Center for
By-Products
Utilization
DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION OF HIGH-
CARBON CCPs AND FGD BY-PRODUCTS IN
PERMEABLE ROADWAY BASE CONSTRUCTION
By Tarun R. Naik, Shiw S. Singh, and Rudolph N. Kraus
Report No. CBU-2000-29
Rep-406
September 2000
A Quarterly Report Submitted to CBRC Administration – Midwestern Region
Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
College of Engineering and Applied Science
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN – MILWAUKEE
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Item Page
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………………..ii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...1
Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………2
Literature Review………………………………………………………………………………..4
Open Graded Base Course……...………………………………………………………...4
Roller Compacted Concrete………….…………………………..……………………...12
Laboratory Investigations………………………………………………………………..….....22
Task 1…………………………………………………………………………………….22
Fine Aggregate…………………………………………………………………...22
Coarse Aggregate………………………………………………………………...22
Coal Combustion Products………………………………………………………22
Cement…………………………………………………………………………...24
Task 2 and Task 3………………………………………………………………………..24
References……………………………………………………………………………………….25
ii
LIST OF TABLES
Item Page
Table 1 - Untreated Permeable Subbase Gradations and Permeabilities…………...……………..6
Table 2 – Treated Permeable Subbase Gradations and Permeabilities…....………………………7
1
DEVELOPMENT AND DEMONSTRATION OF HIGH-CARBON CCPs AND FGD BY-
PRODUCTS IN PERMEABLE ROADWAY BASE CONSTRUCTION
ABSTRACT
The major objective of this project is to develop and demonstrate permeable base course
materials using coal combustion products (CCPs) for highways, roadways, and airfield
pavements. Two types of CCPs, a high-carbon fly ash and a flue gas desulfurization (FGD) by-
product, are being evaluated for no-fines or low-fines concrete as a permeable base material.
This quarterly report deals with the work completed during the period from June 1, 2000 through
August 31, 2000. During this period, the work completed is related to Task 1, 2, and 3. A
literature search was conducted to build the knowledge-base to establish mixture proportions and
performance standards for the base course materials. The literature accumulated on permeable
base road pavements and roller compacted concrete (RCC) is briefly addressed in this report. All
constituents materials such as high-carbon fly ash, FGD by-product, cement, coarse aggregate,
and fine aggregate required for manufacture of the base course materials have been obtained.
These materials are being tested and evaluated for physical, chemical, and mineralogical
properties. Testing of coarse and fine aggregates, cement, and FGD by-products has been
completed. Most of the remaining testing of the constituent materials is expected to be
completed by the end of September 2000. Based on the data derived from the literature search
and the measured properties of the constituent materials, mixture proportions for the permeable
base course materials are being finalized; and laboratory evaluation of concrete mixtures is being
started.
2
INTRODUCTION
Presence of excess water in the pavement structure is known to be the primary cause of
pavement distress. Extended exposure to water can lead to pumping, D-cracking, faulting, frost
action, shrinkage, cracking, and potholes [1]. Out of these parameters, pumping is known to be
the most dominating mechanism of pavement distress. The water that infiltrates through the
pavement is trapped within the pavement structure when draining capabilities of the pavement
base is low. When high pressure is applied to these pavements from heavy traffic loads,
pumping occurs in the presence of water. This causes erosion of the base because fines as the
water is pumped out. Consequently, a loss in pavement support occurs, leading to early failure of
pavement. This can be avoided by using free-draining pavement base [1-15].
With a view to meet current and future EPA air quality standards, utilities are utilizing
supplemental flue gas treatments to reduce emissions. These treatments either alter the quality
of the coal combustion by-products, or generate another type of "waste" material. Two
processes typically used are flue gas desulfurization (FGD) to reduce SOx emissions and low-
NOx burners to reduce NOx emissions. FGD by-products are high sulfite and/or sulfate by-
products, and low-NOx burners generate high-carbon CCPs. Approximately 18 million tons of
FGD by-products were generated in 1998 in the USA with a utilization rate of less than ten
percent. Consequently, most of FGD by-products are landfilled at high disposal costs and
potential future environmental liabilities to the producer. To avoid these, there is a need to
develop beneficial uses of these by-products. This project was undertaken to develop high-
volume applications of these CCPs in manufacture of permeable base materials for highways,
roadways, and airfield pavements. Use of high-carbon or variable carbon CCPs and FGD by-
3
products in permeable base course is expected to utilize significant quantities of these by-
products. It will also help to reduce the cost of installing permeable base materials for
pavement, which will lead to increased use of such permeable bases for highways, roadways,
and airfield pavements. Reducing the cost of permeable base materials is expected to expand its
use in many other types of pavement construction with increased pavement life and increased
utilization rate of CCPs and FGD by-products.
To meet the objectives of the project, the entire work is organized in two major phases,
each one year in duration. These two phases have been subdivided into the following tasks:
Phase 1 - Year 1: Laboratory Activities
Task 1: Acquisition, Characterization, and Evaluation of Materials
Task 2: Development of Base Course Mixture Proportions
Task 3: Testing and Evaluations
Task 4: CCPs and FGD By-Product Utilization Criteria
and Base Course Specifications
Task 5: Base Course Design Criteria and Construction Guidelines
Task 6: Reports
Phase 2: Field Demonstration and Technology Transfer
Task 7: Field Demonstrations, Testing, and Evaluation
Task 8: Demonstration/Technology Transfer
Task 9: Optimization of Construction Specifications
Task 10: Reports
This quarterly report contains information pertaining to Tasks 1 through 3 for the period from
4
June 1, 2000 through August 31, 2000. Task 1 involved acquiring various base course
constituent materials, analyzing the samples for their physical, chemical, and mineralogical
properties, characterizing the materials, and selecting the appropriate quality and quantity of
these materials. Task 2 focuses on developing two sets of six mixtures (each set consists of two
different base course mixtures) to allow for greater flexibility for potential uses for road and
highway construction. Task 3 involves developing a more complete test program to arrive at
specifications for materials for production of base course materials containing high-carbon CCPs
and FGD by-products. The work completed during this quarter was divided into two parts. The
first part deals with literature review pertaining to the base course materials, while the second
part deals with experimental work completed and/or in progress pertaining to characterization
and evaluation of constituent materials.
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
A literature search was completed to establish a knowledge-base for mixture proportions
and performance standards for the base course construction materials to be developed in this
project. Two types of roller-compacted base course materials, open-graded base course and
dense-graded base course materials, will be developed in this project. The literature collected in
this project is divided into two parts. The first part deals with open-graded base course while
second part deals with roller compacted concrete which will be the bases for dense-graded base-
course materials.
Open-Graded Base Course--Permeable bases are divided into two classes: treated and
untreated. A treated permeable base employs a binder, which would typically consist of either
5
cement 200-300 lbs/yd3
(119-178 kg/m3) or asphalt (2 to 5% by total weight of the asphaltic
concrete). An untreated base contains more smaller size particles in order to provide stability
through aggregate interlock. A permeable base must be capable of maintaining both permeability
and stability. In order to have improved stability, an untreated sub-base course should contain
100% crushed aggregate [2]. Although aggregate gradations vary among users, the two most
commonly used gradations are AASHTO NO. 57 and NO. 67 (Tables 1 and 2). The coefficient
of permeability for treated base depends upon several factors such as aggregate gradation and
binder content. Due to the coarse gradation and small amount of binder used in manufacture of
treated base, they are by design quite porous and permeable. The coefficient of permeability for
untreated permeable base is normally lower when compared to treated permeable base materials
due to greater amount of fines in the untreated based (Tables 1 and 2).
A typical permeable base system is composed of three major elements: permeable base,
separator or filter layer, and edge drain system [24]. A typical cement-treated permeable base is
composed of 86% aggregate, 10% cement, and 4% water [4]. Information on design,
construction, and material requirements are available in the literature [2, 4, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Although the thickness of permeable bases generally varies between 3 to 6 in. (75 to 150 mm), a
4 in. (100 mm) thickness of the permeable base is most commonly used [13-15].
In order to help solve drainage problems, open-graded permeable materials have been
used in portland cement pavements since the beginning of pavement construction [5]. However,
to handle heavy traffic loads, the trend of using dense-graded materials dominated during the
middle of this century, which resulted in decreased use of the permeable materials [5]. Recently,
a renewed interest in the use of permeable materials for pavement construction has occurred
during the last two decades, beginning with European road construction. In a survey conducted
6
TABLE 1- Untreated Permeable Subbase Gradations and Permeabilities [3,15]
Sieve Size
Percent Passing
IA
KY
MI
MN
NJ
PA
WI
50 mm
(2 in.)
38 mm
(1½ in.)
25 mm
(1 in.)
19 mm
(¾ in.)
12.7 mm
(½ in.)
9.5 mm
(3/8 in.)
No. 4
No. 8
No. 10
No. 16
No. 30
No. 40
No. 50
No. 200
--
--
100
--
--
--
--
10.35
--
--
--
--
0-15
0.6
--
100
95-100
--
25-60
--
0-10
0-5
--
--
--
--
--
0.2
--
100
--
--
0-90
--
0.8
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
100
65-100
--
35-70
20-45
--
8-25
--
--
2-10
--
0-3
—
100
95-100
--
60-80
--
40-55
5-25
--
0-8
--
--
0.5
--
100
--
--
52-100
--
35-65
8-40
--
--
0-12
0-8
--
--
0-5
--
--
100
90-100
--
20-55
0-10
0-5
--
--
--
--
--
--
7
Coefficient of
Permeability m/s
(ft per day)
18x10-4
(500)
706x10-4
(20,000)
35x10-4
(1000)
7x10-4
(200)
71x10-4
(2000)
35x10-4
(1000)
635x10-4
(18,000)
TABLE 2 - Treated Permeable Subbase Gradations and Permeabilities [3]
Sieve Size
Percent Passing
No. 57
AC/PC
Stabilized
California
WI
PC
Stabilized
New Jersey
AC
Stabilized
AC
Stabilized
PC
Stabilized
38 mm
(1½ in.)
25 mm
(1 in.)
19 mm
(¾ in.)
12.7 mm
(½ in.)
9.5 mm
(3/8 in.)
No. 4
No. 8
No. 10
No. 16
No. 200
100
95-100
--
25-60
--
0-10
0-5
--
--
0-2
--
100
90-100
35-65
20-45
0-10
0-5
--
--
0-2
100
86-100
X ± 22
--
X ± 22
0-18
0-7
--
--
--
--
--
90-100
--
20-55
0-10
0-5
0-5
--
--
--
100
95-100
85-100
60-90
15-25
2-10
--
2-5
*
8
Coefficient of
Permeability m/s
(ft/day)
706x10-4
(20,000)
529x10-4
(15,000)
141x10-4
(4,000)
350x10-4
(10,000)
35x10-4
(1,000)
AC = Asphalt; PC = Portland cement
"X‖is the gradation that the contractor proposes to furnish
for the specific sieve size.
* Add 2% mineral filler.
8
by the National Asphalt Institute, 30 states indicated use or planned use of asphalt-treated
permeable base materials under pavement [13]. A number of investigations [10,11] have
supported the use of open-graded permeable bases for efficient drainage. Crovetti and Dempsey
[5] showed that various parameters such as cross slope, longitudinal grade, and drainage layer
width and thickness can influence the permeability performance of open-graded permeable
materials (OGPM).
Several designs of pavement drainage [26-31], including permeable open-graded base
(POGB) material, prefabricated edge drains, trenches wrapped with a geotextile and backfilled
with a permeable material, or trenches filled with permeable materials, etc, have been recently
studied. Hagen and Cochran [28] evaluated drainage characteristics of standard dense-graded
base, two dense-graded base sections incorporating transverse drains placed under transverse
joints, and permeable asphalt-stabilized base (PASB). Their results showed that the PASB
drained the most water within 2 hr of a rainfall, while providing the driest pavement foundation
and the least early pavement distress. Fleckenstein and Allen [29] presented the results of studies
completed during 1991 through 1995 pertaining to pavement edge drainage in Kentucky. The
results indicated that properly installed edge drainage system would add significant service life to
pavement structure. The open graded base material drainage system is commonly used due to its
drainage effectiveness [5]. Therefore, in their project this system was selected to act as
permeable base for providing efficient pavement drainage.
In 1988, the Federal Highway Administration [18] surveyed ten different states, which
had installed permeable base pavements. Of these, the most experienced states were: California,
Michigan, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. The remaining six were Iowa, Kentucky, Minnesota,
North Carolina, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. These states developed their design data largely
9
based upon the information of the four most experienced states. Out of the 10 states surveyed,
seven states used untreated permeable base and the remaining three (California, North Carolina,
and West Virginia) used treated permeable base. Five of the seven states using untreated
permeable base had dense-graded materials with reduced amounts of fines. The two states,
Wisconsin and Kentucky, employed larger AASHTO NO. 57 or an equivalent size, which
resulted in higher permeability of the base.
Grogan [16] reported that subsurface pavement layers are virtually impermeable in the
case of dense-graded materials. When these layers become saturated, they remain saturated for
the majority of the pavement life. These saturated layers cause pumping, erosion, subgrade
weakening, and freezing/thawing damage. Use of properly designed and constructed permeable
bases reduces or practically eliminates these problems thus improving pavement performance.
The improved performance translates into dollar savings through increased life and reduced
maintenance requirements for the pavement. Based on investigations [17,18] in California, a
minimum life increase was estimated to be 33% for asphaltic concrete pavement and 50% for
portland cement concrete pavements incorporating permeable bases compared to undrained
pavements. Hall [19] reported that factors such as cement content, truck traffic, sublayer
stability, segregation, and surface irregularities are important in affecting performance of the
permeable material.
Numerous investigations conducted by several state agencies were summarized by Munn
[20]. Two eight-year-old pavements on permeable bases in California did not exhibit any
cracking, whereas corresponding undrained pavements showed 18% and 47% cracking. Non-
destructive testing of permeable base pavements in Iowa revealed a greater support relative to
undrained pavements. The increased support is equivalent to a thickness of 75 to 125 mm of
10
additional pavement. In Michigan, permeable base test sections built in 1975 did not show any
faulting or cracking and had less D-cracking compared to control sections of bituminous and
dense-graded sections. In Minnesota, a jointed reinforced concrete pavement on permeable base
built in 1983 experienced only one mid-panel crack in its 59 panels, while undrained sections
adjacent to either end showed 50% mid-panel cracks. Performances of Pennsylvania’s
permeable base sections built in 1979-80 were rated much better than that of dense-graded
aggregate sections. In Pennsylvania, a permeable base between portland cement concrete
pavement and the dense-graded aggregate subbase was standardized in 1983. Wisconsin [20]
estimates that the use of a cement-stabilized base would add 25% more service to concrete
pavements. Recent nondestructive testing in Iowa [21] has shown excellent performance of
permeable base pavements. New Jersey [15] found similar rutting for permeable base pavements
constructed in 1979-1980 having either thicker or thinner sections. In addition, there was less
deflection, no faulting or pumping, and reduced frost penetration on concrete pavements. In
1990, permeable base PCC pavement became standard in nine different states [4].
Kozeliski [22] reported successful application of open-graded cement treated base material in the
construction of a parking lot for an office building, a driveway of a home, and a ground cover of
a refinery. Kuennen [23] described construction of a high-quality, high-durability, drainable
PCC pavement incorporating 18% fly ash of total cementitious materials.
Naik and Ramme [24] demonstrated the use of an off-spec. fly ash (10% loss on ignition)
in construction of open-graded permeable base material in 1994. This fly ash was produced in
electric generation units equipped with FGD system at the Wisconsin Electric’s Port Washington
Power Plant. These units employ baking soda to remove SO2 from the flue gas, which causes
formation of sodium sulfate, and thus the fly ash produced contain sodium sulfate. A test section
11
was constructed to determine if the long-term expansive of the sulfate containing fly ash would
cause any expansive problems in the open-graded base course and thus lift the pavement. It was
expected that the expansive hydration product crystals could be accommodated in the voids
provided in the open-graded base. The mixture proportion for the open-graded base course was
composed of 160 lbs/yd3 (95 kg/m
3) cement, 125 lbs/yd
3 (74 kg/m
3) fly ash, 81 lbs/yd
3 (48
kg/m3) water, and 2600 lbs/yd
3 (1543 kg/m
3) 19 mm coarse aggregate. The water to cementitious
materials ratio was at about 0.28. A concrete pavement made with 50% fly ash was constructed
on top of this open-graded base course. To date (2000) there have been no heaving of this
concrete pavement anywhere on the entire length of the pavement. Visual observation has
revealed no major cracks or other pavement distress during the past six years of service.
Long et al. [30] evaluated fatigue performance of drained and undrained pavements using
laboratory testing and fatigue models. The drained pavement included an asphalt-treated
permeable base and the undrained pavement was conventional asphalt concrete pavement. The
fatigue life predicted by the fatigue, models were higher for the drained pavement compared to
the undrained pavement. This was probably due to the strength contribution by the ATPB layer
to the pavement.
Based on the information presented above, it is concluded that adequate drainage is
required in producing durable pavements, especially when it is subjected to heavy traffic loads.
Pumping is reported to be one of the primary causes of pavement distress and generally occurs in
undrained pavement. A properly designed and constructed permeable base eliminates pumping,
faulting, and cracking. An effective permeable base pavement is composed of three components:
an open-graded permeable base, a separator layer, and an edge drainage system. The base is
designed to have adequate permeability and stability. It is estimated that the use of a permeable
12
base would add to pavement service life by 33% and 50%, for asphaltic and portland cement
concrete pavements, respectively.
Roller-Compacted Concrete--Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is being used all around the
world for the construction of dams. Use of RCC for pavements is of relatively new and growing
interest. Roller-compacted concrete for pavement is a relatively stiff mixture of aggregates,
cementitious materials, and water, which is generally placed by asphalt pavers and compacted by
vibratory rollers [33-35]. RCC pavements are appropriate for applications requiring a strong,
hard, wearing surface that can handle low-speed traffic [3]. RCCP is placed without forms,
finishing, and surface texturing. RCCP does not require joints, dowels, reinforcing steel, or
formwork. Therefore, relatively large quantities of RCCP can be placed rapidly with minimal
labor and equipment, resulting in speedy completion of tightly scheduled pavements [34].
Because of the low water to cementitious materials ratio in a RCCP mixture, it typically exhibits
strengths equivalent to or greater then, conventional concrete [34, 36, 37]. The surface quality
and smoothness of RCC pavements are relatively inferior to conventional pavements. As a result,
RCC has primarily been used in heavy duty or industrial pavements such as log-yards, port
facilities, tank parking areas, warehouses, etc. where minor surface deficiencies are not an issue
[38]. More recent applications of RCC include road subbase, plant, warehouse, public highway,
truck lane inlays, overlays, intersection inlays, arterial roads, bridge decks, liner for
evaporation/drying beds, sludge drying basins, etc. [39-46].
Due to favorable economics of RCC in dam construction, road contractors adapted the
technique to their needs in the 1980s. RCCP mixtures contain approximately three times as
much cementitious material as RCC mixtures for dams [35, 41]. From the current (1998)
200,000 tons of portland cement used, it is projected that RCCP has potential to consume 10
13
million tons of portland cement in a decade. RCC pavements are stronger and more durable than
asphalt pavement [43]. It will not rut or shove from high axle loads and will not soften from heat
generated by hot summer sun or materials stored on RCC floors. RCC resists degradation from
materials such as diesel fuel [45].
Initial cost savings of 15 to 40 percent can be expected if RCC is specified as a pavement
alternative for projects requiring heavy wheel loading compared to conventional paving concrete
[47]. RCC is also emerging as a cost-effective, high-performance base course for conventional
highway and street pavements. A thin layer of asphalt topping (50 mm) normally covers the
surface to ensure a smooth riding at street and highway speeds [45]. Critically saturated non air-
entrained RCCP may exhibit poor resistance to freezing and thawing cycling. Non air-entrained
RCCP, when not critically saturated, have shown adequate performance in field conditions in
cold climates for over 10 years [33, 34, 47, 73]. To ensure long-term freezing and thawing
durability, it is desirable to entrain air in RCC. Due to drier consistency, however, it is difficult
to entrain air in RCC mixtures. Recently, AEA have been used to entrain air in RCC mixtures
with limited success [33, 35].
Mechanical properties and durability of RCC can be influenced by several factors including
properties of constituent materials, mixture proportioning, and production technology [48-71].
RCC is primarily composed of cementitious materials, fine, and coarse aggregates, generally
without chemical admixtures. The cementitious materials generally include portland cement, fly
ash, or other pozzolanic materials such as blast furnace slag, volcanic ash, rice husk ash, wood
ash, etc. Additional chemical admixtures such as normal-range water-reducing admixture
(WRA), high-range water-reducing admixture (HRWRA), and air entraining admixtures (AEA)
have been used sometimes to enhance performance of RCC [33, 47]. A typical mixture for
14
roller-compacted concrete pavement contains about 10 to 15 percent cementitious materials by
mass of total materials. Use of fly ash as a replacement of cement increases the amount of fine
materials in the mixture. It also decreases water requirement, improves consistency, and
contributes to strength development due to improved microstructure of the material resulting
from pozzolanic reactions of fly ash [36, 50]. A high fines content in RCC increases its
mechanical strength and improves the surface texture. Further increase in fine content occurs
when fly ash is used as a replacement of sand or as a fine aggregate [24, 44]. In the past, both
ASTM Class C and Class F fly ashes have been used in RCCP [53]. Applications of blast
furnace slag and phospho-gypsum tend to increase time of setting of RCC mixtures resulting in
increased time available between lifts without formation of cold joints [33, 54].
Silica fume together with HRWRA has been shown to improve density, strength, and frost
resistance of RCC [41]. Use of silica fume is recommended in RCC where compressive strength
requirement is very high (greater than 60 MPa). RCC mixtures made with silica fume have
shown compressive strength exceeding about 65 MPa at the age of 28 days [33]. Generally, RCC
mixtures are proportioned for compressive strengths ranging between 25 to 35 MPa at the age of
28 days [40]. With a view to avoid segregation during handling and placing of RCC and to
provide a closed and relatively smooth surface texture, the maximum aggregate size is often
limited to 19 mm [43]. However, for construction involving multi-layers, aggregate with a
maximum size of 40 mm can be used for the bottommost layer [43].
Compared to conventional concrete mixtures, larger amounts of fine aggregates are added
to RCC to avoid segregation during handling and placing [34, 43, 50, 51]. Non-plastic fines
passing a No. 200 sieve are specified in the range of 5 to 10% to improve the smoothness of the
top surface of RCCP [33-35]. The increased quantity of the fine fraction increases water demand
15
to maintain the desired level of the concrete consistency within a workable range. However, the
mechanical strength of RCC can increase with the amount of fines in the mixtures because of the
low water to cementitious materials ratio used and high compaction achieved.
Difficulties are encountered in entraining air in RCC mixture using an AEA due to its low
water content [34, 50, 52, 55]. For an AEA to be effective, sufficient amount of water is needed
to form a film around air bubbles. However, water content of RCC mixtures is generally very
low to entrain air bubbles [33].
To entrain air in RCC mixture, AEA is premixed with the cement paste (cementitious
materials and water), a small portion of the coarse aggregate, and a superplasticizer before adding
the sand [33]. However, premixing operations require concrete to be mixed in a stationary plant
while most RCC producers use continuous plug-mill mixers for a large-scale production of RCC
[33]. Recently, researchers [33, 64] have shown successful air entrainment in RCC mixtures
using AEA in laboratory as well as in field trials using a plug-mill mixer. WRA and small
dosages of HRWRA have been successfully used to improve the homogeneity of the cement
paste and to increase consistency of the RCC. Set-retarding admixtures can also be used to delay
the pavement compaction and rolling process without the formation of cold joints [33].
However, use of admixtures are many times minimized or avoided to decrease the cost of RCCP.
RCC mixtures are proportioned at low water to cementitious material(s) ratio ranging
from 0.20 to 0.40. RCC mixtures must be dry enough to support the weight of a vibratory roller,
yet wet enough to permit adequate distribution of the paste throughout the mass during the
mixing and compaction operations [34, 35, 43, 50, 63]. Although there are numerous methods to
proportion RCC mixtures, none of them is yet widely accepted. These methods can be classified
in the following three major groups [33, 34, 62]: (1) mixture proportioning techniques for RCC
16
to meet specified limits of consistency; (2) mixture proportioning technique using soil
compaction concept; and (3) mixture proportioning method based on the solid suspension model.
In the first approach, a number of trial mortar mixtures varying in water to cementitious
material(s) and sand/cementitious material(s) ratios are proportioned and cast to meet a specified
consistency. Strength and density of each mixture are measured. From the test results,
water/cementitious material(s) ratio is selected to meet specified strength and corresponding
sand/cementitious material(s). After determining these ratios, the proportion of coarse and fine
aggregates is adjusted to meet the specified consistency. In the second technique, first the
proportion of coarse and fine aggregates is fixed based on recommended gradation curves. Then
for the fixed aggregate proportion, a number of concrete mixtures varying in cementitious
materials content are prepared. For each cementitious material content, concrete mixtures are
prepared with differing water contents. Then optimum water content corresponding to maximum
density is determined in accordance with ASTM D 1557 [33]. The compressive strength is
measured on mixtures with optimum moisture content. The mixture meeting compressive
strength with the minimum cementitious materials content is selected. The third method employs
a theoretical model, which optimizes mixture proportion with high packing density [33, 62].
This method is primarily based on the fact that optimum mixture proportion for RCC is obtained
when paste content is just enough to fill the inter-particle spaces. This approach requires
minimum laboratory work. However, substantial computational effort is required to obtain
optimum mixture proportion [62].
Test results have indicated that mechanical properties such as compressive strength,
modulus of elasticity, and fatigue strength of RCC are similar to that of conventional paving
concrete [34, 37, 48]. Therefore, the design of RCC pavement thickness follows techniques
17
similar to that used for pavement thickness of rigid conventional paving concrete. Designs of
pavement thickness and construction techniques for RCCP have been presented in several
publications [34, 37, 38]. The subgrade and/or base courses are prepared to provide sufficient
support to permit full compaction of the RCC throughout the entire thickness of the pavement.
An open-graded granular base course is often specified in order to assure drainage and avoid
saturation of RCC pavements. More recently, no-fines concrete is also being specified by many
DOT as a preferable base course for both rigid and flexible pavements. Naik and Ramme [24]
reviewed information on design and performance of roller-compacted permeable base courses for
conventional pavements. This type base course is composed of a no-fines permeable base, a
separator layer, and an edge drainage system. Each of these components should be designed to
avoid pumping. Permeable bases are divided into two classes: treated and untreated. A treated
permeable base employs a binder. An untreated subbase contains more smaller size particles in
order to provide stability through aggregate interlock. A permeable base must be capable of
maintaining both permeability and stability. In order to have improved stability, an untreated
subbase should contain 100% crushed aggregate. Most investigations [24] have indicated
improved performance of drained pavements over undrained pavements. It was reported by Naik
and Ramme [24] that the use of an open-graded permeable base would increase service life by
33% and 50% for conventional asphalt concrete pavement and portland cement concrete
pavement, respectively, over undrained pavements. These advantages are also considered
applicable for RCCP. Thus the use of properly designed permeable base course can reduce the
chances of saturating non air-entrained RCCP which in turn will reduce or avoid the possible
damage resulting from freezing and thawing environment in cold climates.
In addition to other parameters, degree of compaction plays a significant role in affecting
18
the strength, permeability, and durability of RCC [50]. Past researchers [50] have shown that
laboratory specimens compacted to 98% of theoretical air-free density attained flexural and
flexural fatigue strength equivalent to that for conventional paving concrete. Mechanical
properties of RCC were determined using beam and core specimens from in-place RCCP in the
past [37, 73]. The results showed compressive strength ranging between 3,500-5,000 psi (24-35
MPa) and flexural strength ranging from 500-700 psi (3.4-4.8 MPa). For high-strength RCC, the
28-day strength of 5,800-10,000 psi (40-70 MPa) have been reported [62]. The permeability of
concrete is directly related to its durability. The permeability dictates the rates at which water or
aggressive agents (seawater, acid rain, salt solutions, etc.) and gases (CO2, SO3, etc.) that can
penetrate into the materials. Such agents when they get in to the concrete can cause expansive
reactions or other deterioration in the concrete leading to reduced durability of the concrete.
Thus, entry of these agents should be minimized or avoided to improve concrete durability by
decreasing its permeability. Permeability of RCC was measured using core specimens of 50-mm
diameter and 4 in. (100-mm) long at varying water to cementitious materials ratio, amount of
silica fume, cement fineness, and curing technique [69]. The results indicated higher
permeability of RCC compared to conventional mass concrete for dams. This was attributed to
presence of interconnected voids and hollow interface aggregate-paste boundaries. The
coefficient of permeability was found to decrease to some extent when silica fume and finer
cement were used. A study [64] showed that 20 to 40 percent cement replacement with low-
calcium fly ash increased sulfate resistance of RCC. RCC mixtures with 10-20% fine sand
replacement with Class F fly ash, attained higher sulfate resistance and compressive strength
compared to the control. Use of high-calcium bottom ash as a fine aggregate offered excellent
strength, stiffness, and deformation property [34]. Another study [65] showed that durable RCC
19
could be produced using lignite dry bottom ash as fine aggregate. The results showed increased
resistance to sulfate attack, freezing and thawing actions, and wear resistance with increases in
cementitious materials and/or coarse aggregate content. The use of circulating fluidized bed
combustion ashes (fly ash and bottom ash) in RCC type of mixtures in combination with
chemical additives without portland cement has been reported [70]. Compressive strength of
these pastes was significantly influenced by water to paste ratio, the amount of bottom ash, and
method of compaction.
Dosage of AEA in workable RCC mixtures has been reported to be about two to four times
that required for conventional concrete [68]. The workable mixtures were defined as those that
can consolidate under vibration within 30 seconds without application of a surcharge weight.
High resistance to freezing and thawing actions requires the use of optimum mixture proportion
that can be compacted to a high compaction level with air entrainment [68]. Field observations
[33, 38, 45, 46, 62, 73] have shown adequate performance of RCCP in cold climates.
Controversial opinions have been expressed about freezing and thawing and salt scaling
resistance of RCCP [62]. This was mainly due to the fact that specimens obtained from actual
pavements performed poorly in freezing and thawing durability tests in accordance with ASTM
C 666, Procedure A. As a result, freezing and thawing durability of RCC has been the subject of
some investigations [34, 63, 73]. Although air entrainment in a RCC mixture is difficult to
achieve due to its drier consistency and low-paste content, researchers [33, 34, 62, 63] have
attempted to entrain air in RCC mixtures in laboratory and field conditions with limited success.
Gagne [62] indicated that an acceptable air-void system can be produced in RCC for strength
levels ranging from 5,000-7,200 psi (35-50 MPa) using AEA dosages of 5 to 10 times that used
for conventional paving concrete. However, for high performance concrete (greater than 50
20
MPa), an acceptable air-void system in RCC is not guaranteed even at a very high dosage of
AEA.
In addition to an air-void system, other parameters also influence the freezing and thawing
durability of RCC. A dense concrete system should be produced at a low water to cementitious
materials ratio, and high density RCCP should be constructed with such concrete with a well
draining base under the pavement that will not experience freezing and thawing deterioration [38,
51]. Some RCC mixtures without entrained air become durable against freezing and thawing due
primarily to their relatively impermeable microstructures and a lack of bleed water channels (i.e.,
a lack of capillary pores), which provide the path for water to critically saturate the paste [57].
Pigeon et al. [59] proportioned high-volume fly ash roller-compacted concrete mixtures
with fixed fly ash to cementitious materials ratio of 0.63. Both air-entrained and non air-
entrained mixtures at two levels of cementitious materials contents (12 and 15 percent) were
produced under laboratory conditions. The freezing and thawing resistance of air-entrained
concrete was found to be very good. Whereas the non air-entrained concrete performed poorly in
freezing and thawing tests in accordance with ASTM C 666, Procedure A [59]. The use of silica
fume in combinations with superplasticizer and air-entraining admixtures improved freezing and
thawing resistance of RCC mixture [41]. However, the effect of AEA alone did not exhibit
positive effects on the freezing and thawing resistance of RCC mixtures [41]. In a study [60], as
expected, higher concrete densities of RCC led to substantial improvement of its resistance to
salt scaling. The results also indicated positive effects of air entrainment on salt scaling
resistance of RCC. Non-air-entrained RCC with 28-day compressive strengths of 7,400-8,500
psi (51-59 MPa) experienced moderate to severe scaling at 35 cycles while air-entrained RCC
with 28-day compressive strengths of 4,640-7,680 psi (32-53 MPa) showed only slight to
21
moderate scaling after 80 cycles in accordance with ASTM C 672 [60]. Tests need to be
developed to provide better correlation between field and laboratory performance of RCC for
both deicers scaling and freezing and thawing [73]. RCC projects with surfaces exposed to
freezing and thawing environment are performing extremely well in field. Existing laboratory
test procedures tend to indicate otherwise [50, 73].
Recently, Ribeiro and Almeida [72] reported an RCC mixture which meets the strength
and durability requirement for high performance concrete (HPC). More recently, Naik et al. [73]
described the construction experience grained in two pavement projects (Project I and Project II)
recently completed in Wisconsin. Project I dealt with performance of conventional high-volume
fly ash (HVFA) concrete pavement having a roller-compacted, no-fines permeable base course
containing fly ash obtained from SO2 control technology, and Project II deals with RCC
pavement containing 30% ASTM Class C fly ash. Visual observations for the projects showed
very good to excellent field performance of RCC pavement containing 30 % Class C fly ash.
Saw cut beam test specimens, and drilled cores from the RCC pavement were obtained.
Laboratory testing of specimens derived from the pavements showed excellent results for
conventional HVFA pavement, and "satisfactory" performance of the RCCP. However,
specimens from the RCCP performed poorly in laboratory freezing and thawing testing according
to ASTM C 666, Procedure A.
LABORATORY INVESTIGATIONS
Task 1
22
For Task 1, all base course constituent materials such as CCPs, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate,
and cement have been acquired. These materials are being tested and evaluated for physical,
chemical, and mineralogical properties using ASTM or other applicable test methods as
described below.
Fine Aggregate--One source of concrete sand was acquired from a local concrete producer.
Physical properties of the sand were determined per ASTM C 33 requirements for the following:
unit weight (ASTM C 29), specific gravity and absorption (ASTM C 128), fineness (ASTM C
136), material finer than #200 sieve (ASTM C 117), and organic impurities (ASTM C 40). It
met all the ASTM C 33 requirements for fine aggregate.
Coarse Aggregate--One source of coarse aggregate was acquired from a local concrete producer.
Physical properties of the aggregate were determined per ASTM C 33 requirements for the
following: unit weight (ASTM C 29), specific gravity and absorption (ASTM C 128), and
organic impurities (ASTM C 40). It met all the ASTM C 33 requirements for coarse aggregate.
Coal Combustion Products (CCPs)— Two sources of CCPs have been obtained for the project.
A high-carbon/sulfate-bearing ash and an FGD by-product has been obtained. Physical
properties of the fly ash samples are being determined in accordance with ASTM C 311. The ash
samples are being characterized for physical properties, chemical properties including oxides,
basic chemical elements, and mineralogy. The following physical properties: fineness (ASTM C
430), strength activity index with cement (ASTM C 109), water requirement (ASTM C 109),
autoclave expansion (ASTM C 151), and specific gravity (ASTM C 188) are being determined.
The ash samples are being analyzed for basic chemical elements using Instrumental
Neutron Activation Analysis. The Neutron Activation Analysis method exposes the sample to
neutrons, which results in the activation of many elements. This activation consists of radiation
23
of various elements. For the ash sample, gamma ray emissions were detected. Many different
elements may be detected simultaneously based on the gamma ray energies and half-lives.
The ash samples are also being analyzed to determine the type and amount of minerals
present. Two grams of each test sample were ground in a power-driven mortar and pestle unit for
55 minutes with ethyl alcohol. The alcohol was then evaporated for mineralogical analysis of the
test sample. The diffraction mount used was a specially made back loading holder, in which the
sample was poured against a matte surface disk and secured in place with a second smaller disk
mounted into the holder through an "O" ring seal. The matte surface disk was then removed.
The samples were weighed while loading so that each mount contained the same amount of the
sample powder. The sample was mounted on a diffractometer (a Nicolet I2 automated unit).
The parameters used for producing the scan (diffraction pattern) were optimized for quantitative
analysis of the minerals present. The data file that was produced during the scan was graphically
converted on a computer screen and plotted. The plot was searched for crystalline phases present
using an automated Hanawalt search, by looking through a list of expected phases for the sample
using first and second strongest lines and by using computer overlays of the plot using standard
phases from the JCPDS file to test each phase. The overlay plot was generated from the test
sample and a standard sample. The presence or absence of a phase was verified using the
standard. After the phases were tabulated, the diffraction data file was converted to run on the
"SQ" program, which uses the phases assigned, and calculates a match between the observed
pattern and a pattern generated from the assigned phases. Various parameters were adjusted to
obtain this match. The scale factors assigned to each phase were converted into weight
percentage of each phase.
24
A second pattern was also run in which ZnO was added in the amount of 50 percent. In
the test sample containing amorphous material, the percentage of ZnO measured by "SQ" was
higher than 50 percent. The magnitude of this change was used to calculate the amount of
amorphous material in the sample.
Most of the testing of the FGD by-product has been completed.
Cement—Type I cement was acquired from one source. Its physical and chemical properties
were determined in accordance with the applicable ASTM test methods. It was tested per ASTM
C 150 requirements for air content (ASTM C 185), fineness (ASTM C 204), autoclave expansion
(ASTM C 151), compressive strength, time of setting (ASTM C 191), and specific gravity
(ASTM C 188).
Task 2 and Task 3--For Task 2, mixture proportions for the base course materials are being
finalized. For Task 3, based on the literature survey completed, a more complete test program is
being developed. The test program will generate appropriate data for optimizing mixture
proportions for the base course materials incorporating high-carbon ash and FGD by-products.
For the project, fresh and hardened properties of the base course materials will be measured. The
fresh concrete properties such as consistency, temperature, time of set, density, etc., and hardened
concrete properties such as density, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength,
sulfate resistance, and freezing and thawing resistance will be determined. Both Tasks 2 and 3
are scheduled to continue from six to 13 months, respectively.
REFERENCES
1. Cedergren, H. R., ―America’s Pavement: World’s Longest Bathtubs,‖ Civil Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA, September 1994, pp. 56-58.
2. Baumgardner, R. H., ―Overview of Permeable Bases,‖ Materials Performance and
25
Prevention of Deficiencies and Failures, 92 Materials Engineering Congress, ASCE, New
York, 1992, pp. 275-287.
3. Portland Cement Association (PCA), ―Concrete Paving Technology,‖ PCA, 1991, 22
pages.
4. Kozeliski, F. A., ―Permeable Bases Help Solve Pavement Drainage Problems,‖ Concrete
Construction, September 1992, pp. 660-662.
5. Crovetti, J. A., and Dempsey, B. J., ―Hydraulic Requirements of Permeable Bases,‖
Transportation Record No. 1425, TRB, National Research Council, Washington DC,
1993, pp. 28-36.
6. Cedergren, H. R., ―Why All Important Pavement Should Be Well Drained,‖ Presented at
67th Annual Meeting of Transportation Research Board, Washington DC, 1988.
7. Cook, M., and Dykins, S., ―Treated Permeable Base Offers Drainage, Stability,‖ Roads
and Bridges, May 1991, pp. 46-49.
8. Mathis, D. M., ―Permeable Bases Prolong Pavements, Studies Show,‖ Roads and
Bridges, Vol. 28, No. 5, May 1990, pp. 33-35.
9. Flynn L., ―Open-Graded Base May Lengthen Pavement Life,‖ Roads and Bridges,
September 1991, pp. 35-42.
10. Strohm, W. E., Nettles, E. M., and Calhoun, Jr., C. C., ―Study of Drainage Characteristics
of Base Course Materials,‖ Highway Research Record 203, HRB, National Research
Council, Washington DC, 1967, pp. 8-28.
11. Moynahan, Jr., T. J., and Steinberg, Y. M., ―Effects on Highway Subdrainage of
Gradation and Direction of Flow Within a Densely Graded Base Course Material,‖
Transportation Research Record No. 497, TRB, National Research Council, Washington
DC, 1974, pp. 50-59.
12. Ahmed, Z., and White, T. D., ―Methodology for Inspection of Collector Systems,‖
Transportation Research Record No. 1425, TRB, National Research Council, Washington
DC, 1993, pp. 37-53.
13. Zhou, H., Moore, L., Huddleston, J., and Grower, Jr., ―Determination of Free-Draining
Base Material Properties,‖ Transportation Research Record No. 1425, TRB, National
Research Council, 1993, pp. 54-63.
14. Mathis, D. M., ―Design and Construction of Permeable Base Pavement,‖ FHWA, U.S.
Department of Transportation, 1989.
26
15. Mathis, D. M., ―Permeable Base Design and Construction,‖ Proceedings of the Fourth
International Conference on Concrete Pavement Design and Rehabilitation, Purdue
University, 1989, pp. 663-669.
16. Grogan, W. B., "User's Guide: Subsurface Drainage for Military Pavements," USAE
Waterway Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, A Final Technical Report submitted to
US Army Corps of Engineers, 1992, pp. 1to A23.
17. Forsyth, R. A., Wells, G. K., and Woodstrom, J. H., ―The Road to Drained Pavements,‖
Civil Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, March 1989, pp. 66-69.
18. Munn, W. D., ―Behind the Shift to Permeable Bases,‖ Highway and Heavy Construction,
July 1990, pp. 38-41.
19. Hall, M., "Cement Stabilized Open Graded Base: Strength, Testing, and Field
Performance vs. Cement Content," Wisconsin Concrete Pavement Association,
November 1990, pp.1 to B3.
20. Hall, M. J., ―Cement Stabilized Permeable Bases Drain Water, Add Life to Pavements,‖
Roads and Bridges, September 1994, pp. 32-33.
21. Brown, D., ―Highway Drainage Systems,‖ Roads and Bridges, February 1996, pp. 34, 40-
41.
22. Kozeliski, F. A., ―Open-Graded Base as a Parking Lot Pavement,‖ Presented at the ACI
1996 Spring Convention, Denver, Colorado, March 15, 1996, 14 pages.
23. Kuennen, T., ―Open-Graded Drain Layer Underlies Thick PCC,‖ Roads and Bridges, May
1993, pp. 28-29.
24. Naik, T. R. and Ramme, B. R., ―Roller–Compacted No-finess Concrete for Road Base
Course,‖ Proceedings of the Third CANMET/ACI International Symposium on Advances
in Concrete Technology, New Zealand, August 25-27, 1997, pp. 201-220.
25. Fleckenstein, L. J., and Allen, D. L., ―Field and Laboratory Comparison of Pavement
Edge Drains in Kentucky,‖ Transportation Research Record No. 1425, TRB, Nation
Research Council, Nation Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1993, pp. 1-10.
26. Wells, G. K., and Nokes, W. A., ―Performance Evaluation of Retrofit Edge Drain
Projects,‖ Transportation Research Record No. 1425, TRB, Nation Research Council,
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1993, pp. 11-17.
27. Ford, G. R., and Eliason, B. E., ―Comparison of Compaction Methods in Narrow
27
Subsurface Drainage Trenches,‖ Transportation Research Record No. 1425, TRB,
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1993, pp. 18-27.
28. Ahmed, Z., and White, T. D., ―Estimating Permeability of Untreated Roadway Bases,‖
Transportation Research Record No. 1519, TRB, Nation Research Council, National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp. 19-27.
28. Hagen, M. G., and Cochran, G. R., ―Comparison of Pavement Drainage Systems,‖
Transportation Research Record No. 1519, TRB, Nation Research Council, National
Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp. 1-10.
29. Fleckenstein, L. J., and Allen, D. L., ―Evaluation of Pavement Edge Drains and Their
Effect on Pavement Performance,‖ Transportation Research Record No. 1519, TRB,
Nation Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp. 28-35.
30. Long, F., Harvey, J., Scheffy, C., and Monismith, C. L., ―Prediction of Pavement Fatigue
for California Department of Transportation Accelerated Pavement Testing Program
Drained and Undrained Test Sections,‖ Transportation Research Record No. 1540, TRB,
Nation Research Council, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1996, pp. 105-
114.
31. Raymond, G. P., and Bathurst, R. J., ―Facilitating Cold Climate Pavement Drainage
Using Geosynthetics,‖ Proceedings of the ASTM Special Technical Publication of the
Symposium on Testing and Performance of Geosynthetics in Subsurface Drainage,
Seattle, WA, June 29 1999, pp. 52-63.
67. Raymond, G. P., and Bathurst, R. J., and Hajek, J., ―Evaluation and Suggested
Improvements to Highway Edge Drains Incorporating Geotextiles,‖ Geotextiles and
Geomembraines, Vol.18, No. 1, Elsevier Science Ltd, Exeter, England, U.K., 2000, pp.
23-45.
68. Marchand, J., Gagne, R., Ouellet, E., and Lepage, S., ―Mixture Proportioning of Roller
Compacted Concrete—A Review,‖ Advances in Concrete Technology, V. M. Malhotra,
Editor, ACI Special Publication, SP-171, Proceedings of the Third CANMET/ACI
International Conference, Auckland, New Zealand, 1997, pp. 457-486.
69. State-of-the-Art Report on Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements,‖ ACI 325.10R-95,
Manual of Concrete Practice, Vol. 2, 1996, 31 pages.
70. Palmer, W. D., ―Roller Compacted Concrete Shows Paving Potential,‖ Roads & Bridges,
Sept. 1987, pp. 40-43.
36. Brendel, G. F., and Kelly, J. M., ―Fly ash in Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement,‖
Energy in the 90's, Proceedings of the ASCE Energy Division Specialty Conference on
Energy, March 10-13, 1991, Pittsburgh, PA, pp. 333-338.
28
67. PCA, ―Structural Design of Roller-Compacted Concrete for Industrial Pavements,‖
Concrete Information, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 1987, 8 pages.
38. Rollings, R. S., ―Design of Roller Compacted Concrete Pavements,‖ Proceedings of the
Roller Compacted Concrete II, ASCE, New York, NY, 1988, pp. 454-466.
67. Brett, D. M., ―RCC Pavements in Tasmania, Australia,‖ Proceedings of the Roller
Compacted Concrete II, ASCE, New York, NY, 1988, pp. 369-379.
40. Serne, R. A., ―Trends in the Use of Roller Compacted Concrete Pavements in Canada,‖
Canadian Portland Cement Association, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, pp. 1-26.
67. Rindal, D. B., and Horrigmoe, G., ―High-Quality Roller Compacted Concrete
Pavements,‖ Utilization of High-Strength Concrete, Vol. 2, I. Holand, and E Sellevold,
Editors, Norwegian Concrete Association, Oslo, Norway, 1993, pp. 913-920.
68. Jofre, C., Fernandez, R., Josa, A., and Molina, F., ―Spanish Experience with RCC
Pavements,‖ Proceedings of the Roller Compacted Concrete II, ASCE, New York, NY,
1988, pp. 467-483.
69. ENR, ―Roller Compacted Concrete Solves Warehouse Problems,‖ Concrete Today, pp.
C-59.
70. Munn, W. D., ―Roller Compacted Concrete Paves Factory Roads,‖ Concrete
Pavement, 3 pages.
71. Prusinski, J., ―Roller-Compacted Concrete Carries a Heavy Load,‖ Roads & Bridges,
July 1997, pp. 68-69.
72. Schweizer, E., and Raba, G. W., ―Roller Compacted Concrete with Marginal
Aggregates,‖ Proceedings of the Roller Compacted Concrete II, ASCE, New York, NY,
1988, pp. 419-428.
47. US Army Corps of Engineers, ―Roller-Compacted Concrete,‖ Engineer Manual # EM
1110-2-2006, Washington, D.C., February 1, 1992, pp. 1-1 to E-37.
48 Larson, J. L., "Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavement Design Practices for Intermodal
Freight Terminals at the Port of Tacoma," State-of-the-art Report 4, Facing the Challenge
- The lntermodal Terminal of the Future, Transportation Research Board, National
Research Council, 1986, pp. 22- 29.
49. Hess, 1. R., "RCC Storage Pads at Tooele Army Depot, Utah," Proceedings of the Roller
Compacted Concrete 11, ASCE, New York, NY, 1988, pp. 394-409.
29
50. ACT Committee 309, "Compaction of Roller-Compacted Concrete, " ACT 309.5R-XX -
final draft 6, 1998, 56 pages.
51. "Standard Practice for Concrete Pavements," Departments of the Army and the Air Force
Technical Manual, Army TM 5-822-7, Air Force AFM 88- 6, Chapter 8, Appendix D,
Department of Army and the Air Force, August 1987, pp. D-1 to D-15.
52. Liu, T. C., "Performance of Roller Compacted Concrete - Corps of Engineers'
Experience," ACI Special Publication SP-126, Durability of Concrete, Second
International CANMET/ACI Conference, Vol. 11, 1991, pp. 155-167.
67. Ragan, S. A., "Proportioning RCC Pavement Mixtures," Proceedings of the Roller
Compacted Concrete II, ASCE, New York, NY, 1988, pp. 380- 393.
54. Chikada, T., and Matsushita, H., "Properties of roller compacted concrete using portland
blast furnace slag cement," Journal of the Society of Materials Science, Japan/Zairyo,
Vol. 40, No. 456, Sep 1991, pp. 1228- 1234.
55. Marchand, J., Boisvert, L., Tremblay, S., Maltais, J., and Pigeon, M., "Air entrainment in
No-Slump Mixes," ACI Concrete International, Vol. 20, No. 4, Apr 1998, pp. 38-44.
56. Piggott, R. W., and Serne, R. A., "Roller Compacted Concrete-A Permanent Pavement
for Today and the Future," Second CANMET/ACI International Symposium on Advances
in Concrete Technology, Supplementary Papers, Las Vegas, NV, 1995, pp. 115-128.
57. Dolen, T. P., "Freeze-Thaw Durability of Roller-Compacted Concrete," 1996 Spring
Convention, ACI, Denver, Colorado, March 14-19, 1996, pp. 1-6.
58. Pittman, D. W., "RCC Pavement Construction and Quality Control, Proceedings of the
Roller Compacted Concrete II, ASCE, New York, NY, 1988, pp. 438-451.
59. Pigeon, M., and Malhotra, V. M., "Frost Resistance of Roller-Compacted High-Volume
Fly Ash Concrete," Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 4, ASCE,
November 1995, pp. 208-21 1.
60. RCC Newsletter, Vol. 10, No. 1, Fall 1994, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 4
pages.
61. Tayabji, S. D., and Okamoto, P. A., "Engineering Properties of Roller- Compacted
Concrete," Transportation Record No. 1136, Transportation Research Board,
Washington, D.C., January 1987, pp. 33-45.
62. Gagne, Richard, "Proportioning for Non-Air-Entrained RCCP" ACI Concrete
International, May 1999, pp. 37-41.
30
63. Withrow, H., ―Compaction Parameters of Roller Compacted Concrete,‖ Proceedings of
The Roller Compacted Concrete II, ASCE, New York, 1988, pp. 123-135.
64. Reagan, S. A., Pittman, D. W., and Grogan, W. P., ―An Investigation of the Frost
Resistance of Air-Entrained and Nonair-Entrained Roller-Compacted Concrete (RCC) for
Pavement Applications," Technical Report No. GL- 90-18, Final Report, US Army Corps
of Engineers, Washington, D. C., 1990, pp. 1-1 to B-36.
65. Ghafoori, N and Zhang, Z., "Sulfate Resistance of Roller Compacted concrete," ACI
Materials Journal, Vol. 95, August 1995, 347-355.
66. Ghafoori, N., and Cai, Z., ―Laboratory-Made Roller Compacted Concretes Containing
Dry Bottom Ash: Part I-Mechanical Properties, " ACI Materials, Journal, Vol. 95, No. 2,
1995, pp. 121-130.
67. Ghafoori, N., and Cai, Z., " Laboratory-Made Roller Compacted Concretes Containing
Dry Bottom Ash: Part 11-Mechanical Properties," ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 95, No. 2,
1995, pp. 244-251.
68. Cannon, R. W., "Air-Entrained Roller Compact Concrete," ACI Concrete International,
Vol. 15, No. 5. May 1993, pp. 49-54.
69. Pigeon, M., and Marchand, J. "Frost Resistance of Roller-Compacted Concrete," ACI
Concrete International," Concrete International, Vol. 18, No. 7, 1996, pp. 22-26.
70. Banthia, N., Pigeon, M., Marchand, J., and Biosvert, J., ―Permeability of Roller
Compacted Concrete," Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering' Vol. 4, No. 4, 1992, pp
27-40.
71. Bland, A. E., Kissel, R. K., and Ross, G. G., "Utilization of CFBC Ashes in Roller
Compacted Concrete Applications," Proceedings of the 1lth International Conference on
Fluidized Bed Combustion, ASME, New York, USA, Vol. 2, April 21-24, 1991, pp. 857-
863.
72. Ribeiro, A. C. B., and Almeida, I. R., ―Study on High Performance Roller Compacted
Concrete,‖ Materials and Structures, RILEM, Paris, France, N0. 33, July 2000, pp. 398-
402.
73. Naik, T. R., Chun, Y.-M., Kraus, R. N., Pennock, L.-N. C., and Ramme, B. W.,
―Durability of Roller-Compacted HVFA Concrete Pavements,‖ Presented and published
at the Fifth CANMET/ACI International Conference on Durability of Concrete, in
Barcelona, Spain, June 4-9, 2000, pp. 867-882.