1st sessionIntroduction: Research is all about addressing an
issue or asking and answering a question or solving a problem.
The steps for doing a research:1. Identify an issue, a question,
or a problem.2. Find out what's already known and what is unknown
(That is by: Talking with experts and read the reviews and the
original research on the topic) then try to fill the gap.3. Start
the plan. The plan should include: a. The place of doing the
research, b. Cost vs. the benefit (if the cost greater than the
benefit, then no need for it), c. The subjects and the sample size
involved in the research (The smaller the sample, the more the
uncertainty so you usually need large sample size), d. Time the
study should take.4. Start doing your study according to the
plan.5. Write it up and submit it for publication.
The impact factor: is a measure reflecting the average number of
citations to recent articles published in the journal. The journals
with higher impact factors are more important than those with lower
ones. To find the impact factor of specific journal, write it is
name in google followed by impact factor, e.x. American journal of
applied science impact factor Google searchImpact factor=
#citations / #articles published
The basic structure of a scientific paper:1. Title: Making the
work clear to the reader without having to read the paper itself.2.
Abstract or summary: is a brief summary of the research article and
it should not be more than 250 words, it includes Background,
Methods, Results and Conclusions. It tells you what is the article
about and should you continue reading or not. 3. Introduction:
included what is already done in the topic (literature review) then
the Purpose and hypothesis of the study.4. Methodology: includes
details of the steps taken to gather the data and the process of
the study (if you have more ways in methodology, that means you
have stronger paper). The methodology should allow others to
replicate the study.5. Results: identify findings, Explain graphs
and pictures and includes statistical analysis 6. Discussion:
includes explanation of findings, limitations and future
directions.7. Acknowledgment and Grant: includes gratitude and
thanks for what anyone have done for you.8. References: is a
citation to a published or unpublished source (not always the
original source).
Other items included in the research paper: 1. Authors: first
author "the author who did the most of the work", then the rest of
the authors should arrange depends on the work they did.
Corresponding author (last author): The person who the work done in
his lab, 2. Date of publishing, 3. journals name.
First Author
Corresponding Author
Institutions address
Publishing DateJournal's Name
Types of the research and articles:1. Basic research: the
research trying to answer basic question, e.x. the increase of the
heart rate will increase blood flow.2. Clinical research: the
research involves patients to determine the safety and
effectiveness of medication.3. Review article: to read a lot about
specific topic (ex. Disease) and what is recently discovered about
it, then to collect all information and establish it in one review
article.4. Clinical trial phases: steps of experiments for a
medication in order to find enough evidence for a process which
would be useful as a medical treatment (phase 1: small group of
20100, phase 2: larger group (100-300) etc.)5. Meta-analysis: to
collect the results from many publication and try to analyze their
results in order to know which one is reliable and correct.6. Cross
sectional study "prevalence study": is a descriptive study that
deal with the entire population in a specific period of time (ex.
How many people with lung cancer visit my clinic?) (consider the
present neither past nor future)7. Case study: a report of a rare
case you treated to make other physicians know about it.8. Case
series: similar to case study, but here the sample size is between
3 to 8.9. Cohort study "Prospective study": study to assess the
association between a risk factor and an illness by sampling both
exposed to risk factor and unexposed subjects and then following
them for a period of time (consider the future). 10. Case control
study "Retrospective study": study to assess the association
between a risk factor and an illness by sampling both diseases and
non-diseased subjects and then look to their history to know the
risk factor leading to the disease (consider the past).11.
Randomized control trials (RCL): used to test the efficacy or
effectiveness of various types of medical intervention within a
patient population. RCTs may also provide an opportunity to gather
useful information about adverse effects, such as drug
reactions.
Summary of Observational Studies (cohort, case control and
cross-sectional)
* No need to understand all of this table because it will be
explained later. Types of methods using in research:1. In vivo: to
do the study within the living body.2. In vitro: to do the study in
an artificial environment outside a living organism.3. Quantitive
method: You gather data with an instrument, such as a stopwatch, a
blood test, or a structured questionnaire like multiple choice
questions (ex. Cohort, case control and cross-sectional studies).4.
Qualitative method: You gather information or themes from texts or
conversations (open questions) (ex. Case series and case reports
studies).5. Open-labeled method*: all people involved in the study
know everything.6. Single blind method*: the patients (only) dont
know the administered drug or placebo.7. Double blind method*: Both
the patients and the investigators dont know the administered drug
or placebo.8. Tertiary blind method*: the patients, investigators
and analyzers dont know the administered drug or placebo.
Type of blindnesspatientinvestigatoranalyzer
Open-labeledyesyesyes
Single blindnoyesyes
Double blindnonoyes
Tertiary nonono
* The more the blindness, the more the study is reliable.
How to do a literature search in "www.pubmed.com":PubMed is a
database and the database contain many journals and the journal
contain many articles.Note: Volume issue is a collection of many
issues that published periodically. PubMed just looking in
abstract, topic, institutes and authors. Open www.pubmed.com then
go to the field of search. You should search for a key words and be
aware of:1. Research topic (Be specific).2. Similar and related
terms: cardiac-heart.3. Spellings and terminology: Behaviour or
Behavior. 4. Singulars and plurals: singular is better than
pleural.Some helpful options in PubMed: Filters: to choose specific
types of research (ex. Clinical research or basic research) of a
topic you search about, just go to the left side of the page and
you will find "article type" and choose the type/s you want to
search about. Advanced search: In advance search you can use the
combining terms: and, or and not. Also you can build a search by
clicking on "add to the builder" of any search in the history to be
more specific in the search. Also you can search for the name of
the author, journal, affiliation and many other options. Send to:
if you want to send the article to anyone just go to the option
send to above the page. Save search: to make sure that any article
that will publish in future in specific topic will send to your
e-mail "this option just below the field of search". PMID: the ID
number of each article in PubMed and it is usually used for the
references which by search for all PMID numbers of the references
(space between each one). MeSH database (Medical Subject Headings):
from homepage choose it instead of PubMed, and it is a
comprehensive controlled vocabulary for the purpose of indexing
journal articles and books. So if you search about a specific
disease, it will provide you for all subheadings of this disease.
After that you can add it to "PubMed search builder" in the right
of the page then click on PubMed search to find all articles
talking about this diseases. Practice: In critically ill patients,
what factors or characteristics increase the risk of developing
pressure sores? This is an etiology/risk factor question, to search
of it in PubMed type in advance search: Etiology or risk factor and
critical ill patient and pressure sore and case control study.
2nd sessionHow to critically appraise an article?You should look
for three steps:1. Validity: you should make sure that the study
was:a. Randomization: (If yes, how was it done? (ex. Computer
based) Is it concealed?) Concealed means hidden.b. Blind to
treatment: (open-label, single blinded, double blinded, triple
blinded), The more the blindness, the more the validity.c. Similar
baseline of both groups (both in the same condition or status).d.
Equal treatment of both groups.e. Follow up rate should be at least
80%.f. Intention to Treat Analysis (ITT): All who underwent the
trial should be taken into account.From ITT we will get to terms:
1. Efficacy: the number of patients benefit from the drug / the
number of patients who finish the study till the end.2.
Effectiveness: the number of patients benefit from the drug / the
whole number of patients.Example if we have 1000 patients started
the study and 100 dropped out, so the effectiveness= 450/1000,
efficacy= 450/900.* The effectiveness is more precisely than
efficacy, because some of the patients who dropped out something
happened to them (maybe died!). 2. Results: after u make sure that
the study is valid, then look at the results and measure the P
value, if it is significant (P1, that mean there is higher risk
with experimental medication than control one.If the RR1: the
factor is risky, 0: attributable, legacy dialogue > bar >
choose clusters + summary of separate variables. After that: from
options you can choose the error bar immediately (not like excel).
Title: write any title of the graph you want to appear.To change
the colors of the bar just double click on it.To insert asterisk in
the graph which has significant value: double click on the graph
> go insert text box. 2. Second way: The aim is to measure
paired TTEST (from which we can get the P value, mean, SD and SE)
and to do descriptive analysis. The data should distribute like
this in SPSS:
To do the descriptive analysis: go analyze > descriptive
statistics > descriptives > then enter the groups and click
in options modify the choices.
To do the T-Test: analyze > compare means > paired-sample
t-test > then enter the groups each paired together and click in
options to modify the choices. The descriptive analysis does not
provide us by p-value, instead it provides many details more than
t-test. The significant of t-test that it provides p-value.
3. Third way: The aim is to measure unpaired TTEST (from which
we can get the P value, mean, SD and SE). The data should
distribute like this in SPSS:
To do the unpaired t-test: analyze > compare means >
independent sample test > then enter the variables in the "Test
variable" field, and the groups you want to compare in groups.
After that click on define groups and enter the numbers of two
groups "as you define them in values", then go to options to modify
the choices. In the results, there are two types: 1. Equal variance
assumed: it means if SPSS assumed that the sample size of two
groups are same even if it is not. That is practical if sample size
of one group excess the other by double (because in Excel you
cannot do t-test of unpaired groups if the sample size of one group
excess the other by double), and this is one of the advantages of
SPSS compared to Excel.2. Equal variance not assumed: it means that
SPSS not assumed anything regarding the number of sample size of
two groups. To change the p-value decimal: go to the number in
results > double click om it > right click > cell
properties > formal value > decimals > increase the number
as you like.Abdulrahman Al-KhateebReema Abu-DawasDr. Mohammed
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