


An example of a completed MSM form is provided below:

SAMPLE

Modified, Simplified Mattson (MSM) Method Use this table to determine probability of area (POA) through consensus.

Two or more knowledgeable people are required.

Step Action 1 Regionalize or segment and label the search area on the planning map. 2 Pass out a separate form to each participant. Using the subjective rating scale in Table 1,

each participant individually and independently assigns a number to each region/segment representing their estimation of the likelihood that the missing person is in that region/segment.

3 Sub-total the scores for each region/segment column. 4 Total the region/segment sub-totals for a grand total. 5 Divide the region/segment sub-totals by the grand total (and multiplies by 100) to yield the

consensus POA %.

Subjective likelihood

Most Unlikely

In

Between

Unlikely In

Between

Neutral In

Between

Likely In

Between

Most Likely

Value 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Table 1. Subjective rating scale values used in Table 2. Task Name: White Mountain Search, 12 yr. Old Child Date: Sept. 27/06

Region Evaluators A B C D E F G H I

Bill 9 5 4 2 1 3 7 3 3

Tracy 8 7 6 1 2 4 6 2 3

Jim 7 9 6 1 2 1 4 6 2

Grand Total (GT)

Sub-totals: 24 + 21 +

16 + 4 + 5 + 8 + 17 + 11 + 8 + + + =

114 Consensus POA

(Rounded) /GT x 100

21 /GT x 100

18 /GT x 100

14 /GT x 100

4 /GT x 100

4 /GT x 100

7 /GT x 100

15 /GT x 100

10 /GT x 100

7 /GT x 100 /GT x 100 /GT x 100

%

Area 3.95

3.15 4.4 3.75

28.4

13.5 7.6 15.7

1

km2

Probability Density (Pden)

POA/Area 5.3 5.8 3.2 1.0 0.2 0.5 2.0 0.6 7.0

%/km2

Calculations for determining probability of area. In this example, region A has the highest POA, followed by B, G, C, H, F & I, E and D.

Figure 1-5: MSM Sample Form


Search Techniques/Tactics: SAR Management determines the most appropriate search techniques and tactics to be applied to the search based on available information and resources. Initial information may be limited to the search area and a basic subject profile, with only a handful of searchers immediately available. As the search progresses, more detailed information will likely be gathered and more searchers will arrive, which may necessitate some adjustments to strategy and tactics.

The various search tactics that can be employed are covered in the GSAR manual. The three types of search—Initial Response (Type I Sweep, including containment and attraction), Open Sweep (Type II), and Closed Sweep (Type III)—will be discussed from the GSTL’s perspective later in this manual.

An important technique currently used to estimate searcher spacing relatively quickly, and that gives a desired POD when more detailed search width experiments have not been done for the vegetation type to be searched in, is Average Maximum Detection Range (AMDR). This is an advancement on critical separation, based on search theory. AMDR will also be explained in greater detail in Chapter 5.

21Chapter 2: Leadership and Supervision

Leadership and Supervision

Chapter 2

2222 Chapter 2: Leadership and Supervision


Overview

Effective leadership is an important component in any organization. The urgency and potential risk associated with search and rescue operations amplifies the critical need to understand and apply good leadership practices at all levels.

For a GSTL, it is also important to be able to provide direct supervision to team members, as necessary. A good supervisor requires more than just technical proficiency; by developing strong supervisory skills, a GSTL can become more effective in coaching and supporting team members through to the successful completion of their missions/assignments.

In this module you will learn how to apply basic leadership principles and supervisory skills to your team leader role to promote an effective and supportive team environment.

What Is Leadership?

There can be many answers to this question, depending on the frame of reference. Most definitions of leadership refer to the ability to affect human behaviour so as to accomplish a mission. Leadership, in the emergency management context, is defined as providing direction, coordination, and motivation toward emergency management goals.

A leader is someone who sets the direction and is able to influence, inspire, and motivate others to follow that direction.

Evolution of Leadership Theory

Theories of leadership have shifted significantly over the past 60 years. Before WWII there were two generally accepted theories on leadership: the Great Man theory and Trait theory. Both theories assumed that leaders were born, not made.

During WWII, leadership theories evolved in response to the urgent need to train large numbers of new leaders. These theories considered not only the traits, but also the behaviours of effective leaders. Since psychological research was indicating that behaviours were primarily learned, the concept that leadership could be taught soon emerged.

Today there are a number of different theories on leadership, each with it’s own benefits and limitations. Two of the most noted theories include the following:

Participative leadership: e.g., Rensis Likert’s leadership styles; Kurt Lewin’s leadership climates

This theory maintains that people who are involved in the decision-making ■process are generally more committed to the necessary actions and outcomes of the decision.


Through research and experiments based on this theory, Lewin identified three styles of leadership which are frequently cited in leadership studies:

Autocratic: Decisions are made by the leader, without consulting the rest of ■the group. Recognized as the least popular style in Lewin’s studies, it can be effective when applied to urgent situations where there is little time for consultation, or where the leader is recognized to be the most knowledgeable person to make the decision.Democratic: Also referred to as “participative”, the leader engages followers ■in the decision-making; however, the final decision remains with the leader. Of Lewin’s three styles, the democratic style is generally recognized as the most effective, and most appreciated by team members.Laissez-Faire: Decisions are left, for the most part, to the group members, ■with little or no direction provided by the leader. Responsibility for the decision may also rest with the group, rather than the leader. Although it may be appropriate to use this “delegative” style with team members that have a high level of expertise in a particular area, it can lead to poorly defined roles and lines of authority.

Situational leadership: e.g., Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership; Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Model; House’s Path-Goal Theory

This theory recognizes that a variety of leadership styles may be required, ■depending on the situation.

For the purposes of this course we will focus on the concept of situational leadership, using the Hersey and Blanchard model.

Situational Leadership

Situational leadership theories presume that different leadership styles will be more effective in different situations. A good leader can adapt his or her leadership style depending on the task and the people involved. For example, working with inexperienced convergent volunteers is very different from leading a team of seasoned, well-trained SAR volunteers; by applying situational leadership principles, the Team Leader will be able to provide the appropriate amount of direction and support to each type of volunteer.

One of the better-known situational leadership models is the one developed by Ken Blanchard and Paul Hersey. (Ken Blanchard later refined the original model; Blanchard’s new model is called Situational Leadership II.). The Blanchard/Hersey model is built upon the combination of two concepts: leadership style and development level.

Leadership Style

Leadership style is influenced by beliefs, values, ethics, knowledge, and skills, and is communicated to the team with every interaction.


Blanchard and Hersey categorize leadership styles into four behavioural types based on the level of direction and support the leader provides:

S1: Telling/Directing: Roles and tasks are clearly defined and specific instructions provided. Decisions are made by the leader and communicated down to the follower. There is a high degree of supervision and communication is primarily one-way.

S2: Selling/Coaching: Roles and tasks are still defined, but the leader seeks ideas and listens to suggestions. With coaching there is less direction, fewer instructions, more explanation of decisions, and more support. The leader is still the decision maker, but there is more two-way communication.

S3: Participating/Supporting: Day-to-day decisions, such as assignments and processes, are passed to the follower. Supporting behaviour involves facilitating and supporting another’s efforts and sharing decision-making responsibility. The leader still takes part in making decisions, but control is with the follower.

S4: Delegating: Control is with the follower. Delegating behaviour involves assigning the task and giving the other person the responsibility for decision-making and problem solving. The leader can still be involved with problem solving and decision-making, but the follower decides how and when the leader will be involved.

Blanchard and Hersey maintain that no single one of these styles is preferable. Rather, effective leaders are flexible enough to adapt their leadership style to the situation.

Development Level

The most effective leadership style in any given situation is the one that best matches the development level of the follower. Blanchard and Hersey defined four development levels based on competency and commitment. Competence is the person’s ability to do the task, and commitment is the motivation and confidence to do it.

D1: Low Competence/High Commitment: Follower lacks the specific skills required, but is eager to learn and willing to take direction.

D2: Some Competence/Low Commitment: Follower has some of the skills, but requires help to complete the job. The situation or task may be new or the follower may feel some disillusionment with task, hence the lack of confidence and motivation.

D3: High Competence/Variable Commitment: Follower is experienced and capable of completing the task, but may lack the confidence and/or motivation to complete it on his or her own.

D4: High Competence/High Commitment: Follower is knowledgeable and experienced and confident in his or her ability. He or she may even be more capable than the leader at the task.

Like leadership styles, development levels are situational. A person could be a D1 in one context with a particular task, and a D4 with another situation and task.


Matching Leadership Style with Development Level

The trick to Situational Leadership is matching leadership style with the development level of the follower. (Note that it is the leader who adapts, not the follower.) Remember that the person’s development level will likely vary by task and will certainly change over time. The leader needs to be flexible enough to adapt his/her style as the situation changes.

Figure 2-1 is a snapshot of how to match leadership style with the development level of team members.

Development LevelD4 D3 D2 D1

S

uppo

rtive

Beh

avio

ur Requires lots of

support but little direction (S3)

Requires lots of support and direction (S2)

Requires little support and little direction (S4)

Requires little support but lots of direction (S1)

Low Task/Directive Behaviour High

Figure 2-1: Matching leadership style with development level D1: Low Competence/High Commitment

When a team member lacks the skills or knowledge to complete a particular task but is keen to take it on, a telling/directing leadership role should be adopted. The team member will require detailed instructions and a high degree of supervision. This style is well-suited to supervising convergent volunteers.

D2: Some Competence/Low Commitment

When a team member is capable, at least to some extent, of completing the task but lacks the confidence or motivation to take it on, a coaching style of leadership is most appropriate. Try to determine why the team member is hesitant—it may be that he or she has the necessary training, but has simply not had an opportunity to practice the skills. This follower will need support and encouragement to build both their skills and their confidence, which may require a little more time than is needed by others on the team.

D3: High Competence/Variable Commitment

When a team member is more than capable of completing the task but is unwilling or unmotivated to do it, the participating/supporting leadership style should be used. In this situation, additional training is probably not necessary, but a great deal of encouragement and support will be needed. Try to determine what his or her motivational barriers are, and take steps to remove them, if possible.

High

Low


D4: High Competence/High CommitmentWhen a team member is highly capable and motivated to complete the task, the dele-gating style can be adopted—leave the person to it and trust that the job will get done. While someone at a D4 level requires less support than someone at a lower level, it’s still important to recognize his or her efforts.

What is Supervision?

There are several definitions for supervision, but they typically refer to the act of overseeing the progress of an activity or task that is being carried out by an individual or group of people, and ensuring the activity is performed correctly.

Due to the nature of SAR operations and their inherent risks, it is necessary that GSTLs not only be proficient in supervising ground search team activities, but also in providing effective team leadership.

Leadership Skills for Team Leaders

Some believe that leadership occurs only at the uppermost levels of an organization. However, current theories recognize a much broader application for leadership skills. This is particularly true in the field of emergency management, where organizations must be able to expand and contract very quickly, and sufficient personnel must be trained and prepared to act in leadership roles on short notice.

Depending on the individual Team Leader’s normal work environment and life experience, the skills discussed in this section may already be part of his/her daily interactions; others may have few opportunities to practice these skills outside of their SAR role. However, just as GSAR skills need to be kept current, leadership skills also benefit from frequent practice. By taking the opportunity to incorporate leadership skills into daily activities wherever possible they will become more natural and instinctive, and more easily implemented during the heightened urgency of a SAR response.

Leading a team of enthusiastic, knowledgeable, and independent SAR volunteers requires significant leadership skills. This section provides an overview of some of the most critical leadership skills. It is recommended that GSTLs also access additional leadership training, such as the Public Safety Lifeline Volunteer Leadership course, to help build the necessary skills.


Temporary Team Environment

Depending on the size of the SAR group and the extent of the operation, the composition of a search team can change with each call-out. In larger responses, the local SAR volunteers may be supplemented with mutual support from other SAR groups, or with convergent volunteers; in prolonged searches, team composition can change from day to day, shift to shift. Even when the individual members are familiar with each other, they may not have previously responded together as a team.

Forging sound working relationships in a constantly changing, temporary environment is a challenging task. Whatever the circumstances, careful attention to group dynamics and the effective application of leadership principles and skills can help overcome the challenges of temporary teams and result in a positive team experience.

Characteristics of an Effective Team

Teams that are able to effectively and consistently carry out their duties generally share some similar characteristics. Because operational SAR teams are often fluid in their composition, it is important to promote and develop these characteristics on an ongoing basis within the SAR group, so they are well established prior to a SAR operation.

Some of the most common characteristics include:Common purpose: team members share mutual goals ■Climate of trust: facilitates relationships within the team, encourages respect, ■promotes camaraderie and an esprit de corpsOpen communication: information is shared, communication is truthful and ■there are no hidden agendasClear roles/clear rules: team members understand and agree with the ■expectations of the organization and established standards of conduct, and perform their roles accordingly; tasks are distributed fairlyCompetence: team members have access to the training and resources ■necessary to perform duties competently; demonstrate a high level of professionalismParticipation: team members are encouraged to participate in team processes, ■decision-making and problem-solvingConflict resolution: processes are in place to work through disagreements; ■team members recognize healthy conflict as an opportunity for growthTeam integrity: team members encourage, support and listen to each other, ■and work to each other’s strengths; individual and team efforts are recognized


Setting Team Climate

There are three principles that Team Leaders should be aware of that can help establish a healthy, productive team climate:

Effective Management: In a crisis, people look for a leader who provides direction, inspires confidence and helps bring structure to a potentially dangerous situation. The GSTL provides this leadership through effective management of both the team and the team mission.

Interaction with Others: Respectful, positive interaction with team members and all others involved in the response is an important factor in establishing a supportive and trustful environment. A Team Leader can earn the trust of the team by demonstrating the following behaviours:

Consistency or predictability—actions should reflect values and goals

Honesty and integrity—if a group learns its leader has been deliberately misleading or untruthful, it can be very difficult to rebuild that trust

Respect—treat team members with respect and courtesy; maintain their privacy and confidential information; give credit where credit is due; and recognize the skills and abilities within the team

Reliability—make and keep commitments; team members needs to know they can rely on their leader

Team Preparedness: The team leader can help avoid unnecessary stress and build confidence among team members by ensuring that they understand what is required of them, and that they have the necessary training, skills, resources and support to perform their tasks. This is a particularly important consideration when the team includes members-in-training (MITs) or convergent volunteers.

Effective Communication

Good leaders generally possess strong interpersonal communication skills. Effective communication involves a number of elements, including body language, written or verbal skills, and listening skills.

Body Language

Body language, or non-verbal behaviours, can communicate volumes – both intentionally and unintentionally. It’s important that the Team Leader be aware of the effect that his/ her body language can have on the message being delivered, as well as paying attention to the non-verbal behaviours of others. Some of the most commonly noted behaviours include:

Facial expressions: May reveal emotions or reactions, such as skepticism, fear, anger or boredom


Gestures: A wave or a shrug may be perceived as dismissive; pointing a finger as accusatory; hands on hips as confrontational, etc

Eye contact: An indication of paying attention, and that both the conversation and the speaker are important

Posture: A relaxed, open posture indicates a willingness to listen

Message Delivery

In emergency management, communication protocols may dictate when and how certain messages are transmitted. For instance, some information, such as briefings and debriefings, normally requires written documentation. The Team Leader is responsible for ensuring any established protocols are followed.

The words that are chosen, and how they are delivered can have a big impact on how a message is received. Whether written or verbal, effective communication is clear and easy to understand. Some basic strategies include:

Keep it simple – use simple language and short sentences; when ■communicating verbally, include enough pauses to give the listener time to process the information.Avoid words that are likely to provoke a negative or defensive reaction – ■consider the emotional impact certain words may have. Be aware of the effect that tone can have on the message, whether it ■is delivered verbally or in writing. This is particularly important in email messages where a perception of unintended “tone” can lead to misinterpretation of the message.Where possible, establish maximum eye contact with team members during ■briefings and when giving individual instructions in the field.Confirm the message is understood; this can be done by occasionally asking ■questions or by instilling a team practice of giving an affirmative response to confirm that directions have been heard and understood (e.g., “Roger that” or “A OK”).Ensure the full attention of team members before giving verbal directions, ■particularly during tense situations, by calling them by name and establishing eye contact.Draft notes for a briefing by wording bullet points in such a way that they will ■trigger a full explanation with as few words as possible. Using a full narrative format is time-consuming and generally unnecessary.


Listening Skills

For effective communication, it is equally as important to be a good listener as it is to be a good speaker or writer. Listening skills should be applied not only to verbal communications, but also to written interactions, such as emails. Active listening skills include:

Verifying the message by paraphrasing the content ■Clarifying the message by asking questions, if necessary ■Summarizing the message by reviewing what has been said ■Validating the importance of the communicator’s thoughts and efforts ■Conveying interest or attention to the message by using encouraging words or ■gestures (ie. nodding)

Decision-Making

How a team leader chooses to make a decision—and whether or not it involves input from the team—usually depends on a number of factors:

Impact the decision will have on the team or the situation ■Resources available ■Time available ■Environment or context ■History of the team ■ Safety concerns, if any ■

A few common decision-making methods are discussed below:

Authority Rule

Decisions made by authority rule are made by the leader. The leader may choose to get input from the team prior to making the decision, but ultimately it is up to the leader.

The authority-rule method is useful when:Time is of the essence ■The decision is for administrative purposes ■Team members do not have the information or skills required to make the ■decision

The disadvantage of using this method is that there may be some resistance to implementing the decision since the team was not involved in the process.

Expert Rule

The expert rule method works well in cases where team members lack the skills or information to make the decision, and therefore, the decision is best left to an expert. The difficulty can be in deciding who has the greater expertise. It’s important for a team leader to recognize that, although they have authority over the team, the most appropriate expert may be another team member.


Disadvantages of the expert rule approach include the possibility that other members of the team may resent the lack of team interaction, or disagree with the expert chosen, resulting in a lack of commitment to implement the decision. There may also be an initial, yet informal, shift of perceived authority from the team leader to the expert.

Average Rule

A team leader using the average rule method polls members of the team individually and then averages the results. This method can work well when there is not enough time to get the entire team together to discuss the issue, or when the decision is routine and commitment to implement it is not necessary. As with the authority rule and expert rule methods, the disadvantage of average rule is the lack of team interaction.

Consensus Rule

With consensus rule, team members work together to arrive at the best decision. This method is effective for two reasons:

It requires that team members consider differences of opinion and use conflict ■management techniques to arrive at a solutionIt results in good-quality decisions for which commitment to implement is ■high

The consensus rule method requires excellent communication and listening skills. It’s important to remember that consensus does not have the same meaning as unanimous. Unanimous means full agreement by everyone involved; consensus means that the group reaches general agreement. Promoting consensus does not require people to “give in.” With a decision reached by consensus, individuals within the team may not agree, but the team as a whole supports the decision.

The drawback to this method is the time and energy required from all team members to make it work. This method should not be used when there is an emergency requiring a quick decision.

In most SAR operations, there will be limited opportunities to use the consensus rule, so building an environment of trust within the team can go a long ways when attempting to implement decisions that are made without optimal team input.


Monitoring Team Performance

The Team Leader is responsible and accountable for performance of the team throughout the response and successful completion of the team mission. For this reason, it is important to maintain a continual awareness and evaluation of the actions of each team member, ensuring that:

The team stays focused on the task ■Search or rescue methods are approved by the Team Leader prior to execution ■Each member fulfills his/her responsibilities ■Appropriate safety protocols are followed ■The mission/assignment is completed ■Mission progress and status is accurately recorded and reported ■

It is equally important, however, to avoid micromanaging the team, and recognize their skills and abilities by delegating appropriate tasks and empowering team members where appropriate. To find this balance, the Team Leader will need to apply a variety of the leadership skills described in this section.

Delegating

Delegation refers to the act of passing responsibility for a task to another person. However, delegation entails much more than simply telling someone else what to do.

Before delegating a task, there are several questions that a Team Leader should consider:

1. What is the task, and is it suitable for delegation?

Determine risks – weight the potential consequences of delegating the task, consequences of failure, safety risks, etc.

2. Why delegate the task?

The GSTL should be able to explain the reasons for delegating. In emergency response, the most common reason would be urgency and time constraints. However, it is also important to use delegation as a tool for succession planning (providing opportunities for advancement), building skills, or recognizing a team member’s advanced skills.

3. What skills, training or qualifications are required to perform the task?

If the task does not require advanced training or skills, consider whether or not it could be suitable for a team member who needs to gain more experience.

4. Who is the most appropriate person to delegate the task to?

In addition to looking for skills and abilities, consider the team member’s developmental level (capability and commitment) as discussed in the “Situational Leadership” section. Factor in the time that may be required for coaching or


support, but also consider the importance of distributing tasks fairly, and providing opportunities for skills improvement.

5. What are the expected outcomes? What needs to be achieved?

Anticipated outcomes must be clear, and communicated to the person being delegated.

6. How will outcomes be measured?

It is important to ensure the person understands how performance of the task will be evaluated before asking for a commitment.

7. What resources are required for the task?

Ensure the person delegated is aware of the status of all necessary resources, and how to access them.

8. What is the deadline for completion of the task?

Clarify any actual deadlines for completion, or reporting periods for monitoring the progress of the task.

9. Who else needs to know about this?

Anyone directly or indirectly affected by the delegation of this duty and any associated person in authority should be made aware. Any delegation of duty must be documented.

10. Who can the person go to for help?

If the person encounters difficulty or questions, ensure that he/she knows who they can go to for assistance.

11. At what point(s) should feedback be offered or requested?

It is important to maintain awareness of how the task is progressing and make any necessary corrections promptly. Let the person know how he/she is doing and provide an opportunity for feedback on completion of the task.

A quick, simple checklist for effective delegation is the SMARTER acronym. Delegated tasks must be:

S ■ pecificM ■ easurableA ■ greedR ■ ealisticT ■ ime-boundE ■ thicalR ■ ecorded

By delegating a task, you are asking the team member to do something that may not be included in his or her usual duties. It’s important to ask what level of authority the


potential delegate feels comfortable being given, and confirm that he/she is willing to accept the delegated duty.

When delegating a task, it is important to also delegate the authority necessary to complete the task, and to give credit where credit is due. However, ultimate accountability for a delegated task remains with the Team Leader.

Coaching and Mentoring

Coaching and mentoring are both important components of good leadership. The difference between the two skills is sometimes blurred. Generally speaking, coaching refers to the act of providing support and encouragement to help a team member build the skills required for specific tasks. Mentoring focuses more on providing a role model and sharing knowledge and skills that will prepare a person for advancement in the organization, particularly in a leadership role. However, both roles share some key characteristics. A coach or mentor should be:

Skilled and knowledgeable ■Willing to share skills and knowledge ■Supportive, positive and non-judgmental ■Honest and sincere ■Good listener ■Effective communicator ■Provides timely, constructive feedback ■Accessible ■

A new GSTL should initially focus on the coaching aspect, ensuring that all team members have the support necessary to improve performance of existing tasks or to develop new skills that are required or beneficial to their current role.

As a GSTL becomes more skilled and experienced, he/she may also be called upon by the SAR group to mentor potential GSTLs, and help prepare them training and evaluation. Mentoring is also a major part of the relationship between a team leader and the ATL.

Giving and Receiving Feedback

Giving and receiving feedback is a great tool for improving the performance of both the team and the GSTL. When used properly, feedback can be a positive form of motivation


Giving Feedback

The ability to provide constructive feedback is an important skill for a leader. Feedback is used to reinforce desirable behaviours, as well as to correct behaviours that are considered negative.

The GSTL should watch for opportunities to recognize the effective actions and proper conduct of individual team members during the mission/assignment, as well as ensuring that positive feedback is included in the team debrief.

When constructive criticism and feedback is necessary, the following guidelines can be helpful:

Describe specific and changeable behaviour: Provide specifics on observable and changeable behaviour. The purpose of feedback is to change behaviour; commenting on behaviour that the person cannot change is counter-productive. Describe facts and avoid judgments, opinions, or interpretations.

Give at an appropriate time and place: Unless the situation poses an immediate risk to health and safety, feedback is generally more effective and relevant if given soon after the behaviour is observed and in the appropriate environment: praise can be given in public, while constructive criticism should always be delivered in private.

Use “I” statements: “I” statements are less accusatory than “you” statements, and can reduce the likelihood of a defensive reaction.

Be respectful: Some people receive feedback better than others. Be sensitive to how the receiver responds to the feedback and allow an opportunity to respond to, and perhaps disagree with, your feedback. After giving feedback, remain available to discuss it further and make an effort to follow up.

Emphasize strengths as well as weaknesses: The “sandwich approach” is a good way to balance feedback. Provide reinforcement to positive behaviour by starting with comments on specific strengths. Then identify the specific areas requiring improvement, making sure to include ways to make changes. Finish with another positive comment.

Check for understanding: Make sure the receiver understands what needs to be changed and how it can be changed.

Don’t dwell: Once feedback has been given, move on. Although it may be necessary to follow up to ensure the behaviour has changed, try not to allow the current situation to colour future interactions with the team member.

During a SAR operation, circumstances may arise where safety or other considerations make it necessary for the Team Leader to provide immediate corrective feedback or, in extreme situations, possibly remove a member from duty. Wherever possible, such action should be carried out privately and discreetly, and in coordination with SAR Management. The Team Leader must fully document the incident, along with any corrective actions taken, and provide a full report to SAR


Management. SAR Management and/or the SAR group are responsible for addressing the need for any formal disciplinary action, in discussion with the PEP Regional Manager.

Receiving Feedback

The ability to receive feedback without reacting defensively is just as important for a leader as being able to give feedback. The following guidelines may be helpful:

Apply listening skills: Use the active listening techniques described earlier in this section to really hear what is being said. Don’t interrupt: concentrate on understanding, not on preparing your response.

Check for understanding: Before responding, confirm what is being said. If necessary, paraphrase or ask questions to clarify meaning.

Be receptive: Be open to new ideas and different opinions. There is often more than one way of doing something.

Acknowledge and reflect: Express appreciation for the feedback, and give proper consideration to the feedback received before deciding if any action is warranted.

Be gracious: Many people find it more difficult to receive positive feedback than constructive feedback. It is just as important to learn to take a compliment, as it is to accept criticism.

Conflict Management

Conflict 1) A state of opposition or hostilities

2) The clashing of opposed principles

3) The opposition of incompatible wishes or needs in a person

(Concise Canadian Oxford Dictionary)

Conflict Management

The principle that not all conflicts can necessarily be resolved, but managing them effectively can decrease the odds of escalation

(The Foundation Coalition)

Conflict is a fact of life. It can occur at work, at home, in the community—wherever there are people there are opportunities for conflict. It can arise over turf, resources, roles, or honest differences of opinion. Some conflicts are much more complex and difficult to resolve than others. Ignoring conflict can lead to anger and resentment; managing conflict effectively can lead to productive solutions.


Responding to Conflict

Conflict is unavoidable. People respond differently when faced with conflict—some want to hide or have it all go away, others become aggressive and want to win, no matter the cost. Whatever the instinctive reaction, it is possible to learn how to effectively manage conflict.

When faced with a conflict there are two fundamental considerations:Personal goals and needs ■Relationship with the other person(s) ■

Choosing how to respond will depend, in part, on the importance placed on personal goals and the significance of the relationship with the other party. If the relationship is of high importance, the approach may be to negotiate, so the conflict can be resolved while maintaining a positive relationship. However, if the relationship isn’t particularly important, personal goals may take precedence, at the expense of the relationship.

Conflict Management Modes

You can manage your response to conflict by consciously choosing your approach to the situation. Thomas and Kilmann identified five conflict response modes: avoidance, competition, accommodation, compromise, and collaboration. These different modes can be placed on a grid based on the level assertiveness and cooperation of the response (Figure 2-2).

Accommodating

Competing Collaborating

Avoiding

Compromising

Assertive

Unassertive

Uncooperative Cooperative

Figure 2-2: Conflict Management Modes


Personal preference and the specific situation will influence the mode used in any particular conflict. Each of these modes is useful at various times. Understanding the different conflict management modes will equip you with a broader range of options when faced with conflict situations.AvoidingThe avoiding mode is the “I’ll think about it tomorrow” or the “No way” mode. This method of handling conflict is low assertiveness and low cooperation, indicating low concern for both personal goals and the relationship. While this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, there are occasions when it is useful. The avoiding mode is appropriate when:

The issue is of low importance ■It’s necessary to reduce tension in the situation ■It’s necessary to buy some time ■The immediate needs of the mission outweigh the need to resolve the conflict ■

CompetingThe competing mode is the “My way or the highway” conflict mode. It is high on assertiveness but low on cooperation—emphasis is on personal goals at the expense of the relationship. The competing mode is useful when:

The situation requires quick action ■An unpopular decision needs to be made ■The issue is of vital importance ■It’s necessary to protect self-interests or safety of others ■

Accommodating

The accommodating mode is also known as the “It would be my pleasure” or the “Your way” mode. This method is low on assertiveness and high on cooperation; therefore, it places more importance on the relationship than on personal goals. An accommodating style of conflict management can be useful when:

It’s necessary to demonstrate reasonableness ■It’s important to create good will ■The goal is to keep the peace ■The issue is of low importance ■

Compromising

Compromising is sometimes seen as the “Let’s make a deal” or “Half way” mode. The compromising mode involves moderate assertiveness and moderate cooperation—essentially balancing personal needs with the importance of the relationship. This mode is useful when:

The issue is of moderate importance ■There are time constraints requiring a temporary solution ■There is a strong personal commitment to resolution ■There is an equal power relationship with the other party ■


Collaborating

The collaborating approach is the “Two heads are better than one”, or “Our way” mode. It is high on both assertiveness and cooperation, putting equally high importance on both personal goals and the relationship. The collaborative mode is often considered the best way to resolve all conflicts; however, it does require a great deal of time and energy. The collaborative mode is useful when:

The issues are too important to compromise ■Attempting to gain commitment ■The situation requires a merging of perspectives ■The conflict is important to those trying to find an integrated solution ■Trying to improve relationships ■

Maintaining Situation Awareness

Situational awareness (SA) is generally defined as the knowledge, comprehension and anticipation of events, factors and variables in a dynamic environment that may affect the safe and effective execution of a mission. In simple terms, SA is the ability to recognize what is currently and continuously happening (i.e. the “big picture”), both within the team and externally, and to understand how information, events, personal actions and other factors can impact goals and objectives, both now and in the near future.

Within the SAR context, situational awareness requires the Team Leader stay alert to:Activities of all team members ■Changing conditions (i.e. terrain, weather, etc) and risk factors ■Progress of mission/assignment ■Status of overall SAR response, as it affects the mission/assignment ■Incoming information (i.e. SAR Management, searchers, witnesses) that may ■affect the mission/assignmentPersonal or team values and beliefs that may affect performance of the ■mission/assignment

Situational awareness is a major, ongoing area of study, particularly in the field of aeronautics, as well as government and military organizations. Studies have identified inadequate SA as one of the primary factors in accidents attributed to human error. Thus, SA is especially important in a work environment, such as SAR, where the information flow can be quite high and poor decisions have the potential for serious consequences.

One of the most challenging responsibilities for a GSTL is to continuously maintain situational awareness throughout the SAR operation. A few factors that can reduce SA include:

Insufficient or excessive information ■Fatigue/stress ■


Workload or span of control issues ■Human factors, such as a risk-taking mind set ■Distractions (e.g. performing tasks that divert attention away from ■supervising)

It is important that the GSTL be vigilant in avoiding or mitigating these negative factors as soon as they become apparent. Some issues, such as information and workload, may be resolved in coordination with SAR Management; other elements require self-awareness and action on the part of the GSTL, such as managing stress by delegating appropriate duties to the ATL or other team members.

One of the most effective strategies for maintaining situational awareness is to refrain from being drawn into the specific tasks of the team by continually stepping back to observe—keeping your “hands in your pockets”.


63Chapter 4: Legal Considerations for Team Leaders

Legal Considerations for Team Leaders

Chapter 4

64 Chapter 4: Legal Considerations for Team Leaders


Liability Protection

All SAR responses or approved training conducted under a PEP Task number include not only WorkSafeBC coverage in case of injury, disability or accidental death, but also liability protection for emergency services workers, as described on the PEP website, including the following excerpts1 :

Civil Liability Protection

The Emergency Program Act Part 4, Section 18 provides exemption from civil liability for persons acting in good faith, both employees and volunteers, when carrying out measures relating to emergencies and disasters and for which the person(s) was not grossly negligent.

General Liability Protection

The Commercial General Liability policy provides coverage both to the Province and to its volunteers. The policy insures both against third party legal liability resulting from claims due to damage to the property of others, and bodily injury or personal injury (libel, slander, etc.) to third parties, accidentally caused, which arise from the authorized duties of the volunteers on behalf of the Province. The limit of liability on the policy is $2 million per occurrence. The policy will also provide a defense and pay related defense costs.

Good Samaritan Act

The BC Government Risk Management Branch advises that as long as the volunteer responder is not receiving pay, or expecting to receive pay, for rendering emergency medical services or aid, they are not “employed expressly for the purpose” of rendering the medical services or aid. They advise that the phrase “employed expressly for the purpose” is interpreted in a manner that gives the word “employed” its ordinary meaning.

In short, the opinion of the Province of BC is that PEP PSL Volunteers, who are not employed expressly for the purpose of rendering medical services or aid, are covered by the Good Samaritan Act.

Summary of Liability Coverage for Volunteers in Respect of Medical Acts (performed under a PEP task number):

A ■ volunteer who is not a medical professional but is administering first aid within the limitations of his/her training or knowledge is:

Covered under the Commercial General Liability Policy -Exempt from civil liability under the Emergency Program Act provided -they are acting in good faith and are not grossly negligent, and

1 Excerpts taken from: Provincial Emergency Program, Public Safety Lifeline Volunteers. Public Safety Lifeline Volunteers Injury, Disability, Accidental Death, Liability and General Insurance Coverage (2008). Retrieved from website December 1, 2008: http://pep.bc.ca/volunteer/volunteer.html.


Exempt from liability under the Good Samaritan Act -A ■ volunteer who is a medical professional and does render medical treatment is:

Not covered under the Commercial General Liability Policy -Exempt from civil liability under the Emergency Program Act provided -they are acting in good faith and are not grossly negligent, andMay be exempt from liability under the Good Samaritan Act subject to -an interpretation of the term “employed expressly for the purpose” as it pertained to the circumstances at the time of the incident that gave rise to the claim.

Exceptions from Civil Liability Protection

Neither the liability insurance provided by the province nor the exemption from civil liability provided under the Emergency Program Act extend to liability incurred outside of a PEP approved task. Volunteer societies are encouraged to ensure that they have both appropriate and adequate insurance coverage to protect the society, its assets and its members and directors.

Where there is any question of coverage for an activity, team leaders should ask the necessary questions to determine the level of protection being provided for their team members. SAR volunteers should be aware of the standard coverage offered, and discuss any questions or concerns with their SAR group director(s) or PEP Regional Manager.

GSTL Responsibilities as a Supervisor

As SAR supervisors, GSTLs have some responsibilities for the safety of team members; it is important that these responsibilities are understood to alleviate potential legal implications under WorkSafeBC and federal legislation regarding worker (volunteer) care. The roles and responsibilities of all parties are outlined in the Public Safety Lifeline Safety Program and the SAR Safety Program Guide available on the PEP website (www.pep.bc.ca). See Chapter 3 of this manual for excerpts on roles and responsibilities from these documents.

Duty to Report Abuse

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, to which Canada is a signatory, requires everyone to provide special protection and assistance to children to enable them to reach their full potential as adults. While parents are primarily responsible for ensuring a child’s rights are upheld, government and community also have an important role to play in protecting children.

SAR volunteers who, during a SAR operation, think a child is being abused or neglected have the legal duty to report the concern to the police and/or the local child welfare worker. This should be done through the SAR Commander at the ICP.


Importance of Documentation

In terms of risk management and legal protection, accurate and complete record keeping is essential at all levels of a SAR response. Any documentation from a SAR response, including logs and personal notebooks, may be considered components in the “chain of evidence” and can become a part of a police or coroner investigation, or be used as evidence in a civil case.

The importance of good documentation by the GSTL goes beyond providing a permanent legal record; it can also provide SAR Management with useful information that may be applied both during and after the response for activities such as:

Ongoing planning ■Information for briefings ■Support of a police investigation ■ Review of previous search prior to reactivation ■Clarification/confirmation of SAR Management records ■Performance evaluation ■Future pre-plan development ■Updates of area maps ■Identifying training needs ■Statistical analysis ■

GSTL Role in Documentation

SAR Management relies on the GSTL to maintain some key operational information during a SAR response. On completion of a team mission, team leaders are responsible for ensuring all related reports and documentation are provided, or copied, to their immediate supervisor or other SAR Management personnel designated to collect and safeguard records of the response.

ICS Forms

A set of ICS forms has been developed specifically for use in SAR responses to help standardize most command and control aspects of a SAR response and promote consistent and complete documentation. This standardized method for documenting SAR responses also allows SAR Management to work more effectively with other ICS-based agencies, and ensure no important steps are missed.

Some of the ICS forms most commonly used or completed by the GSTL include:Team Assignment Sheet ■ — ICS 204 The GSTL should be provided with a copy of the ICS 204 as part of the mission/assignment briefing by SAR Management. The information on this form is used as the basis for a more detailed team briefing prior to being deployed, and will often include copies of the following:

Map -Subject Profile - ICS 301, or Lost Person Questionnaire (ICS302) -


Assignment Debriefing – ICS 204 (page 2) ■ the second page of the ICS 204 is used by the GSTL to document debriefing information for SAR Management. Information recorded includes search activities and observations noted throughout the mission, as well as the debriefing information gathered from team members on completion of the mission. This debriefing form often serves as the official log for the GSAR team, in the absence of a Unit Log.Track Report – ICS 204T ■generally used by trackers, but may also be used by the GSTL to record observations in the field.Unit Log – ICS 214 ■this form may be used by GSTLs to record team activities in the field. Alternatively, the team leader’s notebook can be used to record this information.Urban Search Log – ICS 216 ■This is a log for field teams to record observations on specific residences when canvassing during an urban search

Keeping a Notebook

While the standardized ICS and PEP forms developed for SAR activities are essential pieces of the formal documentation process, the team leader’s notes are equally important as they document the details of activities and decisions in the field.

It is important to make notes throughout the mission rather than relying on memory to make entries after the fact, as this could lead to critical errors or omissions. The GSTL is responsible for this duty, although it may be delegated to a recorder, if necessary.

Pocket notebooks with waterproof paper (available through drafting supply stores) are recommended. When making entries in the notebook, the following general principles should be applied:

Make entries in dark blue or black ink (for ease of photocopying) ■Date entries and number pages—keep notebook intact ■Enter all significant decisions, requests, observations, and actions, including ■what was done; when, where and by whom it was done; what other resources were used; and how effectively it was done Write clearly and include enough information to ensure notes can be easily ■understood, even if read a year laterMake note of any entries requiring follow-up ■Entries should be factual in nature – do not share personal opinions or views ■Make corrections by crossing out the incorrect information with a single line – ■do not erase, obliterate or remove the page


Custody of Notes

There is no definitive answer to the question of who should maintain custody of the notes taken by a GSTL during a SAR mission/assignment. Policy varies from one SAR group to another; some will take custody of the notes immediately after the SAR operation while others leave them in the custody of the person who created them. Either option is valid, however, for the sake of consistency; each SAR group should establish a policy on how such matters are to be handled within the SAR group.

If notes are collected at the end of the SAR operation to be kept as part of the final documentation, the team leader should keep a copy of those notes in order to maintain a personal record for future reference, if required. Conversely, if the team leader wants to ensure his/her notes are part of the official record, it would be reasonable to keep the original and have a copy added to the documentation file held by the SAR group.

Regardless of which option is chosen, the notes should be retained in a secure location, to avoid breach of confidentiality and protect from theft and fire.


105Chapter 5: Phases of a Ground Search Mission/Assignment

Phase 3 - Executing the Mission / Assignment

GSTL Role in Execution Phase

Once the team arrives at the area of the search mission the GSTL must be ready to implement the search tactics identified in their briefing with SAR Management. During this phase, the team leader will:

Maintain situational awareness ■Keep the team focused on the task ■Maintain safe practices ■Supervise and monitor activities of team members ■Ensure each member does his/her job ■Continually evaluate the situation to anticipate emerging hazards ■Complete the assigned task ■Record and report accurately, including briefing/debriefing notes, team status, ■team roster, team notes

SAR Management is responsible for establishing the most effective search tactics needed for the mission, and the GSTL monitors these tactics. If it appears that alternate methods could produce better coverage results, the GSTL should contact SAR Management with his/her recommendations and discuss the possibility of changing the initial plan. Criteria that may be used to re-evaluate the effectiveness of the search tactic and plan include:

Advantages and disadvantages of continuing with current tactic ■Abilities and special skills of team members ■Terrain ■Search objectives ■Environment ■Time ■

If SAR Management chooses to stay the course, this should not be seen as any reflection on the abilities of the GSTL; it is important to remember that ICP personnel are aware of the larger picture in terms of what is happening in the overall response, and there may be good reason to keep to the original plan.

The three primary categories of search tactics are briefly described below, with more detail available in the GSAR training materials.

Search Tactics

Type 1 Search - Initial Response

An initial response search is a quick search of the high probability areas. Familiarity with the area is a strong asset for team members involved in a Type 1 search. Note that all searching should be oriented to finding clues.

106 Chapter 5: Phases of a Ground Search Mission/Assignment

Tactics and techniques can include:Searching likely (high POA) areas ■Reconnaissance ■Tracking ■Perimeter sign cuts ■Confinement, trail or road blocks ■Attraction ■Track traps ■Search dogs ■Aerial reconnaissance and searching (e.g., FLIR) ■Use of sound: whistles and shouts (use subject’s name or code word if possible) ■Vehicle patrols/road searches ■Trail sweeps ■

The role of the GSTL is to manage the team while conducting the above tactics. A type I sweep usually uses a three-person team; a navigator in the middle and a flanker on either side. The best position for the GSTL is in the middle working as the navigator where the coverage can be monitored and adapted as needed. A flank position is also appropriate when the GSTL is confident in the abilities of the team members, or is training an ATL.

For a Type 1 search, at least one member of the team must be skilled in navigation, as accurate details of the route followed must be given to SAR Management. A trained radio operator is also beneficial. If possible, a trained tracker should be part of the team. The GSTL should ensure that team members with special skills are utilized for maximum efficiency and effectiveness of the search.

With the availability of digital cameras, the reconnaissance of a search area can include digital images showing such factors as vegetation density, terrain, hazards, areas of interest, or views of potential attractions or containment that can be brought back for viewing by SAR Management for use in planning. Photos of footprints can help to distinguish tracks that may have been made by the subject.

The attachment of flagging tape (preferably biodegradable) at regular intervals along the route taken is a common practice. This flagging tape can be of benefit in helping the search team retrace their steps and it tells other searchers that the route has already been followed. A marker or ballpoint pen should be used to write on the flagging tape to provide information to other search teams, such as team number, date, time started, heading, and spacing of the trail sweep At the beginning of the trail, either the point of commencement (POC) or point of termination (POT) should also be put on the tape.


Flagging tape should not be used indiscriminately. However, if a team is returning to search this area at night, sufficient flagging will be required to be able to find it in the dark. Plastic flagging tape will remain where it has been placed for many years, sometimes causing confusion for others who come across it. For instance, there have been cases of hikers coming along later and following old SAR flagging tape thinking it was a trail.

After the search has been completed, the ground search team may be asked to retrace their steps and remove as much of the flagging tape as possible.

Type 2 Search - Open Sweep (Visual)

Setting Track Spacing: Open sweep searching is typified by searchers moving as a coordinated line, sweeping through a search area at fairly wide track spacing. In some cases, searchers may be allowed to deviate from their line of travel to investigate possible areas of attraction or follow the path of least resistance, as a lost subject likely would. The search area should be divided into segments that can be searched by one team in 4-6 hours. In some searches, SAR Management may arrange to have segment boundaries and searcher starting positions marked with flagging tape before the team is positioned to save time.

Research continues on establishing an effective sweep width value for a given vegetation type (eco region) through conducting experiments in each eco region. While further information is collected and analysed, values for sweep widths are best determined from Average Maximum Detection Range (AMDR).

AMDR is a means of estimating a value that measures searcher effectiveness in a given environment when no scientific data has been collected for effective sweep width in that environment. SAR Management uses this value, in planning, to calculate how well a segment will be searched at different track spacings. The track spacing determined for searchers may be more or less than AMDR, depending on what Coverage SAR Management would like to achieve, given the current distribution of POA among segments, size of segments, number of available searchers, as well as other considerations.

AMDR has replaced critical separation as the preferred method when a test for visual Effective Sweep Width has not been done for the specific terrain or vegetation conditions experienced. AMDR is especially valuable as it can be done for the particular object being sought in the actual environment and conditions of the search, encompassing search factors such as vegetation, terrain, weather, search object (facsimile), and searcher.

SAR Management will normally apply their knowledge of search theory to select the track spacing of searchers based on the technique, subject category, subject visibility, the terrain type, vegetation density and the personnel and equipment available.


GSTLs may be asked to provide their input during this process, and possibly conduct an AMDR test in the field.

The person conducting the AMDR test must know the length of their pace so that the number of paces can be used as a measurement and converted to metres – something every searcher should know. This can be done by marking out a 100m line on typical ground and then dividing 100 by the number of paces it takes to travel 100m. (Note that the length of a pace when compared to flat ground will be different if travelling up-hill, downhill or while carrying a pack.) The ground used to make such a measurement should be indicative of the search area.

A hip chain, such as this, can be used to measure each leg more accurately, though it may take a bit more time to set up and use.

A laser range finder can also be used for determining the length of each leg, if available. A GPS receiver does not offer sufficient accuracy for the AMDR test.

Conducting an AMDR Test: Start by finding a location with vegetation and terrain typical of the search area.

Place an object on the ground similar to that being sought, i.e. have a searcher 1. in similar clothing lie down. Walk away from the object in a straight line, counting the number of paces 2. travelled (leg #1, diagram on next page). Look behind at regular intervals while moving until the object is no longer visible. Record the number of paces to that point. That is the detection range for that leg.Continue on the same path to ensure the next leg will start beyond the 3. detection range, continuing to count paces. (The extra distance travelled will depend upon the local environment.) Turn 90° and walk the same number of paces travelled to this point. This will put you at a 45° angle from the first leg. Walk toward the object (a compass may be useful here as the object should 4. not be initially visible). As soon as the object becomes visible begin counting paces as you approach the object (leg#2, diagram on next page). Record the number of paces for this leg.Turn onto a course 90° to leg #1 and walk away from the object. Repeat as 5. step #2.Repeat the steps above for 8 legs, 45° apart. Retrieve the object upon 6. completion.

With the length of 8 legs recorded, convert to metres and then determine the Average Maximum Detection Range.


It can also be valuable to record the coordinates of the location of the test, as shown in the example below.

AMDR TEST # 1

DATE: 060709 TIME: 0930 LOCATION: West Valley Leg

OBJECT TYPE: Person size, high visibility 1 38 mTERRAIN

TYPE: Valley bottom 2 42 m

ELEVATION: ~300m 3 37 mFOREST COVER: Coniferous, old growth, summer 4 34 m

CLOUD COVER: Light overcast 5 38 m

Nil 6 32 m

COORDS: 52° 12’ 10”N, 125° 45’ 55” 7 39 mECOREGION: M242 8 28 m

AMDR 36 m

Figure 5-5: An example of data recorded for an AMDR test.

Test Search ObjectMeasured DistanceRoute travelled between measured legs

Maximum detection point, walking away from object Maximum detection point, walking toward object

Figure 5-6: Determining Average Maximum Detection Range for one object, eight data samples.


Figure 5-7: The results are averaged to determine the Average Maximum Detection Range

The GSTL may be asked to perform several tests in the sample area so SAR Management can average the results in order to get a more accurate value.

Using AMDR to Calculate Track Spacing: In most SAR missions, SAR Management will assign the GSTL a specific track spacing to be used in the search segment. Alternatively, if the SAR Manager does not know the terrain/vegetation type in the search segment, the GSTL will be requested to conduct an AMDR test at the search site. The resulting AMDR is then communicated back to SAR Management who will determine which track spacing to use based on the AMDR. This assigned track spacing may be more, less, or equal to the AMDR and will be communicated to the SAR team. In the situation that track spacing has not been provided, and communications between SAR Management and the search team are not available, the GSTL can use the AMDR to determine what track spacing they will use.

Safety Reminder:Where radio communications between the ICP and the SAR Team are unreliable, volunteer safety requires an alternative means of alerting, such as a Personal Locator Beacon.

AMDR is calculated in the field as described earlier. Within the full range of what the searcher can possibly see, the far edge of that range has a very low probability of detection (POD) and, depending on track spacing, will overlap to varying degrees with the neighbouring searcher’s range. Different track spacings give different coverages and therefore different PODs.

In the situation where communication with SAR Management is not possible, it is recommended that the GSTL space searchers at 1 x AMDR. At that spacing, the area actually searched by the SAR team will have been searched to a POD of 63%. If the search team has run out of allotted search time but has not completed searching the search segment, then they need to clearly mark what portion of the segment they


have searched both, in the field with flagging tape and on a map. This will allow for completion of the remaining parts of the segment by other search teams.

It is important to remember that the actual AMDR distance will vary according to the nature and type of the terrain; it could be 5m or less in bushy terrain or 20m or more in more open terrain. In a case where the terrain begins to change significantly in the midst of a sweep, it may be necessary to recalculate AMDR and then adjust searcher spacing accordingly. It is critical to ensure that the location of any changes be recorded, and the team continues to flag its boundaries. These adjustments, along with your boundary locations (including area covered), must be reported to SAR Management as part of your Assignment Debriefing report (ICS204).

Performing the Sweep: Visual sweeps depend on the eyes of the searcher to find clues, sign, or the subject. Both visual and sound attraction techniques can be combined. Visual sweeps will only be effective if it is suspected that the subject would not or could not respond to sound, the search area is small, the vegetation is relatively thin, and there are enough resources available to conduct such a search. They are also essential where sound may not carry far, such as along streams and rivers.

Visual sweeps require more personnel than a sound sweep to cover the same amount of ground in the same amount of time. Searchers should still call or use whistles at frequent intervals while conducting a visual search in case the subject is responsive.

The role of a GSTL managing a Type II sweep is to monitor the progression of the sweep. It is best to monitor the sweep by following and coordinating the search line, rather than becoming part of the search line—again, a reminder to take a step back from the action and maintain situational awareness. As the GSTL is not a part of the line, they can monitor problem areas and the progression of each of the searchers. The GSTL may be needed to assist a slow moving searcher or to help search a small thick area. Many times a GSTL may have convergent volunteers on their team while conducting this type of sweep, and the GSTL may need to curb their enthusiasm so they do not get ahead of the team.

Type 2 Search - Open Sweep (Sound)

Sound sweeps utilize coordinated sound in combination with wide track spacing to cover large search areas for a responsive subject. A sound sweep must not be confused with a visual sweep using sound attraction techniques. Visual sweeps using sound attraction techniques have either an assigned spacing or one set using AMDR. Added to the sweep is the calling out to the subject, using whistle blasts at irregular intervals. Sound sweep spacing is set by scientific data using whistle blasts at regular intervals; although the searcher is visually searching, the focus is on a response to sound.

A sound sweep should be implemented immediately if the initial response searches have been unsuccessful. It should be initiated within the first two days of a search when the subject is most likely able to respond.


Considering that only trained searchers are usually used for this technique, managing the team should mostly consist of set up and movement through the search area; set up is probably the most critical. It is crucial that the GSTL ensure that all team members are on the right bearing and know exactly where they will end their sweep. Managing the team as they move through the search area can only be done by radio between prompts. Clear instructions to the team members as to what they are to do will help to ensure they search the area and end up where they are supposed to.

There are two schools of thoughts on where the GSTL fits in to the line on sound sweep, each with its own merits. One supports putting the GSTL at the end of the line to ensure that the placement of the team members is correct. The other supports placing the GSTL in the middle so they can move more easily to a searcher’s location if clues are found. If an ATL has been assigned, then he/she should be placed at or near the end, while the GSTL takes a position somewhere in the middle.

To conduct a sound sweep, all searchers must have a whistle, radio and compass. Prompts for whistle blasts are usually provided by radio to all searchers. The searchers either follow a compass bearing or a direction (e.g., uphill, downhill) in a sweep line.

Track spacing varies depending on the desired coverage and the search conditions (e.g., vegetation density, prevalence of background noise such as rain and creeks, etc.). When planning the search, SAR Management will often use tables that have been prepared for some specific geographic and climatic conditions.

Radios are usually used to coordinate whistle blasts during a sound sweep. All searchers are required to produce one whistle blast in unison every one to two minutes, depending on the search conditions. To coordinate each blast, the base radio will say “3,2,1, BLAST”. The searchers stand and listen for 5 seconds for any response before continuing. This is repeated until the search area has been covered.

Searchers need to remember that the movement of their jackets can create enough noise to block out a quiet or weak response from a subject. After the whistle blast, when the searcher removes their fingers from their ears, they need to limit the amount of noise they create.

Note that sound sweeps only work with responsive subjects. The subject must be able and willing to reply to a sound, and that reply must be detectable by the search team. A subject that is seated or lying down won’t be able to hear at the same range as one standing, nor will their voice carry as far. Finding the subject depends on detecting that reply.

Searchers must be able to hear the reply of the subject in order to find him/her. Be careful not to have searchers spaced so far apart that they are unable to detect a weak reply.


Type 3 Search – Closed Sweep

Some searches will reach a stage where initial response and open sweep searches have been unsuccessful in finding the lost person. A more thorough search of the higher probability areas may be required. This situation will normally result in a closed sweep search being conducted.

Closed sweep searches provide thoroughness at the expense of efficiency, time, and resources. Four conditions should be satisfied in order to use this technique:

The search segment should be a relatively small area (usually less than a ■square kilometer)There seems to be a high probability of either finding the subject or finding a ■strong clue in the search areaThere should be a large number of trained searchers available who cannot be ■used more effectively elsewhereThe subject is likely hiding, unresponsive or deceased ■

The GSTL should manage this sweep from behind the line. Optimum number of team members will be five to seven; occasionally there will be more if there is a shortage of trained GSTLs. Managing from the rear allows the GSTL to observe team members, while ensuring that the line moves as a unit and identifying where gaps in coverage need to be filled.

Clue Protection

Searchers must always be alert to potential clues as they move within and around the search area. Clues provide vital information on the actions or intentions of a subject; they can be physical evidence left or altered by the subject, “sign” indicating the subject’s passage or a piece of information useful to planners.

Once clues have been found, the GSTL is responsible for ensuring that the continuity of evidence is preserved, location and circumstances surrounding the clue are documented, and the scene where the clue is found is protected, pending arrival of a representative from the local police authority or the coroner’s office; “isolate-protect-record-report”.


Protection of the scene is required for many different circumstances. The most common include:

The Last Known Point (LKP): Protection of the LKP is important because it ■offers such clues as direction of travel, subject preparedness, etc. The LKP should also be protected and marked off to assist the ability of tracking teams and for police investigation purposes.Victim Injury or Death: It is not the responsibility of the GSTL or SAR ■Management to interpret events leading up to a fatality. It will often be necessary to isolate and protect a scene to enable the police authority time to access and examine the site.

Isolating and Marking Clues

If necessary and appropriate, the GSTL must take steps to protect a clue by ensuring the following procedures, as outlined in GSAR training, are properly executed:

Limit access, mark-off a perimeter. Always make the perimeter larger than it ■seems initially necessary—it is much easier to make a larger perimeter smaller than the reverseOne person approaches and accesses the clue—do not pick up or move any ■clues unless absolutely necessaryNotify the ICP ■Collect clue only if it will perish without protection from weather, or at the ■request of SAR Management

If collecting a clue, the chain of evidence must also be preserved, as follows:Map area where found ■Bag it ■Mark on bag ■

What the item appears to be -Task number, date, time, place, your name, and team number -Note who it was given to, as well as when and where it was handed over -

Each team member should keep detailed notes remembering to:Record only facts ■Keep notes continuous ■Notes should be in pen with errors marked with a single line (no erasures or ■obliterations). Only use pencil for documentation if a pen is not available.

The GSTL is responsible for ensuring that potential clues are thoroughly documented, and that SAR Management is advised immediately so they can maintain a clue tracking system (i.e. using the Clue Tracking Sheet - ICS204C). When encountering a potential clue, a complete assessment of its nature, type, condition, and location should be done before reporting it to SAR Management. Clue documentation should include marking the location of the clue on the map of the mission area. As in other matters, the responsibility for record keeping may be delegated to a team member so that the GSTL may maintain situational awareness, or perform other team leader duties.


It is important to not lose track of clues and their details as they may be very valuable to the investigation. In some cases, clues will be investigated and eliminated if they are determined to be not associated with the subject.

Crime Scenes/Evidence Searches

SAR groups may be involved in searches and/or rescues where it becomes apparent that a crime may be involved. Securing crime scenes, gathering evidence and apprehending perpetrators are the responsibility of the police. Whenever a crime scene is known or suspected, it is important for SAR Management to consult with the SAR Commander to discuss hazards and procedures. The SAR Manager may determine that risks at the scene are too high and withdraw members at any time.

If the risks have been weighed, and SAR Management decides to initiate or continue a search, the first priority for team leaders is to continuously monitor for any safety issues that could affect team members. Some additional factors that the GSTL should be aware of when working at a known or potential crime scene are provided below:

Don’t damage or disturb anything unless absolutely necessary as part of an ■effort to provide first aid. If clothing must be removed or cut away during first aid stay away from any existing rips, tears or holes in the clothingMake detailed notes of anything that was moved ■Some drugs, like crystal methamphetamine, can create symptoms in a subject ■that mimic death, including rigor mortisSome drugs and chemicals can be inhaled or absorbed through the skin so ■care should always be taken to protect SAR membersNote and mark entry and exit points for those entering and leaving the scene ■Identify witnesses if possible (Note: members of the public are not obligated to ■identify themselves or cooperate with SAR members)It may be necessary to have someone monitor a scene until the police arrive ■and take controlNever leave any team member alone ■Keep non-essential people away from the scene ■Media may be monitoring radios and may arrive before police ■Some evidence may be too small to see ■Some evidence may be natural to the scene ■The use of a digital camera to record the scene can help the police in their ■investigation

Anything at a scene may become vital evidence in a criminal case. SAR volunteers should make an effort to touch or move as little as possible on the scene. Notes should be taken of what was moved and where it was originally found as well as anything that they brought to the scene. Those providing first aid must be especially aware of their actions and observations on-scene.


The police may ask for a statement from each SAR member who was at the site. It is important that those statements be taken before members have an opportunity to talk amongst themselves, in order to preserve their observations.

The police may also request that information not be divulged publicly. Such information is termed hold back information and is typically very sensitive to the investigation and therefore is highly protected. It is important that SAR members maintain strict adherence to the directions of the investigators regarding hold back information. This includes avoiding discussions regarding their observations or specific involvement in an incident with their family, friends, co-workers and even other SAR members. Such information is to be held in the strictest confidence.

Managing Resources

In the planning process, SAR Management is responsible for identifying the most appropriate resources to apply to the search, based on current conditions, knowledge of the terrain and the specific circumstances of the search being undertaken. However, once in the field, the GSTL may find that conditions are not as expected, or change as the search progresses, and resource needs or mission parameters should be reassessed.

The primary consideration when assessing resource needs is always safety–safety of the team member, the team, subject, and bystanders. If team members have not been trained and certified in the specific skills required, SAR Management must be consulted immediately.

The information below is a brief overview of the capabilities and limitations of special SAR resources, and provides some basic background when considering a request to SAR Management for additional resources. The SAR Safety Program Guide is to be consulted for more information and specific Operational Guidelines.

Rope Rescue

Ground Search Team Leaders should be able to recognize situations where specialized rope rescue personnel are required.

Rope rescue should only be performed by persons trained and certified at the Rope Rescue Team Member or Team Leader level.

When encountering a need for such skills as slope rescue, cliff rescue, steep or high-angle rescue, or highlines, the GSTL must contact SAR Management to request personnel with the appropriate level of certification.

Mountain Rescue

SAR incidents that include operations in mountainous terrain can require SAR resources with extra training and skills to conduct the search and/or rescue safely. The following information will normally be considered by SAR Management in determining if trained Mountain Rescue personnel are required on a response.


Class 1 TerrainInvolves trail hiking ■

Class 2 TerrainInvolves hiking over rough ground ■

Class 3 Terrain Involves hiking over steep rough ground like scree or talus – careful footing ■required

Class 4 Terrain Involves scrambling over steep, exposed rock slopes and boulders – hands are ■often required for balance and ropes are occasionally required.

Class 5 Terrain Involves climbing on exposed rocks- hands are used to pull oneself upwards, ■ropes required, lead climbing, unprotected falls (i.e. no ropes with anchors) are likely fatal.Broken down into sub-grades from 5.1 to 5.15 which corresponds to climbs ■going from easy technical climb (5.1) to extremely difficult technical climbing (5.15) and may include what is called aid climbing, the use of specialised hardware to actually climb

Class 4 terrain Class 5 terrain

If the following conditions apply the operation should be considered a mountain rescue and SAR Management will likely request a MR Technical Specialist to help with the determination and to assist with planning the mountain rescue portion of the response.

4th class terrain or steeper ■glaciated/snowfields ■high altitude — defined for the purposes of mountain rescue in BC as above ■10,000 feetlead climbing and ice climbing ■

Top down rope rescue where the anchor station is in 3rd class terrain while the subject is in 4th class or higher terrain is not considered mountain rescue.


Organized Avalanche Response (OAR)

Where the risk assessment performed by SAR Management indicates an unsafe exposure to avalanche risk, ground search teams are not deployed. However, it is possible that a GSTL could find the search team is unexpectedly exposed to avalanche risk. The following is provided for information purposes only.

The Avalanche Terrain Exposure Scale (ATES) v.1/04 has three different classes to describe the exposure of a backcountry trip to avalanche hazard: Simple, Challenging and Complex.

Avalanche Terrain Criteria

Class 1- Simple: Exposure to low angle or primarily forested terrain. Some forest openings may involve the run-out zones of infrequent avalanches. Many options to reduce or eliminate exposure. No glacier travel.

Class 2 - Challenging: Exposure to well defined avalanche paths, starting zones or terrain traps; options exist to reduce or eliminate exposure with careful route-finding. Glacier travel is straightforward but crevasse hazard may exist.

Class 3 - Complex: Exposure to multiple overlapping avalanche paths or large expanses of steep, open terrain; multiple avalanche starting zones or terrain traps below; minimal options to reduce exposure. Complicated glacier travel with extensive crevasse bands or icefalls.

The Canadian Avalanche Centre and Parks Canada have classified many of the most popular backcountry trips according to the Avalanche Terrain Exposure Scale. These trip ratings are accessible through the Avaluator™ trip planning website.

Swiftwater Rescue

When the potential need for a swiftwater rescue resource is identified, the GSTL must notify SAR Management immediately, and request a qualified swiftwater technician and/or team.

There will be occasions when the search team may be required to search along the edge or near swift moving water. Remind searchers that undercut banks will not be seen while standing on top of them. The GSTL needs to recognize the limitations of their team and act accordingly, keeping the safety of team members as the first priority, and following the operational guidelines for working near swiftwater, as set out in the SAR Safety Program Guide. It may be that this area must be left for a swiftwater team to search.

It would be ideal to classify swift water for high, moderate and low water levels, but it is not feasible to accommodate ever-changing conditions of the rivers. River conditions, especially swift water, can change dramatically from year to year and season-to-season (e.g., logjams, earth slumps, unusually high seasonal rainfall).


International Swiftwater Classification

Class I: Easy

Fast moving water with riffles and small waves.Few obstructions, all obvious and easily missed with little training ■Risk to swimmers is slight; self-rescue is easy ■

Class II: Novice

Straightforward rapids with wide, clear channels that is evident without scouting.Occasional manoeuvring may be required, but trained paddlers easily miss ■rocks and medium sized wavesSwimmers are seldom injured and group assistance, while helpful, is seldom ■needed

Class III: Intermediate

Rapids with moderate, irregular waves which may be difficult to avoid and which can swamp an open canoe.

Complex manoeuvres in fast current and good boat control in tight passages or ■around ledges are often required; large waves and strainers may be present but are easily avoidedStrong eddies and powerful current effects can be found, particularly on large ■volume riversScouting is advisable for inexperienced parties ■Injuries while swimming are rare; self-rescue is usually easy but group ■assistance may be required to avoid long swims

Class IV: Advanced

Intense, powerful but predictable rapids requiring precise boat handling in turbulent water.

Character of the river may feature large, unavoidable waves and holes or ■constricted passages demanding fast manoeuvres under pressureA fast, reliable eddy turn may be needed to initiate manoeuvres, scout rapids, ■or restRapids may require “must” moves above dangerous hazards; scouting is ■necessary the first time downRisk of injury to swimmers is moderate to high, and water conditions may ■make self-rescue difficultGroup assistance for rescue is often essential but requires practice and skill ■A strong Eskimo roll is highly recommended ■


Class V: Expert

Extremely long, obstructed, or very violent rapids which expose paddlers to above average endangerment.

Drops may contain large, unavoidable waves and holes or steep congested ■chutes with complex, demanding routesRapids may continue for long distances between pools, demanding a high level ■of fitnessWhat eddies exist may be small, turbulent, or difficult to reach ■At the high end of the scale, several of these factors may be combined ■Scouting is mandatory but often difficult ■Swims are dangerous, and rescue is difficult even for experts ■A very reliable Eskimo roll, proper equipment, extensive experience, and ■practiced rescue skills are essential for survival

Class VI: Extreme

These runs often exemplify the extremes of difficulty, unpredictability and danger.The consequences of errors are very severe and rescue may be impossible ■For teams of experts only, at favourable water levels, after close personal ■inspection and taking all precautionsThis class does not represent drops thought to be unrunnable, but may include ■rapids which are only occasionally run

Tracking Teams

When tracking is used early in the search, the search area can be significantly reduced. For this reason, SAR Management will often use qualified Tracking Teams, with a trained tracker as the team leader, during the Initial Response stage.

Trackers may also be able to speed up movement along the subject’s trail by using two tracking teams in the process of cutting for sign. This second team of trackers will look for sign, while moving across the projected line of travel at 90°, to determine if the subject continued in that direction. If they find identifiable sign, they take over moving from track to track and the original team now moves ahead to cut for sign. This allows the trackers to “leap-frog” ahead on the missing person’s track.

Dog Teams

Dog teams, consisting of one person and one qualified dog, must meet the RCMP standards for training and certification of dogs and their handlers before providing assistance during SAR responses. In order for a civilian dog handler to be qualified for ground search operations they must be both GSAR certified and be a member of a PEP-recognized SAR group (avalanche dog teams excepted).


Each team may attain operational certification in either one or both of the working profiles by meeting the minimum standards in those working profiles. The working profiles are:

Tracking only - human scent, vegetation odors, etc. ■ Searching only - human body scent, article scent ■Both Searching/Tracking ■

Several factors affect track scent and air scent:Time ■Weather ■Terrain ■Person/vehicle traffic in the area ■

Dog teams may sometimes be supplemented by a SAR volunteer to help with radio communication and navigation.

Police Assistance

The GSTL should not hesitate to request police assistance if at any point during the mission team members encounter threatening or suspicious situations. Under no circumstances should team members put their own safety, or that of others, at risk.

It is also reasonable to request police intervention on-site when bystanders or media may be hampering search efforts.

Helicopter Assistance

Helicopters can be very useful for moving search teams into remote terrain, carrying equipment either internally or slung beneath, and evacuating subjects and teams from the field. Police aircraft may also be available for aerial searching. The assistance of military aircraft can be requested in extenuating circumstances, where other resources are not available or appropriate. Such a request must be discussed with the SAR Commander and approval sought through the ECC.

Before utilizing helicopters in SAR operations, SAR Management must perform a risk/benefit analysis to ensure their use is warranted. Factors such as flying time, machine capacity, pilot ability, weather, altitude, level of urgency, daylight hours, terrain and ground travel times must be considered. The hazard and risk assessment is also done to minimize exposure of personnel to unnecessary risk.

Team leaders should always ask themselves if they really need a helicopter to achieve the objective before making a request to SAR Management.

More information on the use of helicopters can be found the SAR Safety Program Guide.


First Aid and Licensed Medical Service Providers

Most search teams will have at least one member with first aid qualifications. Any need for additional medical services, and the urgency for that assistance, can be assessed by the team member responsible for first aid, although it is the GSTL who should make the request to SAR Management.

Subject Evacuation

When the subject is found, SAR Management should be advised immediately. The team leader’s next task is to assess the situation and determine the most effective method of evacuation. However, this is not done in isolation.

Before moving the subject, a first aid assessment must be done. The best qualified first aider should be asked to handle the initial assessment and treatment. If this happens to be the team leader, then the ATL or other appropriate team member should be designated as the acting team leader. Do not expect the team to make assumptions – clearly communicate the change in command so there can be no misunderstanding.

The GSTL must also assess the abilities of the team before determining the preferred method for transporting the subject. Specialized or additional teams may be needed to manage or assist with the evacuation.

Depending on the subject’s condition, the team leader may consider moving the subject by helicopter, stretcher, vehicle, or on foot — or any combination of these transportation modes. Location, time-of-day, weather, injuries, team fatigue, distances, and hazards should all be considered, as well as any specific equipment requirements.

Once the GSTL has decided on a course of action, it must be communicated to SAR Management, along with any resource requests, before commencing with the evacuation. Depending upon the nature and type of the injury, medical advice and authorization should be obtained from BC Ambulance Service personnel through the ICP prior to moving the subject.

With all necessary approvals in hand, the team leader is now responsible for assigning and managing the entire evacuation team, including the first aid attendant, stretcher carriers, trail clearing crew and route scouts.

Some key points for managing subject transport are listed below:Consider safety of SAR team ■Be aware of what can go wrong – e.g., potential of trampling evidence, risk of ■injury to team members or subject, inappropriate methodsMaintain situational awareness – the best place to do this is usually at the rear, ■from where the entire team can be observedIf the GSTL is in the rear, the ATL should be assigned to the lead ■Delegate/supervise tasks (keep hands in pockets) ■


Oversee and double-check patient packaging/stretcher tie-ins ■Select route (or assign route scouts to assist) ■Coordinate movement (lifting, lowering, passing of obstacles) ■Ensure stretchers are carried at all times; remind team members it is not ■appropriate to slide a stretcher on any terrainCoordinate position rotations ■Determine use of additional equipment, such as stretcher wheels, steadying ■rope, etc. For steadying rope: ■

Determine when rope should be used -Choose appropriate site for anchor -Identify potential anchors -Evaluate anchors for strength -Select anchor to be used -Select belayer -Check anchor construction -

Report status to SAR Management, as required ■


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