Page289

EssayontheOriginofLanguages:InWhichMelodyandMusicalImitationareTreatedByJ.J.Rousseau1

[DraftPreface]

Thesecondpiece2wasalsoatfirstmerelyafragmentofthediscourseoninequalitywhichIomittedfromitastoolongandoutofplace.3ItookitupagainontheoccasionoftheErrorsbyM.Rameauonmusic,atitlewhichafterthetwowordsI'veomittedisperfectlyfulfilledbytheworkthatbearsit.4Inthemeantime,heldbackbytheabsurdityofdiscoursinguponlanguageswhilehardlyknowingoneofthemand,inaddition,dissatisfiedwiththispiece,Ihadresolvedtosuppressitasunworthyofthepublic'sattention.Butanillustriousmagistrate5whocultivatesandprotectslettersthoughtmorefavorablyofitthanIdid.Thus,Iamsubordinatingmyjudgmenttohiswithpleasure,ascanwellbebelieved,andIamattemptingtomakethisone,whichImightperhapsnothaveriskedalone,acceptedundertheaegisoftheothertwowritings.

EssayontheOriginofLanguages

ChapterI:OntheVariousMeansofCommunicatingOurThoughts6

Speechdistinguishesmanfromtheanimals.Languagedistinguishesnationsfromeachother;onedoesnotknowwhereamanisfromuntilafterhehasspoken.Usageandneedmakeeachlearnthelanguageofhiscountry;butwhatcausesthislanguagetobethatofhiscountryandnotofanother?Inordertotell,onehastogobacktosomereasonthatpertainstolocality,andprecedesevenmorals:7speech,beingthefirstsocialinstitution,owesitsformonlytonaturalcauses.

Assoonasonemanwasrecognizedbyanotherasasentient,thinking

Beingandsimilartohimself,8thedesireortheneedtocommunicatehis

Page290

feelingsandthoughtstohimmadehimseekthemeansfordoingso.Thesemeanscanbederivedonlyfromthesenses,theonlyinstrumentsbywhichonemanmayactuponanother.Hencetheinstitutionofperceptiblesignstoexpressthought.Theinventorsoflanguagedidnotgothroughthisreasoning,butinstinctsuggestedtheconclusiontothem.

Thegeneralmeansbywhichwecanactuponthesensesofothersarelimitedtotwo:namely,movementandthevoice.Movementisimmediatethroughtouchorismediatethroughgesture;thefirst,havinganarm'slengthforitslimit,cannotbetransmittedatadistance,buttheotherreachesasfarasthelineofsight.Thatleavesonlysightandhearingaspassiveorgansoflanguageamongdispersedmen.

Althoughthelanguageofgestureandthatofthevoiceareequallynatural,nonethelessthefirstiseasieranddependslessonconventions:formoreobjectsstrikeoureyesthanourearsandshapesaremorevariedthansounds;theyarealsomoreexpressiveandsaymoreinlesstime.Love,itissaid,wastheinventorofdrawing.Itmightalsohaveinventedspeech,thoughlesshappily.Littlecontentedwithspeech,lovedisdainsit:ithaslivelierwaysofexpressingitself.Whatthingsshewhotracedtheshadowofherloverwithsomuchpleasuretoldhim!Whatsoundscouldshehaveusedtoconveythismovementofastick?9

Ourgesturessignifynothingbutournaturaluneasiness;itisnotaboutthesethatIwanttospeak.OnlyEuropeansgesticulatewhilespeaking.Onewouldthinkthatalltheforceoftheirspeechwasintheirarms.Theyfurtheraddtothistheforceoftheirlungs,andallthisishardlyofanyusetothem.WhenaFrenchmanhasquitestrainedhimself,quitetormentedhisbodytosayalotofwords,aTurkremoveshispipefromhismouthforamoment,softlyspeakstwowords,andcrusheshimwithoneaphorism.

Eversincewelearnedtogesticulatewehaveforgottentheartofpantomime,forthesamereasonthatwithsomanyfinegrammarsweno

longerunderstandthesymbolsoftheEgyptians.Whattheancientssaidmostvividlytheyexpressednotbywords,butbysigns;theydidnotsayit,theyshowedit.10

Openancienthistory;youwillfinditfullofthosewaysofpresentingargumentstotheeyes,andneverdidtheyfailtoproduceamoreassuredeffectthanallthediscoursesthatcouldhavebeenputintheirplace.Theobject,presentedbeforespeaking,stirstheimagination,arousescuriosity,holdsthemindinsuspenseandanticipationofwhatisgoingtobesaid.IhavenoticedthattheItaliansandProvençals,amongwhomgestureusuallyprecedesdiscourse,inthiswayfindthemeansofmakingthemselvesbetterheededandevenwithgreaterpleasure.Butthemostenergeticlanguageistheoneinwhichthesignhassaideverythingbeforeonespeaks.

Page291

Tarquin,Thrasybulusloppingofftheheadsofpoppies,Alexanderapplyinghissealtothelipsofhisfavorite,DiogeneswalkinginfrontofZeno:didtheynotspeakbetterthanwithwords?Whatcircumlocutionwouldhaveexpressedthesameideasaswell?Darius,engagedinScythiawithhisarmy,receivesafrog,abird,amouse,andfivearrowsfromtheKingoftheScythians;theHeralddelivershisgiftinsilenceanddeparts.Thisterribleharanguewasunderstood,andDariuswasinahurrytodonothingbuttogetbacktohiscountryasbesthecould.Substitutealetterforthesesigns:themoremenacingitisthelessitfrightens;itwillbenomorethanbluster,atwhichDariuswouldonlyhavelaughed.11

WhentheLeviteofEphraïmwantedtoavengethedeathofhiswife,hedidnotwritetotheTribesofIsrael;hedividedthebodyintotwelvepiecesandhesentthemtothem.Atthishorriblesighttheyrantoarms,cryingwithonevoice:No,neverhasanythinglikethishappenedinIsrael,fromthedayourfathersleftEgypttothisday!AndthetribeofBenjaminwasexterminated.12*Inourday,theaffairwouldhavedraggedalong,beenturnedovertolegalpleadings,todeliberations,perhapstojests,andthemosthorribleofcrimeswouldhavegoneunpunishedintheend.KingSaul,returningfromhisplowing,likewisedismemberedhisplowoxenandusedasimilarsigntomakeIsraelmarchtotheaidofthetownofJabes.13TheProphetsoftheJews,theLegislatorsoftheGreeks,byoftenpresentingperceptibleobjectstothepeople,spoketothemmoreeffectivelythroughtheseobjectsthantheycouldhavedonethroughlongdiscourses,andthewayinwhich,accordingtoAthenaeus,theoratorHyperidesgotthecourtesanPhryneacquittedwithoutadducingasinglewordinherdefense,isyetanothermuteeloquencetheeffectofwhichisnotrareinalltimes.14

Thusonespeakstotheeyesmuchmoreeffectivelythantotheears:noonefailstoperceivethetruthofHorace'sjudgmentinthisregard.15Themosteloquentdiscoursesareevenseentobethoseembeddedwiththemostimages,andsoundsneverhavemoreenergythanwhenthey

producetheeffectofcolors.

Butwhenitisaquestionofmovingtheheartandenflamingthepassions,itisanaltogetherdifferentmatter.Thesuccessiveimpressionofdiscourse,strikingwithrepeatedblows,givesyouaverydifferentemotionfromthepresenceoftheobjectitself,whichyouhaveseencompletelywithasingleglance.Assumethatsomeoneisinapainfulsituationwhichyouknowperfectlywell:youwillnoteasilybemovedtocryinseeingtheafflictedperson,butgivehimtimetotellyoueverythinghefeels,andsoonyouwillburstintotears.Onlyinthiswaydothescenesofatragedyhave

*Onlysixhundredmenwereleftofit,withoutanywomenandchildren.

Page292

theireffect.*Pantomimealone,withoutdiscourse,willleaveyoualmostunperturbed;discoursewithoutgesturewillwresttearsfromyou.Thepassionshavetheirgestures,buttheyalsohavetheiraccents,andtheseaccents,whichmakeustremble,theseaccents,fromwhichwecannotshieldourorgan,penetratebyittothebottomoftheheart,andinspiteofuscarrytoitthemovementsthatwrestthem,andmakeusfeelwhatwehear.Letusconcludethatvisiblesignsconveyamorepreciseimitation,butthatinterestisarousedmoreeffectivelybysounds.

Thismakesmethinkthatifwehadneverhadanythingbutphysicalneeds,wemightverywellneverhavespokenandwouldhaveunderstoodoneanotherperfectlybythelanguageofgesturealone.Wemighthaveestablishedsocietieslittledifferentfromwhattheyaretoday,oroneswhichmightevenhaveproceededtotheirendbetter.Wemighthaveinstitutedlaws,chosenleaders,inventedarts,establishedcommerce,and,inaword,donealmostasmanythingsaswedowiththeaidofspeech.TheepistolarylanguageofsalaamstransmitsthesecretsoforientalgallantryacrossthebestguardedHaremswithoutfearofthejealous.TheGrandVizier'smutesmakethemselvesunderstoodamongoneanotherandunderstandeverythingthatissaidtothembysignsquiteaswellascouldbedonebydiscourse.MasterPereyreandthosewholikehimteachmutesnotonlyhowtospeakbuttoknowwhattheyaresaying,arefirstcompelledtoteachthemanotherlanguage,nolesscomplicated,withwhoseaidtheyhelpthemunderstandspokenlanguage.17

ChardinsaysthatintheIndiestraders,bytakingoneanotherbythehandandmodifyingtheirgripinawaynoonecanperceive,inthiswaytransactalltheirbusinessinpublicyetsecretly,withouthavingsaidasinglewordtoeachother.18Assumethatthesetradersareblind,deaf,andmute:theywillmakethemselvesunderstoodamongthemselvesnolesswell.Thisshowsthatofthetwosensesbywhichweareactive,asingleonewouldsufficetoformalanguageforourselves.

Itwouldfurtherseemfromthesameobservationsthattheinventionof

theartofcommunicatingourideasdependslessontheorgansweuseforthatcommunicationthanonafacultythatbelongstoman,whichmakeshimemployhisorgansforthatuse,andwhich,ifhelackedthem,wouldmakehimemployotherstothatsameend.Givemanaphysicalorganizationasentirelycrudeasyouplease:doubtlesshewillacquirefewerideas,

*Ihavesaidelsewherewhyfeignedmiseriestouchusmuchmorethangenuineones.16HesobsataTragedywhoinallhisdayshasnotpitiedonewretchedperson.Theinventionofthetheaterisadmirableforflatteringouramour-proprewithallthevirtueswelack.Salaamsareanumberofthemostcommonthings,likeanorange,aribbon,apieceofcoal,etc.,thesendingofwhichconstitutesameaningknowntoalltheloversinthecountriesinwhichthislanguageisinuse.

Page293

butprovidedonlythattherebesomemeansofcommunicationbetweenhimandhisfellowsbywhichonemightactandtheotherfeel,theywillsucceedatlengthincommunicatingaltogetherasmanyideasastheyhavetooneanother.

Animalshaveaphysicalorganizationmorethansufficientforsuchcommunication,andnoneofthemhasevermadethisuseofit.Here,itseemstome,isamostcharacteristicdifference.Thosewho,amongthem,workandliveincommon,suchasBeavers,ants,andbees,havesomenaturallanguageinordertocommunicateamongstthemselvesIraisenodoubtaboutit.ThereisevenreasontobelievethatthelanguageofBeaversandthatofantsareingestureandspeakonlytotheeyes.Bethatasitmay,preciselybecauseallsuchlanguagesarenatural,theyarenotacquired;theanimalsthatspeakthemdosofrombirth,theyallpossessthem,andeverywherethesameone;theydonotchangethem,nordotheymaketheslightestprogressinthem.Conventionallanguagebelongsonlytoman.Thatiswhymanmakesprogress,whetherforgoodorbad,andwhytheanimalsdonotatall.19Thissingledistinctionseemstoleadalongway.Itissaidthatitisexplainedbythedifferenceinorgans.20Iwouldbecurioustoseethatexplanation.

ChapterII:ThattheFirstInventionofSpeechDerivesnotfromNeedsbutfromthePassions

Itisthereforetobesupposedthatneedsdictatedthefirstgesturesandthatthepassionswrestedthefirstvoices.21Byfollowingthepathofthefactswiththesedistinctionsinmind,itmightperhapsbenecessarytoreasonabouttheoriginoflanguagesaltogetherdifferentlythanhasbeendoneuntilnow.Thegeniusoftheorientallanguages,themostancientknowntous,absolutelycontradictsthedidacticcoursethatisimaginedintheirformation.Theselanguageshavenothingmethodicalandreasonedaboutthem;theyarelivelyandfigurative.ThelanguageofthefirstmenisputbeforeusasthoughitwerethelanguagesofGeometers,whileweseethat

theywerethelanguagesofPoets.22

Thismusthavebeenso.Wedidnotbeginbyreasoningbutbyfeeling.23Itisclaimedthatmeninventedspeechinordertoexpresstheirneeds;24thisopinionseemsuntenabletome.Thenaturaleffectofthefirstneedswastoseparatemenandnottobringthemtogether.Thishadtohavebeensoforthespeciestospreadandtheearthtobepopulatedpromptly,other-

Page294

wisemankindwouldhavebeencrammedintoonecorneroftheworldwhiletherestofitremaineddeserted.

Fromthisaloneitevidentlyfollowsthattheoriginoflanguagesisnotatallduetomen'sfirstneeds;itwouldbeabsurdforthecausethatseparatesthemtocometobethemeansthatunitesthem.Fromwhere,then,couldthisoriginderive?Fromthemoralneeds,thepassions.Thepassionsallbringmentogether,butthenecessityofseekingtheirlivelihoodmakesthemfleeoneanother.25Neitherhungernorthirst,butlove,hatred,pity,angerwrestedthefirstvoicesfromthem.Fruitdoesnoteludeourgrasp,onecanfeedonitwithoutspeaking,onestalksinsilencethepreyonewishestodevour;butinordertomoveayoungheart,torepulseanunjustaggressor,naturedictatesaccents,cries,complaints.Themostancientwordsareinventedinthisway,andthisiswhythefirstlanguagesweretunefulandpassionatebeforebeingsimpleandmethodical.Allthisisnottruewithoutqualification,butIshallcomebacktoitbelow.26

ChapterIII:ThattheFirstLanguagesmusthavebeenFigurative

Asthefirstmotivesthatmademanspeakwerethepassions,hisfirstexpressionswereTropes.Figurativelanguagewasthefirsttoarise,propermeaningwasfoundlast.Thingswerenotcalledbytheirtruenameuntiltheywereseenintheirgenuineform.27Atfirst,onlypoetrywasspoken.Onlylongafterwardsdidanyonetakeitintohisheadtoreason.

Now,Iamwellawarethatthereaderwillstopmehere,andwillaskmehowanexpressioncouldbefigurativebeforehavingapropermeaning,sinceitisonlyinthetranslationofthemeaningthatthefigurativenessconsists.Iadmitthis;butinordertounderstandmeitisnecessarytosubstitutetheideathatthepassionpresentstousforthewordthatwetranspose;forwordsaretransposedonlybecauseideasarealsotransposed,otherwisefigurativelanguagewouldsignifynothing.Ithereforerespondwithanexample.

Uponencounteringothers,asavagemanwillatfirstbeafraid.Hisfrightwillmakehimseethosemenastallerandstrongerthanhimself.HewillgivethemthenameGiants.28AftermanyexperienceshewillrecognizethatasthesesupposedGiantsareneithertallernorstrongerthanhimself,theirstaturedoesnotagreewiththeideathathehadfirstattachedtothewordGiant.Hewillthereforeinventanothernamecommontothemand

Page295

tohim,suchasthenamemanforexample,andwillleavethatofGiantforthefalseobjectthathadstuckhimduringhisillusion.Thatishowthefigurativewordarisesbeforetheproperword,whenpassionfascinatesoureyesandthefirstideaitoffersusisnotthetrueone.WhatIhavesaidaboutwordsandnamesisappliedwithoutanydifficultytoturnsofphrase.Theillusoryimageofferedbythepassionsbeingpresentedfirst,thelanguagewhichcorrespondedtoitwaslikewisethefirsttobeinvented.Itthenbecamemetaphoricalwhentheenlightenedmind,recognizingitsfirsterror,employedtheexpressionsonlywiththesamepassionsthathadproducedit.

ChapterIV:OntheDistinctiveCharacteristicsoftheFirstLanguageandtheChangesitmusthaveUndergone

Simplesoundsissuenaturallyfromthethroat,themouthisnaturallymoreorlessopen;butthemodificationsofthetongueandpalatethatproducearticulationrequireattention,practice;onedoesnotmakethemunlessonewantstomakethem,allchildrenneedtolearnthemandsomedonoteasilysucceedindoingso.Inalllanguagesthemostlivelyexclamationsareunarticulated;criesandgroansaresimplevoices.Mutes,thatisthedeaf,utteronlyunarticulatedsounds.FatherLamycannotevenconceivehowmencouldeverhaveinventedothersunlessGodhadnotexpresslytaughtthemtospeak.29Articulationsarefewinnumber,soundsareinfiniteinnumber,andtheaccentswhichmarkthemcanbemultipliedinthesameway.Allmusicalnotesaresomanyaccents;wehave,itistrue,onlythreeorfourinspeech,buttheChinesehavemanymoreofthem;ontheotherhand,theyhavefewerconsonants.Tothissourceofcombinationsaddthatoftenseorquantity,andyouwillhavenotonlyagreatervarietyofwords,butofsyllables,thantherichestlanguageneeds.

Idonotatalldoubtthat,independentofvocabularyandofsyntax,ifthefirstlanguagestillexisteditwouldhaveretainedtheoriginalcharacteristicsthatwoulddistinguishitfromalltheothers.Notonly

wouldalltheturnsofphraseinthislanguagehavetobeinimages,infeelings,andinfiguresofspeech;butinitsmechanicalaspectitwouldhavetoanswertoitsfirstobject,andtopresenttothesenseaswellastotheunderstandingthealmostinevitableimpressionsofthepassionthatissoughttobecommunicated.

Asnaturalvoicesareunarticulated,wordswouldhavefewarticulations;

Page296

afewinterposedconsonantseliminatingthehiatusbetweenthevowelswouldsufficetomakethemflowingandeasytopronounce.Incontrast,itssoundswouldbequitevaried,andthediversityofaccentswouldmultiplythesesamevoices.Quantityandrhythmwouldprovidefurthersourcesofcombinations;inthiswaysincevoices,sounds,accent,andnumber,whicharefromnature,wouldleavelittletobedonebyarticulations,whichareconventionalonewouldsingitratherthanspeakit.Mostofitsrootwordswouldbeimitativesounds,eitheroftheaccentofthepassions,oroftheeffectofperceptibleobjects.Onomatopoeiawouldconstantlymakeitselffelt.

Thislanguagewouldhavemanysynonymstoexpressthesamebeinginitsdifferentrelations*;itwouldhavefewadverbsandabstractwordstoexpressthesesamerelations.Itwouldhavemanyaugmentatives,diminutives,compoundwords,andexpletiveparticlestogivecadencetoperiodsandroundnesstophrases.Itwouldhavemanyirregularitiesandanomalies,itwouldneglectgrammaticalanalogytosticktotheeuphony,number,harmony,andbeautyofsounds.Insteadofargumentsitwouldhaveaphorisms;itwouldpersuadewithoutconvincing,anddepictwithoutreasoning.30ItwouldresembleChineseincertainrespects,Greekinothers,andArabicinothers.Developtheseideasinalltheirramifications,andyouwillfindPlato'sCratylusisnotasridiculousasitseemstobe.31

ChapterV:OnWriting33

Whoeverstudiesthehistoryandprogressoflanguageswillseethatthemorevoicesbecomemonotone,themoreconsonantsmultiply,andthatasaccentsareeliminatedandquantitiesareequalized,theyarereplacedbygrammaticalcombinationsandnewarticulations;butitisonlybydintoftimethatthesechangesarebroughtabout.Inproportionasneedsincrease,asaffairsbecomeentangled,asenlightenmentextends,languagechangescharacter;itbecomesmorepreciseandlesspassionate;it

substitutesideasforfeelings,itnolongerspeakstotheheartbuttoreason.Asaresult,accentisextinguished,articulationextends,languagebecomesmoreexactandclearer,butmoredrawnout,moremuted,andcolder.Thisprogressappearscompletelynaturaltome.

*Arabicissaidtohavemorethanathousanddifferentwordstosaycamel,morethanahundredtosaysword.Etc.32

Page297

Anothermeansofcomparinglanguagesandjudgingtheirantiquityisdrawnfromwriting,andthisbeingininverseratiototheperfectionofthisart.Thecruderthewriting,themoreancientthelanguageis.Thefirstmannerofwritingisnottodepictsoundsbuttheobjectsthemselves,whetherdirectlyastheMexicansdid,orbyallegoricalfiguresastheEgyptiansdidofold.Thisstatecorrespondstopassionatelanguage,andalreadypresupposessomedegreeofsocietyandsomeneedstowhichthepassionshavegivenrise.

Thesecondmanneristorepresentwordsandpropositionsbyconventionalcharacters,whichcanbedoneonlywhenthelanguageiscompletelyformedandwhenanentirepeopleisunitedbycommonLaws;forthereisalreadyhereadoubleconvention.34SuchisthewritingoftheChinese:thisistrulytodepictsoundsandtospeaktotheeyes.

Thethirdistobreakdownthespeakingvoiceintoacertainnumberofelementaryparts,whethervowelsorarticulations,withwhichonecouldformallimaginablewordsandsyllables.Thismannerofwriting,whichisourown,musthavebeendevisedbycommercialpeopleswho,travelinginseveralcountriesandhavingtospeakseverallanguages,wereforcedtoinventcharactersthatcouldbecommontoallofthem.Thisisnotpreciselytodepictspeech,itistoanalyzeit.

Thesethreemannersofwritingcorrespondfairlyaccuratelytothethreedifferentstatesintermsofwhichonecanconsidermenassembledintonations.Thedepictionofobjectssuitssavagepeoples;signsofwordsandpropositionsbarbarouspeoples;andthealphabetcivilizedpeoples.35

Thislastinventionmustnotthereforebethoughttobeaproofofthegreatantiquityofthepeoplewhoinventedit.Onthecontrary,itisprobablethatthepeoplewhodiscoveredithadinviewaneasiercommunicationwithotherpeoplesspeakingotherlanguages,thosewhowereatleasttheircontemporariesandmayhavebeenmoreancientthanthem.Thesamethingcannotbesaidaboutthetwoothermethods.Iadmit,nevertheless,

thatifoneconfinesoneselftohistoryandknownfacts,Alphabeticalwritingseemstogobackasfarasanyother.Butitisnotsurprisingthatwelacktherecordsoftimeswhenpeopledidnotwrite.

Itishardlylikelythatthosewhofirsttookitintotheirheadstoresolvespeechintoelementarysignswouldhavemadeexactdivisionsatfirst.Whentheyafterwardsperceivedtheinadequacyoftheiranalysis,some,liketheGreeks,multipliedthecharactersoftheiralphabet,otherscontentedthemselveswithvaryingtheirsenseorsoundbydifferentpositionsorcombinations.TheinscriptionsontheruinsofTchelminar,whoseEctypesChardinhastracedforus,36wouldappeartohavebeenwrittenin

Page298

thatway.Onlytwofiguresorcharactersaredistinguishableinthem,*butofvarioussizesandplacedindifferentpositions.Thisunknownlanguageofanalmostawesomeantiquitymustnonethelesshavebeenwelldevelopedbythattime,tojudgefromtheperfectionoftheartswhichthebeautyofthecharactersproclaimandbytheadmirablemonumentsonwhichtheseinscriptionsarefound.Idonotknowwhythereissolittlediscussionoftheseastonishingruins;whenIreadthedescriptioninChardinIfeelmyselftransportedtoanotherworld.Allofthisseemstomeintenselythought-provoking.

Theartofwritingdoesnotatalldependuponthatofspeaking.Itdependsuponneedsofanothernaturewhichariseearlierorlateraccordingtocircumstancescompletelyindependentofthetimespanofpeoples,andwhichmightneverhaveariseninveryancientNations.ItisnotknownforhowmanycenturiestheartofhieroglyphicswasperhapstheEgyptians'onlywriting,andthatsuchasystemofwritingcansufficeforacivilizedpeopleisprovedbytheexampleoftheMexicans,whohadanevenlessconvenientone.

IncomparingtheCopticAlphabettotheSyriacorPhoenicianalphabet,itisreadilyjudgedthattheoneisderivedfromtheother,anditwouldnotbesurprisingifthislatteroneweretheoriginalorifthemoremodernpeoplehadtaughtthemoreancientinthisrespect.ItisalsoclearthattheGreekAlphabetisderivedfromthePhoenicianalphabet;oneevenseesthatitmustderivefromit.WhetherCadmusorsomeoneelsebroughtitfromPhoenicia,39itappearscertainanyhowthattheGreeksdidnotgoinsearchofitandthatthePhoeniciansbroughtitthemselves:forofthePeoplesofAsiaandAfrica,theywerethefirstandalmosttheonlyonesthat

*Peopleareastonished,saysChardin,37thattwofigurescouldmakesomanyletters,butasformyself,Idonotseewhatissoastonishingaboutthat,sincethelettersofourAlphabet,whicharetwenty-threeinnumber,arenonethelesscomposedofonlytwolines,thestraightandthecurved,thatis,onlya''C"and

an"I"areusedtomakeupourwords.Thischaracterisquitebeautifulinappearanceandhasnothingconfusedorbarbarousaboutit.[...]Onewouldsaythatthelettershadbeengilded,forthereareseveralofthem,andespeciallythecapitals,onwhichthegoldstillshows,anditissurelysomethingadmirableandinconceivablethattheairhasnotbeenabletoeatawayatthisgildingoversomanycenturies.[...]Moreover,itisnowonderthatnotoneoftheworld'sscholarshaseverunderstoodanythingofthiswriting,sinceitdoesnotcomecloseinanywaytoanywritingwithwhichwehavebecomeacquainted,whereasallthesystemsofwritingknowntoday,excepttheChinese,havemuchaffinitywithoneanother,andseemtocomefromthesamesource.WhatismostwondrousaboutthisisthattheParsis,whoarewhatisleftoftheancientPersiansandwhopreserveandperpetuatetheirReligion,arenotonlynobetteracquaintedwiththesecharactersthanweare,butthattheirowncharactersnomoreresemblethemthandoours.[...]Fromwhichitfollowseitherthatitisacabalisticcharacter,whichisnotlikelysincethischaracteristhecommonandnaturaloneallthroughouttheedifice,andthereisnoneotherbythesamechisel,orthatitisofsuchgreatantiquitythatweshouldhardlydarestateit.38Indeed,Chardinwouldmakeonesurmise,fromthispassage,thatfromthetimeofCyrusandoftheMagisthischaracterhadalreadybeenforgottenandwasaslittleknownasitistoday.IcounttheCarthaginiansasPhoenicians,sincetheywereacolonyofTyre.

Page299

hadcommerce40inEuropeandtheycameamongtheGreeksmuchearlierthantheGreekswentamongthem.ThisinnowayprovesthattheGreekPeopleisnotasancientasthePeopleofPhoenicia.

AtfirsttheGreeksadoptednotonlythePhoenicians'charactersbuteventhedirectionoftheirlinesfromrighttoleft.Latertheytookitintotheirheadstowriteinfurrows,thatis,byturningroundfromlefttorightthenfromrighttoleftalternately.*Eventuallytheywroteaswedotoday,beginningeverylineanewfromlefttoright.Thisprogressisonlynatural.Writinginfurrowsisundeniablythemostconvenienttoread.Iamevensurprisedthatitwasnotestablishedalongwithprinting;butbeingdifficulttowritebyhand,itmusthavebeenabolishedwhenmanuscriptsmultiplied.

ButeventhoughtheGreekalphabetderivesfromthePhoenicianalphabet,itdoesnotatallfollowthattheGreeklanguagederivesfromthePhoenician.Thefirstofthesepropositionsdoesnotentailtheother,anditappearsthattheGreeklanguagewasalreadyveryancient,thattheartofwritingwasstillrecentandeveninadequateamongtheGreeks.UntilthesiegeofTroytheyhadonlysixteenletters,iftheyevenhadthatmany.ItissaidthatPalamedesaddedfourandSimonidestheotherfour.42Allthisisratherfarfetched.Ontheotherhand,Latin,amoremodernlanguage,hadacompletealphabetalmostfromitsbirth,ofwhichthefirstRomansneverthelesshardlymadeuse,sincetheybegantowritedowntheirhistorysolateandsincethelustrawereonlymarkedoffwithnailheads.43

Moreover,thereisnoabsolutelydeterminatequantityoflettersorelementsofspeech;somehavemoreofthem,othersfewer,accordingtothelanguagesandthevariousmodificationsthataregiventothevowels44andtheconsonants.Thosewhocountonlyfivevowelsarequitemistaken:theGreekshadsevenwrittenones,thefirstRomanssix,andtheGentlemenofPortRoyalcountsix,45M.Duclosseventeen,46andIdonotdoubtthatmanymorewouldhavebeenfoundifhabithadrenderedtheearmoresensitiveandthemouthmorepracticedinthevarious

modificationsofwhichtheyaresusceptible.Inproportiontotherefinementoftheorgan,moreorfewerofthesemodificationswillbefound:betweentheacuteaandthegraveo,betweeniandopene,etc.Thisissomethingthatanyonecantestbypassingfromonevoweltoanotherbyacontinuousandfinelyshadedvoice,fortheseshadescanbemoreorlessfixedandmarkedbyparticularcharacters,totheextentthatonehasmadeoneselfmoreorlesssen-

*SeePausanias,Arcad.InthebeginningtheLatinswroteinthesameway,andfromthat,accordingtoMariusVictorinus,camethewordversus.41VocalesquasGraeciseptem,Romulussex,ususposteriorquinquecommemorat,yvelutgraecarejecta.Mart.Capel.Bk.III.47

Page300

sitivetothembydintofhabit,andthishabitdependsonthesortsofvoicesusedinthelanguagetowhichtheorganisimperceptiblyformed.Nearlythesamethingcanbesaidaboutarticulatedlettersorconsonants.Butmostnationsdidnotdoitinthisway.Theytookthealphabetfromoneanother,andrepresentedverydifferentvoicesandarticulationsbythesamecharacters.Thatmakesitsothathoweverexactorthographymaybe,onealwayssoundsridiculousreadingalanguageotherthanone'sown,unlessoneisexceedinglywellpracticedinit.

Writing,whichseemsasifitshouldfixlanguage,ispreciselywhataltersit;itchangesnotitswordsbutitsgenius;itsubstitutesprecisionforexpressiveness.Feelingsareconveyedwhenonespeaksandideaswhenonewrites.Inwriting,oneisforcedtotakeallthewordsaccordingtocommonacceptation;buthewhospeaksvariesthemeaningsbythetoneofhisvoice,hedeterminesthemashepleases;lessconstrainedtobeclear,hegrantsmoretoforcefulness,anditisnotpossibleforalanguageonewritestokeepforlongthelivelinessofonethatisonlyspoken.Words48arewrittenandnotsounds:now,inanaccentedlanguageitisthesounds,theaccents,theinflectionsofeverysortthatconstitutethegreatestenergyofthelanguage;andthatmakeaturnofphrase,evenacommonone,belongonlyintheplaceitisfound.Themeanstakenuptocompensateforthisqualitydiffuse,elongatewrittenlanguageand,passingfrombooksintodiscourse,enervatespeechitself.*Tosayeverythingasonewouldwriteitistodonomorethanreadwhilespeaking.

ChapterVI:WhetheritisProbablethatHomerKnewhowtoWrite

WhateverwemaybetoldabouttheinventionoftheGreekalphabet,Ibelieveittobemuchmoremodernthanitismadeouttobe,andIbasethisopinionprincipallyonthecharacterofthelanguage.50IthasquiteoftenoccurredtometodoubtnotonlythatHomerknewhowtowrite,

*Thebestofthesemeans,andonethatwouldnothavethisdefect,wouldbe

punctuation,ifithadbeenleftlessimperfect.Why,forexample,dowenothaveavocativemark?Thequestionmarkwedohavewasmuchlessnecessary,foroneseesbyconstructionalonewhetherornotaquestionisbeingasked,atleastinourlanguage.Areyoucomingandyouarecomingarenotthesamething.49Buthowdoesonedistinguishinwritingamanwhoisbeingmentionedfromonebeingaddressed?Hereisarealequivocation,whichthevocativepointwouldhaveremoved.Thesameequivocationoccursinirony,whenaccentdoesnotmakeitfelt.

Page301

buteventhatanyonewroteinhistime.IverymuchregretthatthisdoubtissocategoricallycontradictedbytheStoryofBellerophonintheIliad;asIhavethemisfortune,asmuchasFatherHardouindoes,tobeabitobstinateinmyparadoxes,ifIwerelessunlearnedIwouldbequitetemptedtoextendmydoubtstothisStoryitself,andtochargeitwithhavingbeenuncriticallyinterpolatedbyHomer'scompilers.51NotonlyarefewtracesofthisartseenintherestoftheIliad,butIdaresuggestthatthewholeOdysseyisbutatissueofstupiditiesandineptitudewhichaletterortwowouldhavereducedtothinair,whereasthisPoemismadereasonableandevenquitewellexecutedbysupposingthatitsHeroesdidnotknowhowtowrite.IftheIliadhadbeenwritten,itwouldhavebeensungmuchless,theRhapsodieswouldhavebeeninlessdemandandwouldnothavebecomesonumerous.NootherPoethasbeensunginthiswayunlessitisTassoinVenice,evensoitisonlybytheGondoliers,whoarenotgreatreaders.52ThevarietyofdialectsusedbyHomerconstitutesyetanotherverystrongpresumption.Dialectsdistinguishedbyspeechcometogetherbymeansofwritingandareconfoundedbyit,everythingimperceptiblyconformingtoacommonmodel.Themoreanationreadsandteachesitself,themoreitsdialectsareeffaced,andfinallytheynolongerremainexceptasaformofslangamongthepeople,whichreadslittleanddonotwriteatall.

Now,sincethesetwoPoemsareposteriortothesiegeofTroy,itishardlyobviousthattheGreekswhoconductedthissiegeknewaboutwriting,andthatthePoetwhosangofitdidnot.ThesePoemsremainedforalongtimewrittenonlyinmen'smemories;theywereassembledinwritingquitelateandwithconsiderabledifficulty.ItwaswhenGreecebegantoaboundinbooksandwrittenpoetrythatallthecharmofthatofHomercametobefeltbycomparison.53TheotherPoetswrote,Homeralonehadsung,andthesedivinesongsceasedtobelistenedtowithraptureonlywhenEuropewascoveredwithbarbarianswhomeddledinjudgingwhattheywereincapableoffeeling.

ChapterVII:OnModernProsody54

Wehavenoideaofasonorousandharmoniouslanguagethatspeaksasmuchbyitssoundsasbyitswords.55Itisamistaketobelievethataccentcanbemadeupforbyaccentmarks.56Accentmarksareinventedonly

Page302

whenaccentisalreadylost.*Whatismore,webelievethatwehaveaccentsinourlanguage,butwedonothavethematall.Oursupposedaccentsareonlyvowelsorsignsofquantity;theydonotindicateanyvariationinsound.Theproofofthisisthattheseaccentsareallconveyedeitherbyunequaldurationorbymodificationsofthelips,thetongue,orthepalate,whichproducethediversityofvoices,nonebythemodificationsoftheglottis,whichproducethediversityofsounds.Thuswhenourcircumflexisnotasimplevowel,itisalongvoweloritisnothing.LetusnowseewhatitwasfortheGreeks.

DionysiusofHalicarnassussaysthattheraisingoftoneontheacuteaccentandtheloweringonthegravewasafifth;thustheprosodicaccentwasalsomusical,aboveallthecircumflex,onwhich,afterhavingrisenbyafifth,thevoicedropsbyanotherfifthonthesameSyllable.ItisclearenoughfromthispassageandtheonetowhichitrefersthatM.Duclosdoesnotrecognizeamusicalaccentinourlanguage,butonlytheprosodicandthevocalaccents.Inadditiontothesethereisanorthographicaccentwhichinnowaymodifiesthevoice,orthesound,orthequantity,butwhichsometimesindicatesanomittedletter,likethecircumflex,andsometimesde-

*Somescholarsclaim,57againstcommonopinionandagainsttheevidencedrawnfromalltheancientmanuscripts,thattheGreeksknewaboutthesignscalled"accents"andusedtheminwriting,andtheybasethisopinionontwopassages,bothofwhichIamgoingtotranscribesothatthereadercanjudgetheirtruemeaning.

Hereisthefirst,takenfromCicerooutofhistreatiseOntheOrator,Bk.III,sect.44:

Hancdiligentiamsubsequiturmodusetiametformaverborum,quodiamvereornehuicCatulovideaturessepuerile.Versusenimilliinhacsolutaorationepropemodum,hocestnumerosquosdamnobisesseadhibendosputaverunt;interspirationisenim,nondefatigationisnostraenequelibrariorumnotis,sedverborumetsententiarummodointerpunctasclausulasinorationibusessevoluerunt;idqueprinceps

Isocratesinstituissefertur,utinconditamantiquorumdicendiconsuetudinemdelectationisatqueauriumcausa,quemadmodumscribitdiscipuluseiusNaucrates,numerisadstringeret.

Namquehaecduomusici,quierantquondamidampoëtae,machinatiadvoluptatemsunt,versumatquecantum,utetverborumnumeroetvocummododelectationevincerentauriumsatietatem.Haecigiturduo,vocisdicomoderationemetverborumconclusionem,quoadorationisseveritaspatiposset,apoëticaadeloquentiamtraducendaduxerunt.58

Hereisthesecond,takenfromIsidoreoutofhisOrigins,bk.I,chap.xx:

Praetereaquaedamsententiarumnotaeapudceleberrimosauctoresfuerunt,quasqueantiquiaddistinctionemscripturarumcarminibusethistoriisapposuerunt.Notaestfigurapropriainlitteraemodumpositaaddemonstrandamunamquamqueverbisententiarumqueacversuumrationem.NotaeautemversibusapponunturnumeroXXVIquaesuntnominibusinfrascriptis,etc.59

Formypart,IseeherethatgoodcopyistsinCicero'stimemadeapracticeofseparatingwordsandusingcertainsignsequivalenttoourpunctuation.IfurtherseeinthisthattheinventionofmeterandofprosedeclamationisattributedtoIsocrates.Iseenothingatallinthisofthewrittensignsofaccents,60andevenifIdid,onlyonethingcouldbeconcludedfromit,onewhichIdonotdisputeandwhichcompletelyconformswithmyprinciples:namely,thatwhentheRomansbegantostudyGreek,theCopyistsinventedaccentmarks,aspirations,andprosodyinordertoindicatetheirpunctuation;butitdoesnotintheleastfollowthatthesesignswereinuseamongtheGreeks,whohadnoneedofthem.M.Duclos,Rem.ontheGener.andReasonedGram.,p.30.62

Page303

terminestheequivocalmeaningofamonosyllable,suchastheso-calledgraveaccentthatdistinguishestheadverboùfromthedisjunctiveparticleoùandàusedasanarticlefromthesameausedasaverb.61Thisaccentdistinguishesthesemonosyllablesfortheeyesalone,nothingdistinguishestheminpronunciation.*ThusthedefinitionoftheaccentthattheFrenchhavegenerallyadopteddoesnotsuitanyoftheaccentsoftheirlanguage.

Ifullyexpectthatsomeoftheirgrammarians,havingbeentoldthataccentsmarkaraisingorloweringofthevoice,willagainexclaimaparadoxhere,and,forwantofpayingsufficientattentiontoexperience,willbelievethattheyaremakingtheveryaccentsbythemodificationsoftheglottiswhicharemadeuniquelybyvaryingtheopeningofthemouthorthepositionofthetongue.ButhereiswhatIhavetotelltheminordertoverifyexperienceandmakemyproofirrefutable.64

Attuneyourvoiceperfectlytosomemusicalinstrument,andonthisunisonpronounceinsuccessionallthemostvariouslyaccentedFrenchwordsyoucanmuster;sincethereisnoquestionhereofanoratoricalaccentbutonlyofgrammaticalaccent,thesevariouswordsneednotevencompriseacoherentmeaning.Asyouarespeakinginthisway,observewhetheryoudonotexpressalltheaccentsasplainly,asclearlyonthesametoneasyouwouldifyoupronouncedthemunhampered,varyingyourtoneofvoice.Now,thisbeingassumed,anditisincontestable,Isaythatbecauseallyouraccentsareexpressedonthesamepitch,theythereforedonotindicatedifferentsounds.Icannotimaginewhatmightbesaidinresponsetothis.

Anylanguageinwhichthesamewordscanbesettoseveralmusicaltuneshasnodeterminatemusicalaccent.Iftheaccentweredeterminate,thetunewouldbeaswell.Assoonasthetuneisarbitrary,theaccentcountsfornothing.

ThemodernlanguagesofEuropeareallmoreorlessinthesamesituation.IdonotexceptevenItalian.TheItalianlanguagebyitselfisno

moreamusicallanguagethanisFrench.Thedifferenceismerelythattheonelendsitselftomusicandtheotherdoesnot.

Allthisleadstotheconfirmationofthisprinciple:thatbyanaturalprogressionallletteredlanguagesmustchangecharacterandloseforceastheygainclarity,thatthemoreoneaimsatperfectinggrammarandlogicthemoreoneacceleratesthisprogress,andthatinordertomakealanguage

*ItmightbebelievedthatitisbythissameaccentthattheItaliansdistinguish,forexample,theverbèfromtheconjunctione;butthefirstisdistinguishedbytheearbyastrongerandmoreemphaticsound,whichmakestheaccentwithwhichitismarkedavocalaccent,anobservationwhichBuonmatteierredinnotmaking.63

Page304

coldandmonotonousinnotime,onehasonlytoestablishacademiesamongthepeoplethatspeaksit.65

Derivativelanguagesareknownbythediscrepancybetweenspellingandpronunciation.Themoreancientandoriginallanguagesare,thelessarbitrarinessthereisinthewaytheyarepronounced,consequentlythelesscomplicatedarethecharactersfordeterminingthatpronunciation.Alltheancients'prosodicsigns,saysMr.Duclos,evenassumingthattheirusagehadbeenwellestablished,werestillnotworthasmuchastheiruse.66Iwillgofurther:theyweresubstitutedforit.TheancientHebrewshadneitherpointsnoraccents;theydidnotevenhavevowels.67WhentheotherNationswantedtomeddleinspeakingHebrewandtheJewsspokeotherlanguages,theirownlostitsaccent;points,signswereneededtoregulateit,andthisrestoredthemeaningofthewordsmuchmorethanitdidthepronunciationofthelanguage.TheJewsofourday,speakingHebrew,wouldnolongerbeunderstoodbytheirancestors.

InordertoknowEnglishitmustbelearnedtwotimes:oncetoreaditandanothertimetospeakit.IfanEnglishmanreadsoutloudandaforeignerglancesatthebook,theforeignerwillnotperceiveanyrelationshipbetweenwhatheseesandwhathehears.Whyisthat?BecausewhileEnglandhasbeensuccessivelyconqueredbyvariouspeoples,andwhilethewordshavealwaysbeenwrittenthesame,themannerofpronouncingthemhasoftenchanged.Thereisagreatdifferencebetweenthesignsthatdeterminethemeaningofthewritingandthosethatregulatepronunciation.Itwouldbeeasytoconstructwithconsonantsalonealanguagethatwasextremelyclearinwriting,butwhichcouldnotbespoken.Algebrahassomethinglikesuchalanguageaboutit.Whenalanguageisclearerbyitsspellingthanbyitspronunciation,itisasignthatitiswrittenmorethanitisspoken.SuchmayhavebeenthescholarlylanguageoftheEgyptians;sucharethedeadlanguagesforus.Inthoselanguagesburdenedwithuselessconsonants,writingevenseemstohaveprecededspeech,andwhowouldnotbelievethatsuchisthecasewith

Polish?Ifthiswereso,Polishwouldhavetobethecoldestofalllanguages.

ChapterVIII:GeneralandLocalDifferenceintheOriginofLanguages

EverythingthatIhavesaidsofarsuitsprimitivelanguagesingeneralandtheprogressthatresultsfromtheirduration,butexplainsneithertheir

Page305

originnortheirdifferences.Theprincipalcausethatdistinguishesthemislocal,derivingfromtheclimatesinwhichtheyarebornandthemannerinwhichtheyareformed;itistothiscausetowhichonehastogobackinordertounderstandthegeneralandcharacteristicdifferencethatisnotedbetweenthelanguagesoftheSouthandthoseoftheNorth.68ThegreatflawoftheEuropeansisalwaystophilosophizeabouttheoriginofthingsaccordingtowhathappensaroundthem.69Theydonotfailtoshowusthefirstmeninhabitingabarrenandharshearth,dyingofcoldandhunger,anxioustogetshelterandclothing;theyseeeverywhereonlythesnowandiceofEurope,withoutconsideringthatthehumanspecies,justasalltheothers,wasborninthewarmcountriesandthatontwo-thirdsoftheglobewinterishardlyknown.Whenonewishestostudymen,onehastolookcloseby;butinordertostudyman,onehastolearntocastone'seyesfaroff;firstonehastoobservethedifferencesinordertodiscovertheproperties.

Mankind,borninthewarmcountries,spreadsfromtheretothecoldcountries;itisinthesethatitmultipliesandlaterflowsbackintothewarmcountries.Fromthisactionandreactioncometheearth'srevolutionsandthecontinualagitationofitsinhabitants.Letustrytofollowtheveryorderofnatureinourinvestigations.Iamenteringuponalongdigressiononasubjectsohackneyedthatitistrivial,buttowhichonestillhastoreturninordertodiscovertheoriginofhumaninstitutions.

ChapterIX70:FormationoftheSouthernLanguages

Inthefirsttimes,*men,scatteredoverthefaceoftheearth,hadnosocietyotherthanthatofthefamily,nolawsotherthanthoseofnature,nolanguageotherthanthatofgestureandsomeinarticulatesounds.71Theywerenotboundbyanyideaofcommonfraternity,andhavingnootherarbiterthanforce,theybelievedthemselvestobeoneanother'senemies.72Itwastheirweaknessandtheirignorancethatgavethemthatopinion.Knowingnothing,theyfearedeverything;theyattackedinorder

todefendthemselves.Amanabandonedaloneonthefaceoftheearthatthe

*Icallthefirsttimesthoseofmen'sdispersion,atwhateverageofmankindonemightwishtofixtheepoch.73Genuinelanguagesdonotatallhaveadomesticorigin;itisonlyamoregeneralandmorelastingconventionthatmayestablishthem.TheSavagesofAmericaalmostneverspeakexceptoutsideoftheirhomes;eachkeepssilentinhiscabin,hespoketohisfamilybysigns,andthesesignsareinfrequentbecauseaSavageislessrestless,lessimpatientthanaEuropean,becausehedoesnothavesomanyneedsandtakescaretoprovideforthemhimself.74

Page306

mercyofmankindmusthavebeenaferociousanimal.Hewasreadytodountoothersalltheevilhefearedfromthem.Fearandweaknessarethesourcesofcruelty.

Socialaffectionsdevelopinusonlywithourenlightenment.Pity,althoughnaturaltotheheartofman,wouldremaineternallyinactivewithouttheimaginationthatputsitintoplay.Howdoweletourselvesbemovedtopity?Bytransportingourselvesoutsideofourselves;byidentifyingourselveswiththesufferingbeing.Wesufferonlyasmuchaswejudgehesuffers;itisnotinourselves,itisinhimthatwesuffer.Considerhowmuchthistransportpresupposesacquiredknowledge!HowcouldIimagineevilsofwhichIhavenoidea?HowwouldIsufferinseeingsomeoneelsesufferifIdonotevenknowthatheissuffering,ifIdonotknowwhatheandIhaveincommon?Hewhohasneverreflectedcannotbeclement,orjust,orpityingnomorethanhecanbewickedandvindictive.Hewhoimaginesnothingfeelsonlyhimself;heisaloneinthemidstofmankind.75

Reflectionisbornofcomparedideas,anditisthemultiplicityofideasthatleadstotheircomparison.Hewhoseesonlyasingleobjecthasnocomparisontomake.Hewhoseesfromhischildhoodonlyasmallnumberandalwaysthesameonesstilldoesnotcomparethem,becausethehabitofseeingthemdepriveshimoftheattentionneededtoexaminethem;butasanewobjectstrikesus,wewanttoknowit,welookforrelationsbetweenitandthosewedoknow;itisinthiswaythatwelearntoconsiderwhatisbeforeoureyes,andhowwhatisforeigntousleadsustoexaminewhattouchesus.76

Applytheseideastothefirstmen,andyouwillseethereasonfortheirbarbarousness.Neverhavingseenanythingbutwhatwasaroundthem,theydidnotknoweventhat;theydidnotknowthemselves.TheyhadtheideaofaFather,ofason,ofabrother,andnotofaman.Theircabinheldalltheirfellows;astranger,abeast,amonsterwerethesamethingforthem:outsideofthemselvesandtheirfamily,theentireuniversewas

nothingforthem.

Fromwhencetheapparentcontradictionsseeninthefathersofnations.Somuchnaturalnessandsomuchinhumanity,suchferociousmoralsandsuchtenderhearts,somuchlovefortheirfamilyandaversionfortheirspecies.Alltheirfeelings,concentratedonthosenearest,hadmoreenergy.Everythingtheyknewwasdeartothem.Enemiesoftherestoftheworld,whichtheydidnotseeanddidnotknow,theyhatedonlywhattheycouldnotknow.

Thesebarbaroustimeswerethegoldenage;notbecausemenwereunited,butbecausetheywereseparated.Each,itissaid,esteemedhimselfthemasterofeverything;thatmightbeso,butnooneknewordesired

Page307

anythingotherthanwhatwasathand:hisneeds,farfrombringinghimtogetherwithhisfellowstookhimawayfromthem.Men,ifyoulike,attackedoneanotheruponmeeting,buttheyrarelymet.Everywherereignedthestateofwar,andthewholeearthwasatpeace.77

Thefirstmenwerehuntersorshepherds,andnotplowmen;thefirstgoodswereherdsandnotfields.Beforethepropertyoftheearthwasdivided,noonethoughttocultivateit.Agricultureisanartthatrequirestools;tosowinordertoreapisaprecautionthatdemandsforesight.78Maninsocietyseekstoexpand,isolatedmancontracts.Beyondtherangethathiseyecanseeorhisarmcanreach,thereisnolongereitherrightorpropertyforhim.WhentheCyclopshasrolledthestoneinfrontoftheentrancetohiscave,hisherdsandhearesecure.79Butwhowouldlookaftertheharvestofhimwhomthelawsdonotwatchover?

IwillbetoldthatCainwasaplowmanandthatNoahplantedavineyard.80Whynot?Theywerealone,whatdidtheyhavetofear?Besides,thisdoesnotaffectmypoint;IhavesaidabovewhatImeanbythefirsttimes.Inbecomingafugitive,Cainwasindeedforcedtogiveupagriculture;thewanderinglifeofNoah'sdescendantsmusthavemadethemforgetitaswell;theearthhadtobepopulatedbeforecultivatingit;thetwocannotverywellbedonetogether.Duringthefirstdispersionofmankinduntilthefamilyhadsettleddownandmanhadafixedabodetherewasnomoreagricultureatall.Peopleswhodonotsettlecannotcultivatetheearth;suchinthepastweretheNomads,suchweretheArabslivingintheirtents,theScythiansintheirwagons,sucharestilltodaythewanderingTartars,andtheSavagesofAmerica.

Generally,amongallthepeopleswhoseoriginsareknowntous,thefirstbarbariansarefoundtobevoraciousandcarnivorousratherthanagriculturalandgranivorous.TheGreeksnamethefirstpersonwhotaughtthemtotilltheearth,anditappearsthattheydidnotlearnthisartuntilquitelate.ButwhentheyaddthatbeforeTriptolemustheylivedonnutsalone,theyarestatingsomethingimprobableandwhichtheirown

historybelies;fortheywereeatingfleshbeforeTriptolemus,sinceheforbadethemtoeatit.Moreover,itdoesnotlookasthoughtheytookthisprohibitionveryseriously.81

AtHomericfeastsanoxwasslaughteredtoregaleone'sguests,asonemightslaughterasucklingpiginourday.OnreadingthatAbrahamservedacalftothreepersons,thatEumaeushadtwokidsroastedforUlysses'dinner,andthatRebeccaroastedasmanyforherhusband's,82onecanjudgewhatastonishingdevourersofmeatthemenofthosetimeswere.InordertoconceiveofthemealsoftheancientsonehasonlytoseestilltodaythoseofSavages;IalmostsaidthoseofEnglishmen.83

Page308

Thefirstcakethatwaseatenwasmankind'scommunion.Whenmenbegantosettletheyclearedabitofeartharoundtheircabin,itwasagardenratherthanafield.Thelittlegraintheygatheredwasgroundbetweentwostones,madeintosomecakes,whichwerebakedundertheashes,orovertheembers,oronahotstone,andwhichwereeatenonlyatfeasts.Thisancientusage,whichwasconsecratedamongtheJewsbyPassover,isstillpreservedtodayinPersiaandintheIndies.Thereonlyunleavenedbreadsareeaten,andthesebreads,madeupofthinsheets,arebakedandconsumedateverymeal.Onlywhenmorewasneededdidanyonetakeitintohisheadtoleavenit,forleaveningdoesnotworkverywellwithasmallquantity.

Iknowthatlarge-scaleagriculturewasalreadyfoundfromthetimeofthepatriarchs.TheproximityofEgyptmusthavebroughtittoPalestinequiteearly.ThebookofJob,perhapsthemostancientofallthebooksthatexist,speaksofthecultivationofthefields,countingfivehundredpairofoxenamongJob'sriches;thiswordpairsshowsthattheseoxenwereyokedforwork;itisexplicitlysaidthattheseoxenwereploughingwhentheSabeanscarriedthemoff,andonecanjudgewhatanexpanseoflandfivehundredpairsofoxenmusthaveploughed.84

Allthisistrue;butletusnotconfusetimes.Thepatriarchalagethatweknowisveryremotefromthefirstage.Scripturecountstengenerationsfromtheonetotheotherduringthosecenturieswhenmenlivedalongtime.85Whatdidtheydoduringthosetengenerations?Weknownothingaboutit.Livingscatteredandalmostwithoutsociety,theyhardlyspoke:howcouldtheyhavewritten,andgiventheuniformityoftheirisolatedlifewhateventswouldtheyhavepassedontous?

Adamspoke;Noahspoke;sobeit.AdamhadbeentaughtbyGodhimself.Uponseparating,thechildrenofNoahgaveupagriculture,andthecommonlanguageperishedwiththefirstsociety.ThiswouldhavehappenedeveniftherehadneverbeenatowerofBabel.86Solitaryindividualslivingondesertislandshavebeenseentoforgettheirown

language.Rarelydomenwhoareawayfromtheircountrypreservetheirfirstlanguageafterseveralgenerations,evenwhentheyworktogetherandliveinsocietyamongthemselves.

Scatteredinthisvastdesertoftheworld,menfellbackintothestupidbarbarisminwhichtheywouldhavefoundthemselvesiftheyhadbeenbornoftheearth.Byfollowingtheseideas,suchnaturalones,itiseasytoreconciletheauthorityofScripturewithancientrecords,andoneisnotreducedtotreatingasfablestraditionsasancientasthepeoplewhohavepassedthemontous.

Inthatbrutishstateonehadtolive.Themoreactive,themorerobust,

Page309

thosewhowerealwaysinfrontcouldonlyliveofffruitsandthehunt;sotheybecamehunters,violent,bloodthirsty,andthen,intime,warriors,conquerors,usurpers.HistoryhasstaineditsrecordswiththecrimesofthesefirstKings;warandconquestsaremerelymanhunts.Afterhavingconqueredthem,itonlyremainedforthemtodevourthem.Thatiswhattheirsuccessorshavelearnedtodo.87

Thegreaternumber,lessactiveandmorepeaceable,settleddownassoonastheycould,gatheredlivestock,tamedthem,madethemcomplianttothevoiceofman,learnedtolookafterthem,propagatethem,inordertofeedthemselves;andsobeganthepastorallife.

Humanindustryexpandswiththeneedsthatgiverisetoit.Ofthethreewaysoflifepossibleforman,namelyhunting,tendingherds,andagriculture,thefirsttrainsthebodyforstrength,dexterity,andspeed,thesoulforcourage,cunning,ithardensmanandmakeshimferocious.Thecountryofthehuntersisnotforlongthatofthehunt;*gamehastobepursuedoveralongdistance,hencehorsemanship.Theverygamethatfleeshastobereached;hencelightarms:thesling,thearrow,thejavelin.Thepastoralart,fatherofreposeandoftheidlepassions,istheonethatismostself-sufficient.Itfurnishesmanwithlivelihoodandclothingalmosteffortlessly.Itevenfurnisheshimwithhisdwelling;thetentsofthefirstshepherdsweremadeofanimalskins:theroofofthearkandofMoses'tabernaclewereofnoneothermaterial.88Asforagriculture,whichisslowertoarise,itdependsonallthearts;itbringsproperty,government,laws,andgraduallymiseryandcrimes,whichforourspeciesareinseparablefromtheknowledgeofgoodandevil.Consequently,theGreeksdidnotregardTriptolemusmerelyastheinventorofausefulart,butasafounderandawisemanfromwhomtheyheldtheirfirstdisciplineandtheirfirstlaws.Ontheotherhand,MosesseemstohaveissuedajudgmentofdisapprobationuponagriculturebyattributingitsinventiontoawickedmanandhavingGodrejecthisofferings;itmightsaidthatthefirstplowmanproclaimedthebadeffectsofhisartbyhis

character.TheauthorofGenesishadseenfartherthanHerodotus.89

Totheprecedingdivisiontherecorrespondthethreestatesofmanconsideredinrelationtosociety.Thesavageisahunter,thebarbarianaherdsman,thecivilmanaplowman.90

Whetheroneinvestigatestheoriginoftheartsorexaminesthefirst

*Thehunter'stradeisnotatallconducivetopopulation.Thisobservation,whichwasmadewhentheIslandsofSantoDomingoandofTortugawereinhabitedbybuccaneers,isconfirmedbythestateofNorthAmerica.Noneofthefathersofanyconsiderablenationsareseentohavebeenhuntersbystation;theyhaveallbeenfarmersorshepherds.Hunting,therefore,mustbeconsideredherelessasaresourceofsubsistencethanasanaccessorytothepastoralstate.

Page310

morals,therefore,oneseesthateverythingisrelatedinitsfirstprincipletothemeansofprovidingforsubsistence,andasforthoseamongthesemeansthatgathermentogether,theyaredeterminedbytheclimateandbythenatureofthesoil.Thus,itisalsobythesamecausesthatthediversityoflanguagesandthecontrastintheircharactersmustbeexplained.

Mildclimates,lushandfertilelandshavebeenthefirsttobepopulatedandthelastwherenationshavebeenformed,becausemencouldmoreeasilydowithoutoneanotherthere,andbecausetheneedsthatcausesocietytoarisemadethemselvesfeltlaterthere.

Assumeaperpetualspringonearth;91assumewater,livestock,pasturageeverywhere;assumemenleavingthehandsofnature,oncedispersedthroughoutallthis:Icannotimaginehowtheywouldeverhaverenouncedtheirprimitivefreedomandforsakentheisolatedandpastorallifesosuitedtotheirnaturalindolence,*inorderneedlesslytoimposeonthemselvestheslavery,thelabors,themiseriesinseparablefromthesocialstate.

Hewhowilledthatmanbesociabletouchedhisfingertotheaxisoftheglobeandinclineditatanangletotheaxisoftheuniverse.93WiththisslightmovementIseethefaceoftheearthchangeandthevocationofmankinddecided:Ihearfromafarthejoyouscriesofasenselessmultitude;IseePalacesandTownsraised;Iseethearts,laws,commerceborn;Iseepeoplesforming,extending,dissolving,succeedingoneanotherlikethewavesofthesea:Iseemengatheredtogetheratafewdwellingplacesinordertodevoureachotherthere,tomakeafrightfuldesertoftherestoftheworld;aworthymonumenttosocialunionandtheusefulnessofthearts.

Theearthnourishesmen,butwhenthefirstneedshavedispersedthemotherneedsbringthemtogether,anditisonlythenthattheyspeakandmakethemselvesspokenof.Soasnottofindmeincontradictionwithmyself,Ihavetobeallowedtimetoexplainmyself.

Ifoneseekstheplaceswherethefathersofmankindwereborn,fromwhencethefirstcoloniessetout,thefirstemigrationscame,youwillnotnamethehappyclimesofAsiaMinor,orofSicily,orofAfrica,orevenofEgypt;youwillnamethesandsofChaldea,therocksofPhoenecia.Youwillfindthesamethingsinalltimes.ChinahaspopulateditselfhandsomelywithChinese,anditisalsopopulatedwithTartars;theScythiansin-

*Theextenttowhichmanisnaturallylazyisinconceivable.92Onewouldsaythathelivesonlyinordertosleep,tovegetate,toremainimmobile;hecanscarcelyresolvetodevotethemotionsnecessarytopreventhimselffromdyingofhunger.Nothingupholdstheloveofsomanysavagesfortheirstateasthisdelightfulindolence.Thepassionsthatmakemanrestless,provident,active,arebornonlyinsociety.Todonothingisman'sfirstandstrongestpassionafterthatofself-preservation.Werethisconsideredcarefully,itwouldbeseenthatevenamongusitisinordertoachievereposethateachworks;itisstilllazinessthatmakesusindustrious.

Page311

undatedEuropeandAsia;themountainsofSwitzerlandarenowpouringforthaperpetualcolonyintoourfertileregionsthatpromisesnottorundry.

Itisnatural,itissaid,fortheinhabitantsofabarrenlandtoleaveitinordertooccupyabetterone.94Verywell;butwhydoesthisbetterland,insteadofswarmingwithitsowninhabitants,makeroomforothers?Toleaveabarrenland,onehastobethereinthefirstplace.Why,then,aresomanymenbornthereratherthanelsewhere?Onewouldthinkthatbarrenlandsmustbepopulatedonlybytheexcessoffertilecountries,andweseetheoppositetobethecase.MostoftheLatinpeoplesclaimedtobeaboriginals,*whileMagnaGraecia,whichismuchmorefertile,waspopulatedonlybyforeigners.AlltheGreekpeoplesadmittedthattheyderivedtheiroriginfromvariouscolonies,asidefromtheonewhosesoilwastheworst,namelytheAtticpeople,whichcalleditselfAutochthonousorbornfromitself.Finally,withoutpiercingthenightoftime,moderncenturiesofferadecisiveobservation:forwhatclimateintheworldissadderthanthatwhichhasbeencalledthefactoryofmankind?95

Theassociationsofmenareingreatparttheworkofaccidentsofnature;particularfloods,overflowingseas,volcaniceruptions,greatearthquakes,fireskindledbylightningandwhichdestroyedforests,everythingthatmusthavefrightenedanddispersedthesavageinhabitantsofalandmustthereafterbringthemtogethertorepairincommontheircommonlosses.Thetraditionsoftheearthlycalamitiessocurrentinancienttimesshowwhatinstrumentsprovidenceusedtoforcehumanbeingstocometogether.96Eversincesocietieshavebeenestablishedthesegreataccidentshaveceasedandbecomemorerare;itseemsthatthistoomustbeso;thesamecalamitiesthatbroughttogetherscatteredmenwoulddispersethosewhoareunited.

Therevolutionsoftheseasonsareanothercause,moregeneralandmorepermanent,thatmusthaveproducedthesameeffectintheclimatessubjecttothisvariety.Forcedtomakeprovisionforthewinter,the

inhabitantsthereareinthepositionofhavingtohelponeanother,theretheyareconstrainedtoestablishsomesortofconventionamongstthemselves.Whenexpeditionsbecomeimpossibleandtheseverityofthecoldstopsthem,boredomtiesthemasmuchasneed.TheLapps,buriedintheirice,theEskimos,themostsavageofallpeoples,cometogetherintheircavesforthewinter,andinthesummernolongerknowoneanother.97Increasetheirdevelopmentandtheirenlightenmentbyonedegree,beholdthemunitedforever.

*ThenamesAutochthonsandAboryiginalsmeanmerelythatthefirstinhabitantsofthelandweresavageswithoutsocieties,withoutlaws,withouttraditions,andthattheypopulateditbeforetheyspoke.

Page312

Neitherman'sstomachnorhisintestinesweremadetodigestrawflesh;generallyhecannotbearitstaste.98WiththeexceptionperhapsoftheEskimosalone,ofwhomIjustspoke,evensavagesgrilltheirmeats.Tofire'susenecessaryinordertocooktheirmeatsisjoinedthepleasureitgivestothesightanditspleasantwarmthtothebody.Thesightoftheflame,whichmakestheanimalsflee,attractsman.*Peoplegathertogetheraroundacommonhearth,havefeasts,dancethere;thesweettiesofhabitimperceptiblybringtogethermanandhisfellows,andonthisrustichearthburnsthesacredfirethatcarriestothedepthsoftheirheartsthefirstsentimentofhumanity.

Inwarmcountries,unevenlydispersedspringsandriversareadditionalmeetingplaces,allthemorenecessaryasmencandowithoutwaterevenlessthanwithoutfire.Thebarbarianswholiveofftheirherdsaboveallneedcommonwateringplaces,andthehistoryofthemostancienttimesteachesusthatitisindeedtherethattheirtreatiesaswellastheirquarrelsbegan.Easyaccesstowatercandelaythesocietyoftheinhabitantsinwellwateredplaces.Ontheotherhand,inaridplacestheyhadtocooperateinsinkingwells,indrawingoffcanalsinordertowaterthelivestock.Associatedmenareseentherealmostfromtimeimmemorial,forthelandhadtoremaindesertorbemadehabitablebyhumanlabor.Butthepenchantwehaveofrelatingeverythingtoourpracticesmakessomereflectionsonthisnecessary.

Thefirststateoftheearthdifferedgreatlyfromwhatitistoday,whenitisseenadornedordisfiguredbythehandsofmen.ThechaoswhichthePoetsfeignedamongtheelementsreignedamongitsproductions.101Inthoseremotetimeswhenrevolutionswerefrequent,orathousandaccidentschangedthenatureofthesoilandthelookoftheterrain,everythinggrewconfusedly:trees,vegetables,shrubs,pasturage;nospecieshadthetimetolayholdoftheterrainthatsuiteditbestandtochokeouttheothersthere;theywouldseparateslowly,gradually,andthenanupheavalwouldoccurthatwouldconfoundeverything.

Thereissucharelationshipbetweenman'sneedsandtheproductions

*Firegivesgreatpleasuretoanimalsaswellastoman,oncetheyareaccustomedtoitssightandhavefeltitsgentlewarmth.Often,itwouldevenbenolessusefultothemthantous,attheveryleasttowarmtheiryoung.Nevertheless,noonehaseverheardofanybeast,eitherwildordomestic,havingacquiredsufficientingenuitytomakefire,evenafterourexample.These,then,arethereasoningbeingswhoaresaidtoformafleetingsocietypriortoman,whoseintelligenceneverthelesshasneverbeenabletoraiseitselftothelevelofstrikingsparksfromastoneandcatchingthem,oratleastofkeepingsomeabandonedfiresgoing!Bymyword,thePhilosophersmakefunofusentirelyopenly.Oneclearlyseesbytheirwritingsthattheyindeedtakeusforbeingstupid.99Seetheexampleofthembothinchapter21ofGenesis,betweenAbrahamandAbilemechinconnectionwiththewelloftheoath.100

Page313

oftheearththatitisenoughforittobepopulated,andeverythingsubsists;butbeforeunitedmenestablishedabalanceamongitsproductionsbytheircommonlabors,forthemalltosubsistnaturealonehadtoattendtotheequilibriumthatthehandsofmenpreservetoday;itmaintainedorrestoredthisequilibriumbymeansofrevolutionsjustasmenmaintainorrestoreitbytheirinconstancy.War,whichdidnotyetreignamongthem,seemedtoreignamongtheelements;mendidnotburntowns,didnotdigmines,didnotfelltrees;butnatureignitedvolcanoes,rousedearthquakes,thefireofHeavenconsumedforests.Aboltoflightning,aflood,aneruptiondidtheninafewhourswhatahundredthousandhumanarmsdotodayinacentury.OtherwiseIdonotseehowthesystemcouldhavesubsistedandtheequilibriumhavemaintaineditself.Inthekingdomsoforganiclife,thelargerspecieswouldinthelongrunhaveabsorbedthesmaller.*Thewholeearthwouldsoonhavebeencoveredwithnothingbuttreesandferociousbeasts;intheendeverythingwouldhaveperished.

Thewaterswouldgraduallylosethecirculationthatvivifiestheearth.Themountainsgetworndownandgrowsmaller,theriverssweepalong,theseafillsandextends,everythingimperceptiblytendstowardthesamelevel;thehandsofmencheckthisinclinationanddelaythisprogress;withoutthemitwouldbemorerapid,andtheearthwouldperhapsalreadybeunderthewaters.Priortohumanlabor,thepoorlydistributedspringsflowedmoreunevenly,fertilizedtheearthlessadequately,watereditsinhabitantswithmoredifficulty.Riverswereofteninaccessible,theirbankssteepormarshy;ashumanartdidnotretainthemintheirbeds,theyfrequentlyleftthem,overflowedontherightorleftbank,changedtheirdirectionandcourse,forkedintovariousbranches;sometimestheywerefoundtodryup,sometimesquicksandspreventedtheirbeingapproached:itwasasiftheydidnotexist,andonediedofthirstinthemidstofwaters.

Howmanyaridlandsarehabitableonlybymeansoftheditchesandcanalsthatmenhavedrawnofffromrivers!AlmostthewholeofPersia

continuestoexistonlythroughthisartifice.ChinaswarmswithPeoplewiththehelpofitsnumerouscanals:withoutthemtheLowCountieswouldbeinundatedbyrivers,astheywouldbebytheseawithouttheir

*Itisclaimedthatbyakindofnaturalactionandreaction,thevariousspeciesoftheanimalkingdomwouldofthemselvesmaintainthemselvesinaperpetualbalancewhichforthemwouldtaketheplaceofanequilibrium.102Oncethedevouringspecieshasincreasedtoomuchattheexpenseofthedevouredspecies,itissaid,thenthefirst,nolongerfindingitssubsistence,willhavetodecreaseandallowthesecondtimetorepopulateitself,until,furnishinganewanabundantsubsistenceforthefirst,itagaindecreaseswhilethedevouringspeciesrepopulatesitselfanew.Butsuchanoscillationdoesnotseematallprobabletome:foraccordingtothissystemtherehastobeatimewhenthespeciesthatservesaspreyincreasesandtheonethatfeedsonitdecreases,whichseemstomeagainstallreason.

Page314

dikes.Egypt,themostfertilelandonearth,ishabitableonlybymeansofhumanlabor.Onthegreatplainslackingriversandwherethegradeofthesoilisnotsteepenough,thereisnoresourceotherthanwells.If,then,thefirstpeoplesofwhichthereismentioninhistorydidnotinhabitlushlandsoreasilyaccessibleshores,itisnotthatthesehappyclimesweredeserted,butthattheirnumerousinhabitants,abletodowithoutoneanother,livedisolatedintheirfamiliesandwithoutcommunication.Butinaridplaces,wherewatercanbehadonlythroughwells,peoplesimplyhadtounitetosinkthem,oratleasttoagreeabouttheiruse.Suchmusthavebeentheoriginofsocietiesandoflanguagesinwarmcountries.

Therewereformedthefirsttiesbetweenfamilies;therethefirstmeetingsbetweenthetwosexestookplace.Younggirlscametofetchwaterforthehousehold,youngmencametowatertheirherds.Thereeyesaccustomedtothesameobjectsfromchildhoodbegantoseesweeterones.Theheartwasmovedbythesenewobjects,anunfamiliarattractionmadeitlesssavage,itfeltthepleasureofnotbeingalone.Imperceptiblywaterbecamemorenecessary,thelivestockwerethirstymoreoften;theyarrivedinhasteandpartedreluctantly.Inthishappyagewhennothingmarkedthehours,nothingobligedthemtobecounted;timedidnothaveanymeasureotherthanamusementandboredom.Beneathagedoaks,conquerorsofyears,anardentyouthgraduallyforgotitsferocity,graduallytheytamedoneanother;throughendeavoringtomakethemselvesunderstood,theylearnedtoexplainthemselves.Therethefirstfestivalstookplace,feetleapedwithjoy,eagergesturenolongersufficed,thevoiceaccompanieditwithpassionateaccents;mingledtogether,pleasureanddesiremadethemselvesfeltatthesametime.There,finally,wasthetruecradleofpeoples,andfromthepurecrystalofthefountainscamethefirstfiresoflove.103

Whatthen!Beforethattimeweremenbornoftheearth?Didthegenerationssucceedoneanotherwithoutthetwosexesbeingunitedandwithoutanyonebeingunderstood?No,therewerefamilies,buttherewere

noNations;thereweredomesticlanguages,buttherewerenopopularlanguages;thereweremarriages,buttherewasnolove.Eachfamilywasselfsufficientandperpetuateditselfthroughitsownstock.Childrenbornofthesameparentsgrewuptogetherandgraduallyfoundwaysofexpressingthemselvesamongthemselves;withagethesexesweredistinguished,naturalinclinationsufficedtounitethem,instincttooktheplaceofpassion,habittooktheplaceofpreference,theybecamehusbandsandwiveswithoutceasingtobebrothersandsisters.*Nothinginthiswasanimated

*Thefirstmensimplyhadtomarrytheirsisters.104Giventhesimplicityofthefirstmorals,thispracticewasperpetuatedwithoutdrawbackaslongasfamiliesremainedisolatedandevenafterthecomingtogetherofthemostancientpeoples;butthelawthatabolished

(footnotecontinuedonnextpage)

Page315

enoughtounloosethetongue,nothingthatcoulddrawforththeaccentsoftheardentpassionsfrequentlyenoughtoturnthemintoinstitutions,andonecouldsayasmuchabouttherareandnotverypressingneedsthatmayhaveledsomementocooperateintheircommonlabors:onebeganthebasinofthefountain,andtheotherlatercompletedit,oftenwithouttheirhavinghadneedoftheslightestagreementandsometimeswithoutevenhavingseenoneanother.Inaword,inmildclimates,infertileterrains,ittookallthelivelinessoftheagreeablepassionstobegintomaketheinhabitantsspeak.Thefirstlanguages,daughtersofpleasureandnotofneed,longborethesignoftheirfather;theirseductiveaccentfadedonlywiththefeelingsthathadcausedthemtoarise,whennewneedsintroducedamongmenforcedeachtoconsideronlyhimselfandtowithdrawhisheartwithinhimself.

ChapterX106:FormationoftheLanguagesoftheNorth

Inthelongrunallmenbecomesimilar,107buttheorderoftheirprogressisdifferent.Insouthernclimates,wherenatureisprodigal,needsarisefromthepassions,incoldcountries,wherenatureismiserly,thepassionsarisefromneeds,andthelanguages,unhappydaughtersofnecessity,showtheirsevereorigin.

Althoughmanbecomesaccustomedtoinclementweather,tothecold,todiscomfort,eventohunger,thereisnonethelessapointatwhichnaturesuccumbs.Asavictimtothesecruelordeals,everythingthatisweakperishes;allthatremainsisstrengthened,andthereisnomiddlegroundbetweenvigoranddeath.Thatiswhynorthernpeoplesaresorobust;108itisnotatfirsttheclimatethathasmadethemsuch,ratherithassufferedonlythosewhoaresotoexist,anditisnotsurprisingthatchildrenretainthegoodconstitutionoftheirfathers.

Itisseenbynowthatmenwhoaremorerobustmusthavelessdelicateorgans,theirvoicesmustbeharsherandstronger.Besides,whata

differencethereisbetweenthetouchinginflectionswhichcomefromthemovementsofthesoulandthecrieswrestedbyphysicalneeds.Inthesedread

(footnotecontinuedfrompreviouspage)

itwasnolesssacredforbeingahumaninstitution.Thosewhoconsideritonlyintermsofthetieitformsbetweenfamiliesdonotseeitsmostimportantside.Giventhefamiliaritythatdomesticcommerce105necessarilyestablishesbetweenthetwosexes,fromthemomentwhensuchasacredlawshouldceasetospeaktotheheartandimposeonthesenses,therewouldnolongerbedecencyamongmenandthemostfrightfulmoralswouldsooncausemankind'sdestruction.

Page316

fulclimateswhereeverythingisdeadforninemonthsoftheyear,wherethesunwarmstheairforafewweeksonlytoteachtheinhabitantsaboutthegoodsofwhichtheyaredeprivedandtoprolongtheirmisery,inthoseplaceswheretheearthyieldsnothingbuttotheforceoflaborandwherethesourceoflifeseemstobeinthearmsmorethanintheheart,men,constantlyoccupiedwithprovidingfortheirsubsistence,scarcelythoughtofgentlerties,everythingwaslimitedtophysicalimpulsion,opportunitydictatedchoice,easedictatedpreference.109Theidlenessthatnourishesthepassionsgiveswaytothelaborthatrepressesthem.Beforethinkingoflivinghappily,theyhadtothinkofliving.Mutualneedunitedmenmuchbetterthanfeelingwouldhavedone,societywasformedonlythroughindustry,theconstantdangerofperishingdidnotallowthemtolimitthemselvestothelanguageofgesture,andthefirstwordamongthemwasnot''loveme,"but"helpme."110

Thosetwoexpressions,althoughsimilarenough,arepronouncedinaverydifferenttone.Therewasnothingonehadtomakefelt,everythingtobemadeunderstood;itwasthereforeamatternotofenergybutofclarity.Foraccent,whichtheheartdidnotfurnish,strongandsensiblearticulationsweresubstituted,andiftherewasanynaturalimprintintheformofthelanguage,thisimprintcontributedstillfurthertoitsharshness.

Indeed,northernmenarenotwithoutpassions,buttheirsarethoseofanothertype.Thoseofwarmcountriesarethevoluptuouspassionsthatconcernloveandsoftness.Naturedoessomuchfortheinhabitantsthatthereisalmostnothingforthemtodo.ProvidedthatanAsiatichaswomenandreposeheiscontent.ButintheNorth,wheretheinhabitantsconsumeagreatdealoffofabarrensoil,men,subjecttosomanyneeds,areeasilyirritated;everythingthathappensaroundthemdisturbsthem:sincetheycontinuetoexistonlywithdifficulty,thepoorertheyare,themoretheyclingtothelittletheyhave;toapproachthemistomakeanattemptontheirlives.Thisaccountsfortheirirascibletemper,soquicktoturninfuryagainsteverythingthatoffendsthem.Thus,theirmostnatural

voicesarethoseofangerandthreats,andthosevoicesarealwaysaccompaniedbystrongarticulationsthatmakethemharshandnoisy.

ChapterXI:ReflectionsontheseDifferences

Theseare,inmyopinion,themostgeneralphysicalcausesofthecharacteristicdifferencebetweenprimitivelanguages.Thoseofthesouthmust

Page317

havebeenlively,sonorous,accented,eloquent,andoftenobscurebydintoftheirenergy;thoseoftheNorthmusthavebeenmuted,crude,articulated,shrill,monotonous,clearbydintoftheirwordsratherthanbyagoodconstruction.Modernlanguages,mingledandrecastahundredtimes,stillretainsomethingofthesedifferences.French,English,andGermanaretheprivatelanguagesofmenwhohelponeanother,whocoollyreasonwithoneanother,orofquick-temperedpeoplewhogetangry;buttheministersoftheGodsproclaimingthesacredmysteries,thewisegivinglawstopeoples,leaderscarryingalongthemultitudemustspeakArabicorPersian.*Ourlanguagesarebetterwrittenthanspoken,andthereismorepleasureinreadingusthanthereisinlisteningtous.Incontrast,whenwritten,orientallanguageslosetheirlifeandwarmth.Onlyhalfofthemeaningisinthewords,allitsforceisintheaccents.TojudgethegeniusoftheOrientalsbytheirBooksislikewantingtopaintamanfromhiscorpse.

Inordertoappraisemen'sactionsproperly,theyhavetobeconsideredinalltheirrelations,andthisiswhatwehavenotatalllearnedtodo.Whenweputourselvesintheplaceofothers,wealwaysputourselvestheresuchaswehavebeenmodified,notsuchastheymusthavebeen,andwhenwethinkwearejudgingthembyreason,weareonlycomparingtheirprejudiceswithours.SomeonewhocanreadalittleArabicsmileswhenleafingthroughtheKoran,hadheheardMohammedinpersonproclaimitinthateloquentandrhythmiclanguage,withthatsonorousandpersuasivevoicewhichseducedtheearbeforetheheart,andconstantlyanimatinghisaphorismswiththeaccentofenthusiasm,hewouldhaveprostratedhimselfontheearthwhilecryingout:greatProphet,MessengerofGod,leadustoglory,tomartyrdom;wewanttoconquerortodieforyou.Fanaticismalwaysappearsridiculoustous,becauseamongusithasnovoicetomakeitselfheard.111Evenourfanaticsarenottruefanatics,theyaremerelyknavesorfools.Ourlanguages,insteadofinflectionsfortheinspired,haveonlycriesforthosepossessedbytheDevil.

ChapterXII:OriginofMusic

Alongwiththefirstvoiceswereformedthefirstarticulationsorthefirstsounds,dependingonthekindofpassionthatdictatedtheoneorthe

*Turkishisanorthernlanguage.

Page318

other.Angerwrestsmenacingcrieswhichthetongueandthepalatearticulate;butthevoiceoftendernessisgentler,itistheglottisthatmodifiesit,andthisvoicebecomesasound.Onlyitsaccentsaremoreorlessfrequent,itsinflectionsmoreorlessacutedependingonthefeelingthatisjoinedtothem.Thuscadenceandsoundsarisealongwithsyllables,passionmakesallthevocalorgansspeak,andadornsthevoicewithalltheirbrilliance;thusverses,songs,andspeechhaveacommonorigin.112AroundthefountainsofwhichIhavespoken,thefirstdiscourseswerethefirstsongs;theperiodicandmeasuredrecurrencesofrhythm,themelodiousinflectionsofaccentscausedpoetryandmusictobebornalongwithlanguage;orrather,allthiswasnothingbutlanguageitselfinthosehappyclimatesandthosehappytimeswhentheonlypressingneedsthatrequiredanother'shelpwerethosetowhichtheheartgaverise.

Relationships113

Thefirststories,thefirstharangues,andthefirstlawswereinverse;114poetrywasdiscoveredbeforeprose;thishadtobeso,sincethepassionsspokebeforereason.Thesamewassoformusic:atfirsttherewasnomusicatallotherthanmelody,noranyothermelodythanthevariedsoundofspeech,theaccentsformedthesong,thequantitiesformedthemeter,andonespokeasmuchbysoundsandrhythmasbyarticulationsandvoices.Inoldendaystospeakandtosingwerethesamething,saysStrabo;whichshows,headds,thatpoetryisthesourceofeloquence.*Heoughttohavesaidthattheybothhadthesamesourceandatfirstweremerelythesamething.Consideringthewayinwhichthefirstsocietieswereboundtogether,wasitsurprisingthatthefirststoriesweresettoverseandthatthefirstlawsweresung?WasitsurprisingthatthefirstGrammarianssubordinatedtheirarttomusicandwereatthesametimeteachersofthemboth?

Alanguagethathasonlyarticulationsandvoicesthereforehasonlyhalfitsriches;itconveysideas,itistrue,butinordertoconveyfeelings,images,itstillneedsarhythmandsounds,thatis,amelody;thatiswhat

theGreeklanguagehad,andwhatourlacks.

Wearealwaysastonishedbytheprodigiouseffectsofeloquence,poetry,andmusicamongtheGreeks;117theseeffectscannotbesortedoutatallinourheadsbecausewenolongerexperiencesimilarones,andallthatwecanmanageforourselves,seeingthemsowellattested,istopretend

*Geogr.,Bk.I.115ArchitasatqueAristoxenesetiamsubjectamgrammaticenmusicaeputaverunt,eteosdemutriusquereipraeceptores,fuisse....TumEupolisapudquemProdamusetmusicenetliterasdocet.EtMaricas,quiestHyperbolus,nihilseexmusicisscirenisiliterasconfitetur.Quint.Bk.I,chap.X.116

Page319

tobelievethemoutofindulgenceforourScholars.*Burrette,havingtranscribedasbesthecouldsomepiecesofGreekmusicintoourmusicalnotation,wassimpleenoughtohavethesepiecesperformedattheAcademyofBelles-Lettres,andtheAcademicianshadthepatiencetolistentothem.118Iadmirethisexperimentinacountrywhosemusicisindecipherableforeveryothernation.GiveanyforeignMusiciansyoupleaseamonologuefromaFrenchoperatoperform:Idefyyoutorecognizeanyofit.ThesearenonethelessthesameFrenchmenwhopresumetojudgethemelodyofanOdeofPindarsettoMusictwothousandyearsago!

IhavereadthattheIndiansinAmerica,seeingtheastonishingeffectoffirearms,usedtopickupthemusketballsfromtheground,then,throwingthemwiththeirhandswhileemittingaloudnoisefromtheirmouths,werequitesurprisedthattheyhadnotkilledanyone.Ourorators,ourmusicians,andourScholarsresembletheseIndians.ThewonderisnotthatwenolongeraccomplishwithourmusicwhattheGreeksdidwiththeirs,onthecontrary,itwouldbethatthesameeffectsshouldbeproducedwithsuchdifferentinstruments.

ChapterXIII:OnMelody

Manismodifiedbyhissenses,noonedoubtsit;butbecausewefailtodistinguishtheirmodifications,weconfoundtheircauses;weattributebothtoomuchandtoolittledominiontosensations;wedonotseethatoftentheyaffectusnotonlyassensationsbutassignsorimages,andthattheirmoraleffectsalsohavemoralcauses.120Justasthefeelingsthatpaintingarousesinusarenotatallduetocolors,sothedominionmusichasoveroursoulsisnotatalltheworkofsounds.Beautifulcolors,finelyshaded,pleasethesight,butthatpleasureispurelyoneofsensation.Itis

*DoubtlessallowancehastobemadeforGreekexaggerationinallthings,butitistoconcedetoomuchtomodernprejudicetocarrysuchallowancestothepointofmakingalldifferencesvanish."WhentheMusicoftheGreeksofthetimeof

AmphionandofOrpheus,"saystheAbbéTerrasson,119"wasatthelevelatwhichitistodayinthetownsfurthestfromtheCapital,itwasatthattimethatitinterruptedthecourseofrivers,thatitattractedoaks,thatitmaderocksmove.Today,havingreachedaveryhighlevelofperfection,itismuchbeloved,itsbeautieshaveevenbeenpenetrated,butitleaveseverythinginplace.ItwasthesamewiththeversesofHomer:aPoetborninthetimeswhichstillshowedtheeffectsofthechildhoodofthehumanmind,incomparisonwiththosethatfollowed.Peoplewereenrapturedbytheseverses,andtodaytheycontentthemselveswithsavoringandappreciatingtheversesofgoodPoets."ThereisnodenyingthattheAbbéTerrassonissometimesphilosophic,buthecertainlydoesn'tshowitinthispassage.

Page320

thedesign,itistheimitation,thatendowsthesecolorswithlifeandsoul,itisthepassionswhichtheyexpressthatsucceedinmovingourown,itistheobjectswhichtheyrepresentthatsucceedinaffectingus.Interestandfeelingdonotdependoncolors;thecontoursofatouchingpaintingtouchusinanengravingaswell;removethosecontoursfromthePainting,thecolorswillnolongerdoanything.121

Melodydoesinmusicpreciselywhatdesigndoesinpainting;itismelodythatindicatesthecontoursandfigures,ofwhichtheaccordsandsoundsarebutthecolors.Butwillitnotbesaidthatmelodyismerelyasuccessionofsounds?Doubtless;butdesignisalsomerelyanarrangementofcolors.Anoratormakesuseofinktopenhiswritings;doesthatmeanthatinkisamosteloquentliquid?

Imagineacountrywherenoonehadanyideaofdesign,butwheremanypeoplewhospendtheirlivescombining,mixing,andblendingcolorsbelievedthemselvestoexcelinpainting;thosepeoplewouldreasonaboutourpaintingpreciselyaswereasonaboutthemusicoftheGreeks.Eveniftheyweretoldabouttheemotionthatbeautifulpaintingscauseinusandaboutthecharmofbeingtouchedbyapatheticsubject,wouldtheirscholarsnotstraightawayprobethematerial,comparetheircolorswithours,examinewhetherourgreenismoredelicateorourredmorebrilliant;wouldtheynottrytofindoutwhichaccordsofcolorscouldcauseweeping,whichotherscouldarouseanger?TheBurettes122ofthatcountrywouldputtogetherafewdisfiguredfragmentsofourpaintingsonrags;thenitwouldbeaskedwithsurprisewhatwassomarvelousaboutsuchcoloration.

Andif,inaneighboringnation,someonebegantoformsomesortofcontour,asketch,astillimperfectfigure,itwouldallpassforscribbling,foracapriciousandbaroquepainting,and,inordertopreservetaste,theywouldholdontothissimplebeauty,whichintruthexpressesnothing,butwhichmakesfineshadings,largewell-coloredslabs,extendedprogressionsofhueswithoutanycontour.

Finally,theymightperhapsbydintofprogressarriveattheexperimentwiththeprism.123Straightaway,somecelebratedartistwouldestablishabeautifulsystemonthebasisofit.Gentlemen,hewouldsaytothem,inordertophilosophizeproperly,onehastogobacktothephysicalcauses.Hereyouhavethedecompositionoflight,hereyouhavealltheprimarycolors,hereyouhavetheirratios,theirproportions,hereyouhavethetrueprinciplesofthepleasurethatpaintingcausesforyou.Allthismysterioustalkofdesign,representation,figureisapurechicaneryonthepartofFrenchpainters,whothinkthatbytheirimitationstheyproduceIknownotwhatmovementsinthesoul,whileitisknownthatthereisnothingin

Page321

itbutsensations.Youaretoldofthemarvelsoftheirpaintings,butlookatmyhues.

FrenchPainters,hewouldcontinue,mayperhapshaveobservedtherainbow;theymayhavereceivedfromnaturesometasteforshadingandsomeinstinctforcoloration.ButI,Ihaveshownyouthegreat,thetrueprinciplesoftheart.WhatamIsaying,oftheart?Ofallthearts,Gentlemen,ofallthesciences.Theanalysisofcolors,thecalculationoftherefractionsoftheprism,givesyouthesoleexactrelationshipsfoundinnature,theruleofallrelationships.124Now,everythingintheuniverseismerelyrelationship.Onethereforeknowseverythingonceoneknowshowtopaint,oneknowseverythingonceoneknowshowtomatchcolors.125

Whatwouldwesayaboutapaintersolackinginfeelingandtasteastoreasoninthisway,andstupidlytolimitthepleasurethatpaintingcausesinustothephysicsofhisart?Whatwouldwesayofthemusicianwho,filledwithsimilarprejudices,believedhesawinharmonyalonethesourceofthegreateffectsofmusic?Wewouldsendthefirstofftopaintwoodwork,andwouldcondemntheothertocomposeFrenchopera.

Aspaintingis,therefore,nottheartofcombiningcolorsinawaypleasingtothesight,nomoreismusictheartofcombiningsoundsinawaypleasingtotheear.126Iftherewerenothingbutthisinthem,theywouldbothbecountedamongtheranksofthenaturalsciences,andnotthefinearts.Itisimitationalonethatelevatesthemtothatrank.Now,whatmakespaintinganimitativeart?Itisdesign.Whatmakesmusicanother?Itismelody.

ChapterXIV:OnHarmony

Thebeautyofsoundsisfromnature;theireffectispurelyphysical,itresultsfromtheinteractionofthevariousparticlesofairsetinmotionbythesoundingbody,andbyallitsaliquots,perhapstoinfinity.Allofthis

togetherproducesapleasantsensation:everymanintheuniversewilltakepleasureinlisteningtobeautifulsounds;butunlessthispleasureisanimatedbymelodiousinflectionsthatarefamiliartothem,itwillnotbedelightful,itwillnotpassintovoluptuouspleasure.Themostbeautifulsongs,toourtaste,willalwaysonlyindifferentlytouchanearthatisnotatallaccustomedtothem;itisalanguageforwhichonehastohavetheDictionary.

Harmony,properlysocalled,isinastilllessfavorablesituation.Havingonlyconventionalbeauties,itinnowayappealstoearsthatarenot

Page322

trainedinit;onehastohavebeenlonghabituatedtoitinordertofeelandsavorit.Rusticearshearonlynoiseinourconsonances.Whenthenaturalproportionsaredistorted,itisnotsurprisingthatthenaturalpleasurenolongerexists.

Asoundcarrieswithitallofitsconcomitantharmonies,intherelationsofstrengthandintervalthattheymusthaveamongthemselvesinordertoproducethemostperfectharmonyofthissamesound.Addtothisthethirdorfifthorsomeotherconsonance,youdonotaddtoit,butredoubleit;youleavetherelationofintervalunchanged,butyoualterthatofthestrength;byreinforcingoneconsonanceandnottheothers,youdisrupttheproportion.Wantingtodobetterthannature,youdoworse.Yourearsandyourtastearespoiledbyamisunderstoodart.Bynaturethereisnootherharmonythanunison.

M.Rameauclaimsthattreblepartsofacomparativesimplicitynaturallysuggesttheirbasses,andthatamanwhohasatruebutunpracticedearwillnaturallyintonethisbass.127Thatisamusician'sprejudice,beliedbyallexperience.Notonlywillapersonwhohasneverheardeitherabassorharmonynotfindeitherthisharmonyorbassonhisown,buttheywillevendispleasehimifheismadetohearthem,andhewilllikesimpleunisonmuchbetter.

Evenifoneweretocalculatetheratiosofsoundsandthelawsofharmonyforathousandyears,howwillthisarteverbemadeanimitativeart?Whereistheprincipleofthissupposedimitation,ofwhatisharmonythesign,andwhatdothesechordshaveincommonwithourpassions?

Werethesamequestionputaboutmelody,theanswerwouldcomeofitself:itisinthereaders'mindsbeforehand.Melody,byimitatingtheinflectionsofthevoice,expressescomplaints,criesofsadnessorofjoy,threats,andmoans;allthevocalsignsofthepassionsarewithinitsscope.Itimitatestheaccentsoflanguages,andtheturnsofphraseappropriateineachidiomtocertainmovementsofthesoul;itnotonlyimitates,it

speaks,anditslanguage,inarticulatebutlively,ardent,passionate,hasahundredtimesmoreenergythanspeechitself.Hereisfromwhencethestrengthofmusicalimitationsarises;hereisfromwhencethedominionofsongoversensitiveheartsarises.Harmonymay,incertainsystems,cooperatewiththisbylinkingthesuccessionofsoundsthroughcertainlawsofmodulations,bymakingtheintonationsmoreexact,byprovidingtheearwithreliableevidenceofthisexactness,bybringingtogetheranddeterminingimperceptibleinflectionsintoconsonantandlinkedintervals.Butbythusshacklingthemelody,itdeprivesitofenergyandexpression,iteliminatespassionateaccentinordertosubstitutetheharmonicintervalforit,itsubjectstotwomodesalonesongswhichshouldhaveasmany

Page323

modesastheyhaveoratoricaltones,iteffacesanddestroysmultitudesofsoundsorintervalsthatdonotenterintoitssystem;inaword,itseparatessongfromspeechsomuchthatthesetwolanguagescombatoneanother,contradictoneanother,depriveeachotherofeverycharacteristicoftruthandcannotbeunitedinapatheticsubjectwithoutbeingabsurd.Thatishowithappensthatthepeoplealwaysfinditridiculousforstrongandseriouspassionstobeexpressedinsong;foritknowsthatinourlanguagesthesepassionshavenomusicalinflections,andthatthemenofthenorthnomorediesingingthanswansdo.128

Byitselfharmonyiseveninadequatefortheexpressionsthatappeartodependuniquelyuponit.Thunder,themurmuringofwaters,winds,andstormsarepoorlyrenderedbysimplechords.Whateveronemaydo,noisealonesaysnothingtothemind,objectshavetospeakinordertomakethemselvesheard,ineveryimitationatypeofdiscoursealwayshastosupplementthevoiceofnature.Themusicianwhowantstorendernoisewithnoiseismistaken;heknowsneithertheweaknessnorthestrengthofhisart;hejudgesitwithouttaste,withoutenlightenment;teachhimthatheshouldrendernoisewithsong,thatifhewouldmakefrogscroak,hehastomakethemsing.129Foritisnotenoughforhimtoimitate,hehastotouchandtoplease,otherwisehisglumimitationisnothing,and,notinterestinganyone,itmakesnoimpression.

ChapterXV:ThatOurLiveliestSensationsOftenActThroughMoralImpressions130

Aslongasonewantstoconsidersoundsonlyintermsofthedisturbancetheyexciteinournerves,onewillnothavethetrueprinciplesofmusicanditspoweroverourhearts.Thesoundsofamelodydonotactonussolelyassounds,butassignsofouraffections,ofourfeelings;itisinthiswaythattheyexciteinustheemotionstheyexpressandtheimageofwhichwerecognizeinthem.Somethingofthismoraleffectisperceivedeveninanimals.Thebarkingofonedogattractsanother.Ifmycathearsmeimitatemeowing,Iseehimimmediatelyattentive,restless,agitated.If

heperceivesthatitisIwhoiscounterfeitingthevoiceofhisfellow,hesitsbackandrelaxes.Whythisdifferenceinimpression,sincethereisnoneinthedisturbanceofthefibers,andsincehehimselfwasatfirstdeceivedbyit?131

Ifthegreatestdominionoursensationshaveoverusisnotduetomoralcauses,whythenarewesosensitivetoimpressionswhichmeannothing

Page324

tobarbarians?WhyisourmosttouchingmusicbutanemptynoisetotheearofaCarib?Arehisnervesofadifferentnaturethanours,whyaretheynotdisturbedinthesameway,orwhydothesesamedisturbancesaffectsomepeoplesomuchandotherssolittle?

ThecureofTarantulabitesiscitedasaproofofthephysicalpowerofsounds.132Thisexampleprovesentirelythecontrary.Whatisrequiredtohealeveryonewhohasbeenbittenbythisinsectisneitherabsolutesoundsnorthesametunes:eachofthemneedstunesofamelodyfamiliartohimandlyricsheunderstands.ItaliantunesareneededfortheItalian,fortheTurk,Turkishtuneswouldbeneeded.Eachisaffectedonlybyaccentsthatarefamiliartohim;hisnervesyieldtothemonlyinsofarashisminddisposesthemtoit:hemustunderstandthelanguagethatisspokentohimforwhatissaidtohimtobeabletomovehim.Bernier'scantatashave,itissaid,curedthefeverofaFrenchmusician;theywouldhavegivenonetoamusicianofanyothernation.133

Thesamedifferencescanbeobservedinalltheothersenses,downtothecrudestofall.Letamanwhosehandisplacedandwhoseglanceisfixedonthesameobjectalternatelybelieveittobealiveandnotalive:althoughthesensesarestruckthesameway,whatachangeintheimpression!Theroundness,whiteness,firmness,gentlewarmth,elasticresistance,andsuccessiverisingnolongerproduceanythingexceptasoftbutinsipidtouchforhimifhedoesnotbelievehefeelsaheartfulloflifethrobbingandbeatingunderneathitall.

Iknowonlyonesensewhoseaffectionshavenoadmixtureofanythingmoralinthem.Itistaste.Sogluttonyisalwaysthedominantviceonlyofpeoplewhofeelnothing.134

Letwhoeverwishestophilosophizeaboutthestrengthofsensationsthereforebeginbysettingasidepurelysensualimpressionsapartfromtheintellectualandmoralimpressionswhichwereceivebywayofthesenses,butofwhichthesensesareonlytheoccasionalcauses;lethimavoidthe

errorofattributingtosensibleobjectsapowerthattheydonothaveorthattheyderivefromtheaffectionsofthesoulwhichtheyrepresenttous.Colorsandsoundsarecapableofagreatdealasrepresentationsorsigns,oflittleassimpleobjectsofthesenses.Seriesofsoundsorchordswillamusemeforperhapsamoment;butinordertocharmmeandtomoveme,theseserieshavetooffermesomethingthatisneitherasoundnorachord,andthatsucceedsinmovingmeinspiteofmyself.Evensongsthatareonlypleasantandsaynothingarestilltiresome;foritisnotsomuchtheearthatcarriespleasuretotheheartastheheartthatcarriesittotheear.Ibelievethatbydevelopingtheseideasbetter,wewouldhavebeensparedmuchstupidargumentationconcerningancientmusic.Butinthiscen-

Page325

tury,wheneveryeffortismadetomaterializealltheoperationsofthesoulandtodeprivehumanfeelingsofallmorality,Iammistakenifthenewphilosophydoesnotbecomeasfataltogoodtasteastovirtue.

ChapterXVI:FalseAnalogyBetweenColorsandSounds

Thereisnosortofabsurditytowhichphysicalobservationshavefailedtogiveriseinthetreatmentofthefinearts.Thesamerelationshipshavebeenfoundintheanalysisofsoundasinthatoflight.Straightawaythisanalogywaskeenlyseizeduponwithouttroublingaboutexperienceandreason.Thesystematizingspirit135confoundedeverything,andforwantofknowinghowtopaintfortheears,theytookitintotheirheadstosingtotheeyes.Ihaveseenthatfamousclavichordonwhichmusicwassupposedlymadewithcolors;136itwastohavequitemisunderstoodtheoperationsofnaturenottohaveseenthattheeffectofcolorsisduetotheirpermanenceandthatofsoundstotheirsuccession.

Alltherichesofcolorationarespreadoutallatonceoverthefaceoftheearth.Everythingisseenbythefirstglanceoftheeye;butthemoreonelooks,themoreoneisenchanted.Onehasonlytoadmireandcontemplate,endlessly.

Thisisnotsoforsound:naturedoesnotanalyzeitandseparateoutitsharmonics;onthecontrary,ithidesthemundertheappearanceofunison;orifitoccasionallyseparatestheminthemodulatedsongofmanandinthewarblingofcertainbirds,itissuccessivelyandoneafteranother;itinspiressongsandnotchords,dictatesmelodyandnotharmony.Colorsarethefineryofinanimatebeings;allmatteriscolored;butsoundsproclaimmovement,thevoiceproclaimsasensitivebeing;onlyanimatedbodiessing.Itisnottheautomatedflautistthatplaystheflute,itisthemechanicwhomeasuredtheairflowandmadethefingersmove.137

Thuseachsensehasafieldpropertoit.Thefieldofmusicistime,thatofpaintingisspace.Tomultiplythesoundsheardatthesametimeorto

developcolorsoneafteranotheristochangetheireconomy,toputtheeyeintheplaceoftheear,andtheearintheplaceoftheeye.

Yousay:justaseachcolorisdeterminedbytheangleofrefractionoftheraythatproducesit,sotooaresoundsdeterminedbythenumberofvibrationsofthesoundingbodyinagiventime.Now,therelationshipsbetweentheseanglesandthesenumbersbeingthesame,theanalogyisevident.Sobeit,butthisanalogyisoneofreason,notsensation,andthisis

Page326

notwhatisatissue.Inthefirstplace,theangleofrefractionisperceptibleandmeasurable,andthenumberofvibrationsisnot.Soundingbodies,beingsubjecttotheactionoftheair,constantlychangedimensionandtone.Colorsaredurable,soundsvanish,anditisnevercertainthatthesoundsthatreemergewerethesameasthosethatfaded.Furthermore,eachcolorisabsolute,independent,whereaseachsoundisforusonlyrelativeandisdistinguishedonlybycomparison.Asounddoesnotinitselfhaveanyabsolutecharacterbywhichitmightberecognized;itisloworhigh,loudorsoft,inrelationtoanothersound;initselfitisnoneofthese.Intheharmonicsystem,agivensoundisnolongeranythingnaturally:itisneithertonicnordominant,neitherharmonicnorfundamental;sinceallthesepropertiesareonlyrelationships,andsincetheentiresystemcanvaryfromlowtohigh,eachsoundchangesrankandpositioninthesystemasthesystemchangesindegree.Butthepropertiesofcolorsdonotatallconsistinrelations.Yellowisyellowindependentlyofredandblue,itiseverywhereperceptibleandrecognizable,andassoonastheangleofrefractionthatproducesitisdetermined,onewillbesureofhavingthesameyellowatalltimes.

Colorsarenotinthecoloredbodiesbutinthelight;foranobjecttobeseen,ithastobeilluminated.Soundsalsoneedamovingbody,andforthemtoexist,asoundingbodymustbestruck.Thisisanotheradvantageforsight:fortheperpetualemanationfromthestarsisthenaturalinstrumentthatactsuponit,whereasnaturealoneengendersfewsounds,and,unlesstheharmonyofthecelestialspheres138isadmitted,livingbeingsarerequiredforittobeproduced.

Itisseenfromthisthatpaintingisclosertonatureandthatmusicdependsmoreonhumanart.Onealsosensesthattheoneholdsmoreinterestthantheotherpreciselybecauseitbringsmantogetherwithmantoagreaterdegreeandalwaysgivesussomeideaofourfellows.Paintingisoftendeadandinanimate;itcantransportyoutothedepthsofadesert;butassoonasvocalsignsstrikeyourear,theyproclaimabeingsimilar139to

yourself;theyare,sotospeak,theorgansofthesoul,andiftheyalsodepictsolitudeforyou,theytellyouthatyouarenotalonethere.Birdswhistle,manalonesings,andonecannotheareitherasongoraninstrumentalpiecewithoutimmediatelysayingtooneself:anothersensitivebeingispresent.

Oneofthegreatadvantagesofthemusicianistobeabletodepictthingsthatcannotbeheard,whileitisimpossibleforthePaintertorepresentthosethatcannotbeseen,andthegreatestmarvelofanartthatactsonlythroughmovementistobeabletoformitevenintotheveryimageofrest.140Sleep,thecalmofthenight,solitude,andsilenceitselfenterinto

Page327

music'sportraits.Itisknownthatnoisecanproducetheeffectofsilenceandsilencetheeffectofnoise,aswhenonefallsasleeptoanevenandmonotonousreadingandwakesuptheinstantitstops.Butmusicactsuponusmoreintimatelybyarousingthroughonesenseaffectionssimilartothosethatcanbearousedthroughanother,andastherelationshipisperceptibleonlyinsofarastheimpressionisstrong,painting,strippedofthispower,cannotconveytomusictheimitationsthatmusictakesfromit.Letnatureasawholebeasleep,hewhocontemplatesitsleepsnot,andthemusician'sartconsistsinsubstitutingfortheimperceptibleimageoftheobjectthatofthemovementsthatitspresenceexcitesintheheartofthecontemplator.Notonlywillitagitatethesea,fantheflamesofablaze,makestreamsrun,rainfall,andtorrentsswell,butitwilldepictthehorrorofafrightfuldesert,darkenthewallsofanundergrounddungeon,calmatempest,maketheairtranquilandclear,andspreadfromtheorchestraarenewedfreshnessoverthegroves.Itwillnotrepresentthesethingsdirectly,butwillawakenthesamefeelingsinthesoulthatareexperiencedinseeingthem.

ChapterXVII:AnErrorofMusiciansHarmfultotheirArt

SeehoweverythingcontinuallybringsusbacktothemoraleffectsofwhichIhavespoken,andhowfarthemusicianswhoconsiderthepowerofsoundsonlyintermsoftheactionofairandthedisturbanceoffibersarefromknowingwhereinresidesthestrengthofthisart.Themoretheyassimilateittopurelyphysicalimpressions,thefarthertheytakeitfromitsorigin,andthemoretheyalsotakefromititsprimitiveenergy.Bygivinguporalaccentandadheringtoharmonicinstitutionsalone,musicbecomesnoisiertotheearandlesssweettotheheart.Ithasalreadyceasedtospeak;soonitwillnolongersingandthen,withallitschordsandallitsharmony,itwillnolongerhaveanyeffectonus.

ChapterXVIII:ThattheMusicalSystemoftheGreeksdidNothaveAnyRelationtoOurs

Howhavethesechangescomeabout?Byanaturalchangeinthecharacteroflanguages.Ourharmonyisknowntobeagothicinvention.Those

Page328

whoclaimtofindthesystemoftheGreeksinourownaremakingfunofus.141ThesystemoftheGreekshadabsolutelynoharmonyinoursenseexceptwhatwasrequiredtotuneinstrumentsonperfectconsonances.Allpeopleswhopossessstringedinstrumentsareforcedtotunethembyconsonances,butthosewhodonotpossessthemhaveinflectionsintheirsongswhichwecallfalsebecausetheydonotenterintooursystemandbecausewecannotnotatethem.ThishasbeennotedaboutthesongsoftheAmericansavages,anditmightalsohavebeennotedaboutthevariousintervalsofthemusicoftheGreeks,ifthismusichadbeenstudiedwithlessbiastowardourown.142

TheGreeksdividedtheirDiagramintotetrachordsaswedivideourkeyboardintooctaves,andthesamedivisionswererepeatedoneachtetrachordamongthemexactlyastheyarerepeatedoneachoctaveamongus:asimilaritywhichwouldnothavebeenpossibletopreserveintheunityoftheharmonicmodeandwhichwouldnotevenhavebeenimagined.Butasoneproceedsbysmallerintervalswhenspeakingthanwhensinging,itwasnaturalforthemtoregardtherepetitionoftetrachordsintheiroralmelodyaswedotherepetitionofoctavesinourharmonicmelody.

Theyrecognizedasconsonancesonlythosewhichwecallperfectconsonances;theyexcludedthirdsandsixthsfromthisclass.143Whyso?Itisbecause,sincetheintervaloftheminortonewasunknowntothemoratleastproscribedfrompractice,andsincetheirconsonanceswerenottemperedatall,alltheirmajorthirdsweretoostrongbyacomma,whiletheirminorthirdsweretooweakbyasmuchand,consequently,theirmajorandminorsixthswerereciprocallyimpairedinthesameway.Considernowwhatnotionsofharmonyonecouldhaveandwhatharmonicmodesonecouldestablishafterbanishingthirdsandsixthsfromtheclassofconsonances!Ifeventheconsonancestheydidaccepthadbeenknowntothem,byatruefeelingforharmony,theywouldhaveatleastmadeimplicituseofthemwithintheirsongs,144andthetacit

consonanceofthefundamentalprogressionswouldhavelentitsnametothediatonicprogressionstheywouldsuggesttothem.Farfromhavinghadfewerconsonancesthanwedo,theywouldhavehadmoreofthem,and,forexample,occupiedwiththebassdosol,theywouldhavegiventhenameconsonancetotheseconddore.

Butwhythen,itwillbeasked,diatonicprogressions?Byaninstinctthatleadsusinanaccentedandtunefullanguagetochoosethemostconvenientinflections:forbetweentheoverlystrongmodificationswhichmustbegiventotheglottisinordercontinuallytointonelargeintervalsofconsonancesandthedifficultyofregulatingtheintonationintheverycomplicatedrelationsofthesmallerintervals,theorgantookamiddlecourseandnaturallyhitonintervalssmallerthanconsonancesandsimpler

Page329

thancommaswhichdidnotstopthesmallerintervalsfromalsohavingtheiruseinthemorepatheticgenera.145

ChapterXIX:HowMusichasDegenerated

Inproportionaslanguagewasperfected,melodyimperceptiblylostitsancientenergybyimposingnewrulesuponitself,andthecalculationofintervalswassubstitutedforthesubtletyofinflections.146Itisinthisway,forexample,thatthepracticeoftheenharmonicgenuswasgraduallyeliminated.Oncetheatershadassumedaregularform,onenolongersanginthemexceptintheprescribedmodes,andinproportionastherulesofimitationweremultipliedimitativelanguagegrewweaker.

Thestudyofphilosophyandtheprogressofreason,havingperfectedgrammar,deprivedlanguageofthatlivelyandpassionatetonewhichhadatfirstmadeitsotuneful.FromthetimeofMenalippidesandPhiloxenus,instrumentalplayerswhowereatfirsttheemployeesofthePoetsandworkedonlyunderthemand,sotospeak,attheirdictationbecameindependentofthem,anditisofthislicensethatMusiccomplainssobitterlyintheComedybyPherecrates,apassageofwhichPlutarchhaspreservedforus.147Thusmelody,beginningtonolongerbesoattachedtodiscourse,imperceptiblyassumedaseparateexistence,andmusicbecamemoreindependentofthewords.Thatwasalsowhenthewondersthatithadproducedwhenitwasonlytheaccentandtheharmonyofpoetrygraduallyceased,andwhenitgavetopoetrythatdominionoverthepassionswhichspeechhassinceexercisedonlyoverreason.Also,eversinceGreecewasfilledwithSophistsandPhilosophersneitherfamouspoetsnormusicianswereseenthereanylonger.148Bycultivatingtheartofconvincing,thatofmovingtheemotionswaslost.Platohimself,jealousofHomerandEuripides,decriedtheoneandwasunabletoimitatetheother.149

Soonservitudeaddeditsinfluencetothatofphilosophy.Greeceinchains

lostthatfirethatwarmsonlyfreesouls,andnolongerfoundforthepraiseofitstyrantsthetonewithwhichithadsungofitsHeroes.TheintermixtureoftheRomansfurtherweakenedwhatharmonyandaccentthelanguageretained.Latin,amoremutedandlessmusicallanguage,wrongedmusicinadoptingit.Thesingingemployedinthecapitalgraduallyalteredthatoftheprovinces;thetheatersofRomeharmedthoseofAthens;whenNerowascarryingoffprizes,Greecehadceasedtomeritthem,andthesamemelodysharedbytwolanguagessuitedbothofthemlesswell.150

Page330

Ultimatelythecatastropheoccurredthatwastodestroytheprogressofthehumanmindwithoutremovingthevicesthatwereitswork.Europe,inundatedwithbarbariansandenslavedbytheunlearned,lostatthesametimeitssciences,itsarts,andtheuniversalinstrumentofthemboth,namely,perfectedharmoniouslanguage.Thesecrudemenwhomthenorthhadengenderedimperceptiblyaccustomedallearstothecoarsenessoftheirorgan;theirvoices,harshanddevoidofaccent,werenoisywithoutbeingsonorous.TheEmperorJuliancomparedthespeechoftheGaulstothecroakingoffrogs.151Sincealltheirarticulationswereasharshastheirvoiceswerenasalandmuted,theycouldgiveonlyasortofbrightnesstotheirsinging,whichwastostressthesoundofthevowelsinordertocoveruptheabundanceandharshnessoftheconsonants.

Thisnoisysinging,joinedtotheinflexibilityoftheirorgans,obligedthesenewcomersandthesubjugatedpeopleswhoimitatedthemtoslowdownalltheirsoundsinordertomakethemunderstood.Tediousarticulationandstressedsoundslikewisecontributedtodriveawayfrommelodyeveryfeelingformeterandrhythm;aswhatwashardesttopronouncewasalwaysthepassagefromonesoundtoanother,therewasnothingbettertodothantopauseateachoneaslongaspossible,expandit,andmakeitburstforthasmuchasonecould.Songwassoonnothingmorethanatiresomeandslowseriesofdrawnoutandshoutedsounds,withoutsweetness,withoutmeter,andwithoutgrace;andifsomescholarshavesaidthatthelongandshortsyllablesinLatinsonghadtobeobserved,itisatleastcertainthatversewassunglikeprose,andthatitwasnolongeraquestionoffeet,rhythms,oranyspeciesofmeasuredsong.152

Song,thusstrippedofallmelodyandconsistinguniquelyinthestrengthanddurationofsounds,mustfinallyhavesuggestedwaysofmakingitstillmoresonorouswiththeaidofconsonances.Severalvoices,endlesslydrawingoutinunisonsoundsofanindefiniteduration,accidentallyhituponcertainchordsthat,reinforcingthenoise,madeitseemmorepleasanttothem,anditisinthiswaythatthepracticeofdescantandof

counterpointbegan.

Iknownothowmanycenturiesmusicianstwiddledaboutfrivolousquestionswheretheknowneffectofanunknowncausemadethemdebateforsolong.ThemosttirelessreaderwouldnotenduretheverbiageofeightortenlargechaptersinJehandesMursinordertolearnwhetherintheintervaloftheoctavedividedintotwoconsonancesitisthefifthorfourththatmustbethelowerone;andfourhundredyearslater,onestillfindsinBontempinolesstiresomeenumerationsofallthebassesthatmustcarrythesixthinsteadofthefifth.153Inthemeantime,though,harmonyimperceptiblytooktheroutethatanalysisprescribedtoit,untilfinallytheinventionoftheminormodeandofdissonancesintroduced

Page331

intoitthearbitrarinessofwhichitisfull,andwhichprejudicealonepreventsusfromperceiving.*

Melodybeingforgottenandtheattentionofthemusicianhavingbeenturnedentirelytowardharmony,everythingwasgraduallydirectedtowardthisnewobject;thegenera,themodes,thescale,everythingtookonanewappearance;itwasharmonicsuccessionsthatregulatedtheprogressionoftheparts.Oncethisprogressionhadusurpedthenameofmelody,itwasindeedimpossibletomistakeitsmother'sfeaturesinthisnewmelody,andasourmusicalsystemgraduallybecamepurelyharmonic,itisnotsurprisingthatoralaccentsufferedforit,andthatmusiclostalmostallitsenergyforus.

Thisishowsinginggraduallybecameanartentirelyseparatedfromthespeechfromwhichittakesitsorigin;howtheharmonicsofsoundshavecausedvocalinflectionstobeforgotten;andhow,finally,limitedtothepurelyphysicaleffectofthecombinationofvibrations,musicfounditselfdeprivedofthemoraleffectsthatitusedtoproducewhenitwasdoublythevoiceofnature.

ChapterXX:RelationshipofLanguagestoGovernments

Thisprogressisneitherfortuitousnorarbitrary,itdependsonthevicissitudesofthings.Languagesarenaturallyformedaccordingtomen'sneeds;theychangeanddecayinaccordancewiththechangesinthesesameneeds.Inancienttimes,whenpersuasiontooktheplaceofpublicforce,eloquencewasnecessary.Whatusecoulditservetoday,whenpublicforcesubstitutesforpersuasion?Neitherartnorfiguresofspeechareneededtosay,suchismypleasure.Whatdiscoursesarethenlefttodeliverto

*Byrelatingallharmonytotheverysimpleprincipleoftheresonanceofstringsintheiraliquots,M.Rameaubasestheminormodeanddissonanceonhissupposedexperimentalfindingthatasoundingstringinmotionmakeslonger

stringsvibrateatitstwelfthandatitsmajororlowerseventeenth.Accordingtohim,thesestringsvibrateandquiverovertheirentirelength,butdonotresonate.Thatappearstometobeasingularphysics;itisasifoneweretosaythatthesunwasshiningandthatonesawnothing.Theselongerstringsmakeonlythesoundofthehighestnotebecausetheyaredivided,vibrate,resonateonitsunison,combinetheirsoundwithits,andappearnottomakeanyoftheirown.Theerroristohavebelievedtoseethemvibrateovertheirentirelength,andnottohaveobservedtheknotscarefully.Thattwosoundingstringswhichformagivenharmonicintervalcanmaketheirfundamentalsoundheardinthebass,evenwithoutathirdstring,isanexperimentalresultknownandconfirmedbyM.Tartini;154butonestringalonehasnootherfundamentalsoundthanitsown;itdoesnotmakeitsmultiplesresonateorvibrate,butonlyitsunisonanditsaliquots.Assoundhasnoothercausethanthevibrationsofthesoundingbody,andsincewherethecauseactsfreelytheeffectalwaysfollows,itisabsurdtospeakofseparatingthevibrationsfromtheresonance.

Page332

theassembledpeople?Sermons.Andwhatdoespersuadingthepeoplemattertothosewhodeliverthem,sinceitisnotthepeoplethatconfersbenefices?Popularlanguageshavebecomeasperfectlyuselesstousaseloquencehas.Societieshaveassumedtheirfinalform;nothingischangedinthemanylongerexceptbyarmsandcash,andasthereisnolongeranythingtosaytothepeoplebut,givemoney,itissaidtothemwithplacardsatstreetcornersorwithsoldiersintheirhomes;itisnotnecessarytoassembleanyoneforthis:onthecontrary,thesubjectshavetobekeptscattered;thisisthefirstmaximofmodernpolitics.155

Therearelanguagesfavorabletoliberty;thesearesonorous,prosodic,harmoniouslanguages,inwhichdiscoursecanbemadeoutfromadistance.Oursaremadeforthemurmuringinsultans'Council-chambers.Ourpreacherstormentthemselves,workthemselvesintoasweatinchurches,withoutanyonehavingknownanythingofwhattheyhavesaid.Aftertiringthemselvesoutshoutingforanhour,theyleavethepulpithalfdead.Surelythiswasnotworthsuchaneffort.

Amongtheancientsitwaseasytomakeoneselfheardbythepeopleinthepublicsquare;onecouldspeakthereawholedaywithoutbecominguncomfortable.Generalsharanguedtheirtroops;theycouldmakethemselvesheardanddidnottirethemselvesout.Modernhistorianswhohavewantedtoputsuchharanguesintheirhistorieshavegottenthemselveslaughedat.ImagineamanharanguingthepeopleofParisinFrenchinthePlaceVendôme.Lethimscreamhisheadoff:peoplewillhearthatheisscreaming;notawordofitwillbemadeout.HerodotusreadhishistorytothepeoplesofGreeceassembledintheopenairandallrangoutwithapplause.156Todaytheacademicianwhoreadsapaperonadayofpublicassemblycanhardlybeheardinthebackofthehall.IfthecharlatansinthepublicsquaresarelessbountifulinFrancethaninItaly,itisnotthatinFrancepeoplelistentothemanyless,itisonlythattheycannothearthemaswell.M.d'AlembertbelievesaFrenchrecitativecouldbedeliveredintheItalianfashion;157itwouldhavetobedeliveredright

inone'sear,otherwisenoneofitwouldbeheard.Now,Isaythateverylanguagewithwhichonecannotmakeoneselfunderstoodbytheassembledpeopleisaservilelanguage;itisimpossibleforapeopletoremainfreeandspeakthatlanguage.

Ishallconcludethesesuperficialreflections,butoneswhichmaygivebirthtomoreprofoundones,withthepassagethatsuggestedthemtome.

Itwouldbethematterofaratherphilosophicstudytoobserveinfactandshowbyexampleshowmuchthecharacter,morals,andinterestsofapeopleinfluenceitslanguage.*

*Remarksonthegen.andreason.gramm.,byM.Duclos,page11.158

Page566

Editor'sNotesTo:EssayontheOriginofLanguages

ThistranslationisbasedonthetextfoundinPléiade,V,371429.ThePléiadeeditionisbasedontheoriginalmanuscriptfoundintheBibliothèquepubliqueetuniversitairedelavilledeNeuchâtel,Neuchâtel,Switzerland(MSRno.11).TheoriginalmanuscriptwasalsoconsultedforthepresenttranslationandwasprovidedthankstoM.RenéMartioftheBibliothèquedeNeuchâtel.

1.Inthemanuscript,Rousseauoriginallyadded"CitizenofGeneva,"butcrosseditoutinthefinalcopy.RousseauwasborninGeneva,butlosthiscitizenshipwhenheconvertedtoCatholicismafterrunningawayfromGenevaattheageofsixteen,in1728.Hiscitizenshipwasofficiallyrestoredin1754(seeConfessions,VIII;CollectedWritings,V,329).InhisNouvelleHéloïse,whichdoesnotbearthedesignation"CitizenofGeneva,"Rousseauexplainsthatheonlyadded"CitizenofGeneva"tothetitlepagesofthoseworkshebelievedwoulddohonortohisnativecity(SecondePréface;Pléiade,II,27).Rousseau'sreasonsforremoving''CitizenofGeneva"fromthetitlepageoftheEssayareunclear.

2.RousseauplannedonpublishingtheEssayasthesecondtextinavolumecomposedofOnTheatricalImitationandtheLeviteofEphraïm,bothtranslatedbelow.ThisdraftforaprefaceappearstohavebeenwrittenaboutJune1763inthecircumstancesrelatedbyRousseauthere.

3.DespiteRousseau'sstatementabouttheconnectionoftheEssaywiththeSecondDiscourse,therelationshipbetweenthetwoworksisamatterofsomedispute.SeetheIntroductiontothisvolume.

4.RousseaureferstoRameau'sErrorsonMusicintheEncyclopedia,publishedanonymouslyin1755,andtranslatedabove.Thefirstdraftof

Rousseau'sreplywasentitledbyhimOnthePrincipleofMelody,orResponsetothe"ErrorsonMusic."ArevisedversionofthisresponsebecametheExaminationofTwoPrinciplesAdvancedbyM.Rameau,translatedabove,andpartoftheresponseomittedfromthefinalversion,translatedaboveasOnthePrincipleofMelody,werelaterincorporatedbyRousseauintotheEssayontheOriginofLanguages.Forthesepassages,seetheeditorialnotestothePrincipleofMelody.

5.ThemagistratewasChrétien-GuillaumedeLamoignondeMalesherbes(17211794),thenheadofcensorshipinFrance.RousseaushowedtheEssaytoMalesherbesinlate1761,andhecounseledRousseautoedititasaseparatework,explaining:"Ibelievethatyouwoulddogreatharmtothepublicbydeprivingthemofitorbywaitingforthecollectededitionofyourworkstopresentit"(Leigh,IX,131,205,251).InhisConfessions,RousseaumentionsthathehadMalesherbesreadtheEssayandhadsubsequentlyputitintothehandsofDuPeyrou,theeditorofhiscollectedworks(XI;CollectedWritings,V,469).

6.InthedraftmanuscriptoftheEssaythechapterdivisionsareinthemargin,andappeartohavebeenaddedtothetextbyRousseauatalaterdatethantheini-

Page567

tialcompositionofthework.ThePléiadeeditionusesordinalnumbersforthechapters,forexample"FirstChapter,"butthistranslationfollowsthemanuscript,whichusescardinalnumbers,forexample"ChapterI."

7.Onthewordmoeurs,translatedhereas"morals,"seeCollectedWritings,II,203204n7.

8."Similar"translates"semblable,"whichiselsewheretranslated''fellow"or"fellowmen."Rousseaudescribesaman'sinitialrecognitionofasimilaritybetweenhimselfandhisfellowsintheSecondDiscourse:"Althoughhisfellowswerenotforhimwhattheyareforus,andalthoughhescarcelyhadmoreintercoursewiththemthanwithotheranimals,theywerenotforgotteninhisobservations.Theconformitiesthattimecouldmakehimperceiveamongthem,hisfemale,andhimselfledhimtojudgeofthosewhichhedidnotperceive"(CollectedWritings,III,44).

9.RousseaualludestothelegendofDibutade'sdaughterasrelatedbyPlinytheElder,NaturalHistories,XXXV.xliii.1:"enamoredofayoungmanwhowasleavingforafarawaycountry,sheenclosedinlinestheshadowofhisfaceasprojectedonawallbythelightofalamp."

10.RousseauincorporatedthisparagraphandthefollowingonewithsomechangesintohisEmile,IV(Pléiade,IV,647;Bloom,322).

11.ForThrasybulus,seeHerodotus,Histories,V.92.InAristotle'sversion,itisPerianderwhoadvisesThrasybulusinthismanner(Politics,III.13.1284a2633andV.10.1311a2022).ForthesamestoryaboutTarquin,seeLivy,HistoryofRome,I.54.ForAlexander,seePlutarch,LifeofAlexander,39.ForDiogenes,seeDiogenesLaertius,LivesoftheEminentPhilosophers,"Diogenes,"VI.39.ForDarius,seeHerodotus,Histories,IV.131133.TheseexamplesareallcitedbyWilliamWarburton,BishopofGloucester(16981779),inhisDivineLegationofMoses(17371741),translatedinFrenchasEssaisurleshiéroglyphesdesEgyptiens(1744).RousseaureferstoWarburton'sworkinhisSocialContract(II,7andIV,

8).

12.SeeJudges1921.Rousseauwroteaprosepoembasedonthispoem,theLeviteofEphraïm,whichheintendedtopublishtogetherwiththeEssayandhisOnTheatricalImitation,bothofwhicharetranslatedbelow.Seenote2above.

13.See1Samuel11:510.

14.SeeAthenaeus,Deipnosophists,XIII.590e.Phryneopenedherrobesandcorruptedherjudgeswithherdazzlingbeauty.

15.Horace,OntheArtofPoetry,V.180182:"Whatentersonlybytheearmakeslessimpressionontheheartthanwhatisputbeforetheeyes,andaboutwhichthespectatorassureshimselfbythosefaithfulwitnesses."

16.InhisLettertod'AlembertontheTheatre:

Ihearitsaidthattragedyleadstopitythroughfear.Soitdoes;butwhatisthispity?Afleetingandvainemotionwhichlastsnolongerthantheillusionwhichproducedit;avestigeofnaturalsentimentsoonstifledbythepassions;asterilepitywhichfeedsonafewtearsandwhichhasneverproducedtheslightestactofhumanity.Thus,thesanguinarySullacriedattheaccountofevilshehadnothimselfcommitted.ThusthetyrantofPherahidhimselfatthetheatreforfearofbeingseengroaningwithAndromacheandPriam,whileheheardwithoutemotionthecriesofsomanyunfortunatevictimsslaindailybyhisorders.TacitusreportsthatValeriusAsiaticus,calumniouslyaccusedby

Page568

theordertoMessalina,whowantedhimtoperish,defendedhimselfbeforetheemperorinawaythattouchedthisprinceverydeeplyanddrewtearsfromMessalinaherself.Shewentintothenextroominordertoregainhercomposureafterhaving,inthemidstofhertears,whisperedawarningtoVitelliusnottolettheaccusedescape.Ineverseeoneoftheseweepingladiesintheboxesatthetheatre,soproudoftheirtears,withoutthinkingofthetearsofMessalinaforthepoorValeriusAsiasticus.(Pléiade,V,23,andvar.a;ed.andtrans.AllanBloominPoliticsandtheArts[Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1968],2425).

SeealsoSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,36).

17.GiacobboRodrigoPereiraorPereire(17151780)presentedhismethodforteachingthedeaftotheAcademyofSciencesinParisin1749.

18.JeanChardin,VoyagesenPerse,4vols.(Amsterdam,1735),III,122.

19.InhisSecondDiscourse,Rousseaulocatesthedistinctivedifferencebetweenmanandtheanimalsin"thefacultyofself-perfection"or"perfectibility,"andrelatesthatfacultytospeech(CollectedWritings,III,27,and83n*8).

20.Seeesp.JulienOffraydelaMettrie,Man:AMachine(1748),ed.A.Vartanian(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1960),chap.2,esp.160161.Moregenerally,RousseaureferstoadebateconcerningspeechandthedifferencebetweenmanandtheotheranimalsthatwasbegunintheseventeenthcenturybyDescartes(seeDiscourseontheMethod,5,end),andthatincludedLaMettrie,Buffon,Condillac,andothers.

21.RousseaudistinguishesneedsfrompassionsintheSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,27)."Voices"translates"voix"hereandthroughoutthistranslation,exceptontwooccasionsindicatedinthenotes.Rousseau'suseofthewordhasseveraldifferentbutrelatedmeanings.Ingeneral,"voice"referstoanyutteredsound,butRousseau

meansby"voice''especiallythespontaneousaccentedandmelodicutteranceofthepassions,andespeciallythemoralpassions.Theoppositionhedrawsbetween"voice"asthespontaneousutteranceofthepassionsand"articulation"astheconventionalsoundsthatrequirepracticeinordertobearticulatedleadshiminchap.Vtousetheterm"voix"tomean"vowel"asopposedto(articulated)consonants.SeealsoEmile:"Manhasthreekindsofvoicethespeakingorarticulatevoice,thesingingormelodicvoice,andthepassionateoraccentuatedvoice,whichservesaslanguagetothepassionsandwhichanimatessongandword"(II;Pléiade,IV,404;Bloom,148).

22.Inthissentence"language"translates"langage,"while"languages"translates"langues."Thetwowordsarerelatedinoriginandmeaning,andtherearenosufficientlydistinctyetrelatedequivalentsfortheminEnglish."Langue"isclosertotherootsenseof"tongue,"andrefersforemosttoalanguagespokenamongapeopleoralinguisticcommunity,while"langage"isderivativeandhasamorespecializedconnotationoflanguageasalinguisticsystem;inturn,"parole,"whichistranslatedas"speech"inthetitletothischapter,referstotheactofusingalanguage("langue").

ByobjectingtothecomparisonbetweenprimitivelanguagesandgeometryRousseauisprobablyalludingtoMaupertuis'Réflexionsphilosophiquessurl'originedeslanguesetlasignificationdesmots(1748),aswellasCondillac'sEssaisurl'origne

Page569

desconnaissanceshumaines,II,i,15,§153,whereCondillacalsoopposespoetstogeometerswithregardtolanguage.Moregenerally,heisobjectingtothenotionthatphilosophiclanguagecouldbereducedtogeometricform,andtotherelatedtraditionof"original"or"Adamic"language.Thistheoryholdsthattheinitialwordforanobject,asspokenbyAdam,directlyexhibitstheobject'snatureandtruth,andwasheldinvariousformsbyLeibnizandothersintheBerlinAcademy,includingMaupertuis,andinEnglandbyThomasSpratandothersinatraditionopposedbyLocke.ForadiscussionofthetheoriesoflanguageoriginheldbytheLockeantraditionincomparisonwiththerivaltraditionofAdamiclanguage,seeHansAarsleff,FromLocketoSaussure:EssaysontheStudyofLanguageandIntellectualHistory(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1982).

23.SeeRousseau,Confessions,I(CollectedWritings,V,7):"Ifeltbeforethinking;thisisthecommonfateofhumanity."

24.Forexample,byDiderotinthearticle"Encyclopédie"intheEncyclopedia,andbyCondillacinhisEssaisurl'originedesconnaissanceshumaines,II,i,I,§1and10,§103.

25.SeeRousseau,SecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,41,7576).

26.Seechap.Xbelow.

27.RousseaudrawsonBernardLamy'sdiscussionoftropesandfigurativelanguageinhisLaRhétorique,oul'Artdeparler(4thed.;1701),II,3:"Tropesarenamesthataretransferredfromthethingofwhichtheyarethepropername,toapplythemtothingswhichtheysignifyonlyindirectly:thus,alltropesaremetaphors,fortheword,whichisGreek,meanstranslation."Lamydiscusseshowthepassionsmayenlargeaperceivedobject,asintheexampleofsupposedgiantsusedbyRousseaujustbelow.

28.TherearestoriesofgiantsinScripture(e.g.,Genesis6:4)andnumerousclassicalwritings.SeeRousseau'sdiscussionofsuchlegendsinhisSecondDiscourse,note*8(CollectedWritings,III,80).

29.Lamy,LaRhétorique,oul'Artdeparler(4thed.;1701),PrefaceandIII,1.InhisSecondDiscourse,Rousseauexclaimsthatheis"convincedofthealmostdemonstratedimpossibilitythatlanguagescouldhavearisenandbeenestablishedbypurelyhumanmeans"(CollectedWritings,III,33).However,justasheshowsintheSecondDiscoursehowagricultureandmetallurgymighthavearisendespiteasimilarquandary,sotoointhepresentworkheexplainstheoriginoflanguagesinpurelynaturalterms,especiallyinchap.IXbelow.

30.Thedistinctionbetween"persuasion"and"conviction"explainedhereiscentraltoRousseau'sdiscussionoftheLegislatorinhisSocialContract(II,7):''Sincethelegislatoristhereforeunabletouseeitherforceorreasoning"toestablishapeople,"hemustnecessarilyhaverecoursetoanotherorderofauthority,whichcanwinoverwithoutviolenceandpersuadewithoutconvincing."Rousseaureturnstothepersuasivecharacterofthelanguagesusedbypoliticalandreligiousfoundersinchap.XIoftheEssay.Rousseaurevaluesthecharacteristicdifferencebetween"persuasion"and"conviction"heldbymanyofhispredecessors,forexampleDiderot,whowritesinhisLetterontheDeafandDumb(1751):"TheFrenchlanguageismadetoteach,toenlighten,andtoconvince;Greek,Latin,Italian,andEnglish,topersuade,tomove,andtodeceive.SpeakGreek,Latin,andItalianto

Page570

themasses;buttothewise,speakFrench"(SelectedWritings,ed.LesterG.Crocker,trans.DerekCollman[NewYork:Macmillan,1966],3536).

31.InPlato'sCratylusSocratesclaimsthatthemeaningofnamescanbederivedfromtheetymologicaloriginsinsuchawaythatwordsareimitationsoftherealitiesnamed.

32.SeeChardin,VoyagesenPerse,4vols.(Amsterdam,1735),III,143.

33.Thetitle,"Del'Écriture,"couldalsomean"OnScripture."Rousseau'sdiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenwrittenandspokenlanguageinthischapterandthefollowingonesincludesanimplicitcritiqueofclaimsofscripturalreligions.Seethesecondpartofthe"ProfessionofFaithoftheSavoyardVicar"inBookIVoftheEmileforafurtherconsiderationoftheissue(Pléiade,IV,609635;Bloom,296313).

34.The"doubleconvention"ofwhichRousseauspeaksisalsodiscussedbyDiderotinthearticle"Encyclopédie"fortheEncyclopedia,andisderivedfromthedoubleconformitythesisputforwardmostimportantlybyLocke(AnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding,esp.II,32,§8;III,2,§1,4).Locke'sthesisisopposedtotheunivocalthesischampionedbytheadherentsof"original"or"Adamic''language,inwhichthewordispresumedtobeaunivocalrepresentationoftheobject.

35.Rousseaumentionsthesameclassificationintosavage,barbarous,andcivilizedpeoplesinhisSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,4950),andemploysitintheSocialContract(III,8).TheclassificationisderivedfromMontesquieu,OntheSpiritoftheLaws,XVIII,1117;seealsoI,3,andXXI,14.

36.Tchelminar,orChihil-Minar,istheancientnameofPersepolis,nearthemoderncityofShirazinsouthernIran.An"ectype"isawaximpressionorothersortoftracingofanoriginalobjectsuchasacoin,medal,orinscription.Forexample,buildingonhistheoryofthemindas

atabularasaorwaxtablet,Lockewrites:"ThecomplexIdeasofSubstancesareEctypes,Copiestoo;butnotperfectones,notadequate"(AnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding,II,31,§13).

37.Chardin,VoyagesenPerse,4vols.(Amsterdam,1735),II,167168.

38.Ibid.Rousseau'sabridgmentsofthepassageareindicatedbytheellipsesinbrackets.ThediscoveryofthefamousRosettastone,in1799,allowedthiswritingtobedeciphered.

39.ForthestorythatCadmusintroducedthealphabettotheGreeks,whichwaswidelydiscussedinRousseau'stime,seeHerodotus,Histories,V.58,andPlinytheElder,NaturalHistories,VII.192.

40."Commerce"translates"commerce,"whichcanmeanbothsocialintercourseandtradingandhasbeentranslatedas"intercourse"elsewhereintheCollectedWritings.SeeSecondDiscourse:"Itiseasytounderstandthatsuchintercourse[commerce]didnotrequirealanguagemuchmorerefinedthanthatofCrowsorMonkeys,whogrouptogetherinapproximatelythesameway";and:"theycontinuedtoenjoyamongthemselvesthesweetnessofindependentintercourse[commerce]"(CollectedWritings,III,45,49).

41.Pausanias,Arcadia,V.xvii.6.Theproposedetymologyof"versus"isnotfoundinMarius'Arsgrammatica,butitisfoundinIsidoreofSeville,Origins,VI.xiv.7.Rousseauproposedtoreintroducethismannerofwritinginmusic;seehisLettertoBurney,pp.486489below.

Page571

42.ThenumberoflettersintheGreekalphabetisdiscussedinPlinytheElder,NaturalHistories,VII.56;Tacitus,Annals,XI.14;MariusVictorinus,Arsgrammatica,IV.9597;IsidoreofSeville,Origins,I.34.

43.Thelustrawerethefive-yearperiodsseparatingthepurificationoftheRomanpeopleaftereachcensus.SeeLivy,HistoryofRome,I.44.

44."Vowels"translates"voix,"whichhasotherwisebeentranslatedas"voices."Rousseauelsewhereuses"voyelles"tomean''vowels."Seenote21above.

45.The"GentlemenofPortRoyal"referstoAntoineArnauldandNicholasLancelot,whowrotetheGrammairegénéraleetraisonnéee,commonlyknownasthePort-RoyalGrammar.SeePt.1,chap.1.

46.CharlesPinotDuclos,Rousseau'sfriend,wroteacommentaryonthePort-RoyalGrammar(seepreviousnote),theRemarquessurlaGrammairegénéraleetraisonnée(1754),I,1.

47."ThevowelswereofthenumberseveninGreek,Romuluscountedsix,butlaterusagementionedonlyfive,oncetheycametoreject asGreek,"MartianusCapella(fl.fifthcenturyA.D.),DeNuptiisMercuriietPhilologiae,Bk.III.

48."Words"translates"voix,"whichhasotherwisebeentranslatedas"voices"(seenote21above),whereas"word"generallytranslates"mot."

49.Thatis,thequestion"venez-vous,""areyoucoming?"isreadilydistinguishedfromthestatement"vousvenez,""youarecoming."

50.ThemanuscriptofthischapterfromthispointonwassubstantiallyreworkedbyRousseau,whoalteredandexpandedthetextinnumerousplacestoanextentunusualforthemanuscriptoftheworkingeneral.FollowingthePléiadeedition,thistranslationfollowsthefaircopyofthemanuscript,apparentlybyDuPeyrou'ssecretary,Jeannin,whichisaddedattheendofthefoliocontainingthemanuscriptofthework.

51.TheStoryofBellerophonisfoundinHomer,Iliad,VI.167170:"He[Proitos]shrankfromkillinghim[Bellerophon],sincehisheartwasawedbysuchaction,/butsenthimawaytoLykia,andhandedhimmurderoussymbols[sêmata],/whichheinscribedinafoldingtablet,enoughtodestroylife,/andtoldhimtoshowittohiswife'sfather,thathemightperish"(trans.RichardLattimore[Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1951]).TheauthenticityofthisstorywasacommonpointofdiscussioninRousseau'stime.Homer'sworksweresaidtohavebeencompiledbytheAtheniantyrantPeisistratosinthesecondhalfofthesixthcenturyB.C.FatherJeanHardouin(16461729)deniedtheauthenticityofmostoftheworksofantiquityandclaimedthattheywerewritteninthemiddleages,andalsomaintainedthattheNewTestamenthadoriginallybeenwritteninLatin.ConsideringthecritiqueofScriptureundertakenbyHobbes,Spinoza,andothers,includingthequestionoftheauthorshipanddateofthevariousbooksoftheBible,Rousseau'sdiscussioninthischapterofHomerwouldapplyequallywelltotheBible.

52.RousseaugreatlyadmiredthepoetryofTorquatoTasso(15441595),andtranslatedpartofhisJeruselumDeliveredintoFrench.ForhisdescriptionofthesingingofthegondoliersinVenice,seeConfessions,VII(CollectedWritings,V,263264).

53.SeePlato,Laws,II.669e670a,onpoetryseparatedfromsongandasawrittenwork.

Page572

54.Theoriginaltitleofthechapter,"OnModernFrenchProsody,"showstheconnectionofthepresentworkwithRousseau'sLetteronFrenchMusic(1753),translatedabove.

55.Seenote48above.

56."Accent"and"accentmarks,"i.e.writtenaccents,bothtranslate"accent."AsRousseaunotesintheentryACCENT[Accent]inhisDictionaryofMusic,translatedbelow,theterm''prosody"translatestheGreekwordforaccent,andinvolvesthestudyoftherhythmandaccentofalanguage.

57.Rousseaurefersabovealltothearticle"Accent"byDuMarsaisintheEncyclopedia(1751).

58.Cicero,Deoratore,III.xliv.173174:

Afterattentiontothismattercomesalsotheconsiderationoftherhythmandshapeofthewords,apointwhichIamafraidCatullusheremayconsiderchildish;fortheoldGreekmastersheldtheviewthatinthisprosestyleitisproperforustousesomethingalmostamountingtoversification,thatis,certaindefiniterhythms.Fortheythoughtthatinspeechesthecloseoftheperiodoughttocomenotwhenwearetiredoutbutwherewemaytakebreath,andtobemarkednotbythepunctuationofthecopyingclerksbutbythearrangementofthewordsandofthethought;anditissaidthatIsocratesfirstintroducedthepracticeoftighteninguptheirregularstyleoforatorywhichbelongedtotheearlydays,sohispupilNaucrateswrites,bymeansofanelementofrhythm,designedtogivepleasuretotheear.Fortwocontrivancestogivepleasureweredevisedbythemusicians,whointheolddayswerealsothepoets,verseandmelody,withtheintentionofovercomingsatietyinthehearerbydelightingtheearwiththerhythmofthewordsandthemodeofthenotes.Thesetwothings,therefore,Imeanthemodulationofthevoiceandthearrangementofwords

inperiods,theythoughtpropertotransferfrompoetrytorhetoric,sofaraswascompatiblewiththeseverecharacteroforatory."(Trans.H.Rackham[Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,LoebClassicalLibrary,1958])

59.IsidoreofSeville,Origins,XXI.1:"Inaddition,therearecertainsignsfoundinthemostcelebratedwriters,whichtheancientsintroducedintoverseandprosefordistinctionsinwriting.Thesignisaspecificmark,placedinthemannerofalettertoindicatethephrasepatternoneachword.Thenumberofsignsintroducedinverseis26,whicharenamedbelow...."

60.FollowingthePléiadeedition,thetranslationherefollowsRousseau'smanuscript,whichisalmostillegibleatthispoint,againstthecopyist,Jeannin.Seenote50above.

61.Thatis,où,"where,"isdistinguishedfromou,"or";à,"to,"isdistinguishedfroma,"has."

62.Duclos,RemarquessurlaGrammairegénéraleetraisonnée,I,4.DionysiusofHalicarnassussays(Synthesis,15)thatallthevariationsofthespokenvoicetakeplacewithinthespaceofafifth.ForRousseau'sremarksonDionysiusofHalincarnassus'understandingofaccentandmusic,seetheentryACCENT[Accent]intheDictionaryofMusic,p.371below.

63.Thatis,è,"is,"isdistinguishedfrome,"and."BenedettoBuonmmatteior

Page573

Buonmattei(15811647)wasanItaliangrammarianwhoseDellalinguatoscana(1643)wasinfluentialinformingwhatisnowmodernItalian.SeeDellalinguatoscana(1714),VI,9.

64.RousseausuggestsasimilarexperimentinhisLetteronFrenchMusic,p.150above.

65.SeethefragmentbyRousseauentitled"Pronunciation,"translatedbelow.AlsoconsiderRousseau'sdiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenlanguagesandgovernmentinchap.XXoftheEssayinconnectionwithhisironicpraiseintheFirstDiscourseofprinces'supportfortheartsandsciencesandtheestablishmentofacademies(CollectedWritings,II,5,andn.19).

66.Duclos,RemarquessurlaGrammairegénéraleetraisonnée,I,4.

67."Points"("points")and"accents''wereonlylateraddedtoHebrewscript.Bythese"points,"Rousseaucouldalsobereferringtopunctuation,whichHebrewalsooriginallylacked.Spinozaexplainsinchap.7ofhisTheologico-PoliticalTreatise:"Firstly,thereareinHebrewnovowels;secondly,thesentencesarenotseparatedbyanymarkselucidatingthemeaningorseparatingtheclauses.Thoughthewantofthesetwohasgenerallybeensuppliedbypointsandaccents,suchsubstitutescannotbeacceptedbyus,inasmuchastheywereinventedanddesignedbymenofanafteragewhoseauthorityshouldcarrynoweight.Theancientswrotewithoutpoints(thatis,withoutvowelsandaccents),asisabundantlytestified;theirdescendantsaddedwhatwaslacking,accordingtotheirownideasofScripturalinterpretation"(ed.andtrans.R.H.M.Elwes[NewYork:Dover,1951],109110).

68.RousseaufirstdiscussesthecharacteristicdifferencesbetweenthepeoplesofthenorthandsouthinhisSecondDiscourse,justbeforehislongdigressionthereontheoriginoflanguage(CollectedWritings,III,27).ThejuxtapositionofthenorthandsouthisalsofoundforemostinMontesquieu.SeeSpiritoftheLaws,XIVXVII,esp.bk.XIV,13,XVII,

18,XVIII,4;seealsoXIX,4,27,XXI,14.

69.SeeRousseau,SecondDiscourse,note*8(CollectedWritings,III,8486);LettertoPhilopolis(ibid.,130).

70.InRousseau'sdraftthischapterwasoriginallyentitledChapterVIII,butwaslaterchanged.

71.TheaccountoftheoriginofsocietyandlanguagesinthischaptergenerallyparallelstheaccountofferedbyRousseauintheSecondPartoftheSecondDiscourse(seeCollectedWritings,III,4647;also2734).IntheSecondDiscourse,Rousseauestablishesthe"epochofthefirstrevolution"oftheestablishmentoffamiliesasthepointwheretruelanguagesbegantodevelop(ibid.,46).The"firsttimes"spokenofintheEssaythereforerefersnottoRousseau'sdescriptionofouroriginalconditionassolitaryanimals,orthe"purestateofnature"depictedintheFirstPartoftheSecondDiscourse,buttothe"stateofnature"describedintheSecondPartofthework,wherenascentfamiliesdevelopandbecomeestablished.

72.SeeRousseau,GenevaManuscript,I,2(CollectedWritings,IV,81):"Thewordsforeignersandenemieswerelongsynonymousforseveralancientpeoples....Hobbes'mistake,therefore,isnotthatheestablishedthestateofwaramongmenwhoareindependentandhavebecomesociable,butthathesupposedthisstatenaturaltothespeciesandgaveitasthecauseofthevicesofwhichitistheeffect."SeealsoÉtatdeguerre(Pléiade,III,601602).

Page574

73.Rousseau'sevasivestatementisclearlydirectedtowardthepossibleobjectionsofthosewhoaccepttheaccountofhumanoriginsandlanguagefoundinScripture.Rousseaumakeshisintentionsinthischapterclearerafewpageslater,whenhetwicerefersbacktowhathesayshereabout"thefirsttimes"whenspeakingoftheeventsrecountedinGenesis.RousseaucontinuestoplayontheScripturalaccountofouroriginsandoftheoriginoflanguageinthischapter.However,insteadoflocatingtheoriginoflanguagewiththefirstman,Adam,orhischildrenorimmediatedescendants,RousseaufindsitinthestoryofIsaac,Rebecca,andtheencounteratthewell(Gen.24),oratthefirstmeetingoftheyoungofoppositesexesofdispersedfamiliessuchashedescribesneartheendofthischapter.

74.IntheSecondDiscourse,RousseaucitesapprovinglytheresearchesthatCondillacmadeontheoriginoflanguages,"whichallfullyconfirmmysentiment,andwhichperhapsgavemethefirstideaofit,"butobjectsthatCondillacassumeswhathehimselfquestions,"namely,akindofsocietyalreadyestablishedamongtheinventorsoflanguage"(CollectedWritings,III,2930).ForCondillac'sdiscussionoffamiliesandtheoriginoflanguages,withreferencetotheScripturalaccount,seeEssaisurl'originedesconnaissanceshumaines,II,1,preamble.

75.ForthesupposedcontradictionbetweenRousseau'sstatementhereaboutpityandhisdiscussionintheSecondDiscourse,seeIntroduction,pp.xxixxxxabove.

76.SeethesimilaraccountintheEmile,esp.BooksIII(Pléiade,IV,480488;Bloom,202208)andIV(Pléiade,IV,546548;Bloom,251253).

77.AsintheSecondDiscourse,RousseauisarguingagainstHobbes'viewthatthestateofnatureisaconditionofwar:"Hobbesclaimsthatmanisnaturallyintrepidandseeksonlytoattackandfight.AnillustriousPhilosopherthinks,onthecontrary,andCumberlandandPufendorfalsoaffirm,thatnothingissotimidasmaninthestateofNature"(Collected

Writings,III,20).SeealsotheÉtatdeguerre(Pléiade,III,600603).ForHobbes,seeLeviathan,chaps.11,13,andDecive,chap.1.

78.RousseaudrawsonMontesquieu,SpiritoftheLaws,I,3,forthedistinctionamongshepherds,hunters,andplowmen.IntheSecondDiscourse,Rousseauarguesthattheinstitutionofagricultureanddiscoveryofmetallurgytogetherworktotakemenoutofthestateofnature(CollectedWritings,III,4851).

79.ThestoryoftheCyclopsPolyphemosisfoundinHomer,Odyssey,IX.116566.AugustinetakesupthestorywithregardtopropertyandsafetyinhisCityofGod,XIX.12.SeealsoRousseau,SocialContract,I,4.

80.SeeGenesis4:3,9:20.

81.RousseaudiscussesthenaturaldietofmankindatlengthintheSecondDiscourseandconjecturesthatwemayhavebeenoriginallyherbivores(seeesp.CollectedWritings,III,n.*4,71).SeealsoEmile,II(Pléiade,IV,408415;Bloom,151156).PelasgoswassaidtohavetaughttheGreekstoeatacorns(Pausanias,Arcadia,VIII.i.6),whileTriptolemuswassaidtohavetaughtagriculturetothemandprohibitedtheeatingofmeat(ibid.,VIII.iv.1;Plato,Laws.III.782b;Xenophon,Hellenica,VI.3).RousseaumentionsTriptolemusagainjustbelowandseemstoassumethatHerodotusincludesthelegendabouthiminhisHistories,whichisincorrect.

82.ForAbraham,seeGenesis18:7;forEumaeus,seeHomer,Odyssey,XIV.7280;forRebecca,seeGenesis27:9.

Page575

83.IntheEmile,whereheisspeakingofthepossibleunnaturalnessofmeat-eating,Rousseauremarksthat"Englishbarbarismisknown"isthisrespect(IV,PléiadeIV,411andnote).

84.Job1:3,14,15.

85.Genesis10:1,11:1029.

86.ForAdambeingtaughttospeakbyGod,seeGenesis2:1920,3:10,12;forNoah,seeibid.,9:2027;fortheTowerofBabel,seeibid.,11:19.

87.IntheSocialContractRousseauwritesthataccordingtoGrotiusandHobbes,whobothjustifiedconquestasasourceofauthority,"thehumanspeciesisdividedintoherdsoflivestock,eachwithitsleader,whotendstoitinordertodevourit"(I,2;seealsoI,4).SeealsoSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,3233).CompareAristotle,Politics,I.8.1256b2326.

88.Exodus26:714,36:1419.

89.NotethatRousseauinvertsthechronicleofGenesis,whichisreputedtohavebeenwrittenbyMoses.IntheScripturalaccount,AdamandEveeatofthefruitofthetreeoftheknowledgeofgoodandevil,thenmakeclothes,andarethenexpelledfromtheGardenofEden.OnlywithCain,theirson,doesagricultureariseandareitsfruitsscornedbyGodinfavorofthoseofthepastorallifeledbyAbel.AfterCainkillshisbrother,Abel,Godputsamarkonhim(Gen.3:14,16).RousseaualsoappealstotheScripturalstoryoftheoriginofourknowledgeofgoodandevilintheSecondDiscourse,wherehewritesthatafterthemeetingofdispersedfamiliesandthebeginningsofsociety,moralitywasintroducedintohumanactions(CollectedWritings,III,48).CompareGrotius,DroitdelaGuerreetdelaPaix,II,2,§I(trans.Barbeyrac).

90.Seenote78above.

91.Forthe"perpetualspring,"seeOvid,Metamorphoses,I.107ff.,and

Pufendorf,Droitdelanatureetdesgens,II.ii.2,whocitesOvidwhenhespeaksofthepaganpoets'ignoranceoftheearthlyparadiseoftheGardenofEden.

92.Onman'snaturallaziness,seeSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,28).Inhis1756lettertoVoltaireonprovidence,Rousseauexplainsthenaturalgoodnessoflife,claiminghehasproveditinhisdescriptionofnaturalmanintheSecondDiscourse:"IdaretostatethatthereisintheupperValaisnotasingleMountaineerdiscontentedwithhisalmostautomaticlife,andwhowouldnotwillinglyaccept,eveninplaceofParadise,thebargainofbeingrebornunceasinglyinordertovegetatethusinperpetuity"(CollectedWritings,III,111).SeealsoReveriesoftheSolitaryWalker,FifthWalk(Pléiade,I,1042).

93.Theinclinationoftheaxisoftheearthtotheangleofthatoftheuniverseisthecauseoftheseasons.RousseauusesthesameimageinafragmentfromhisprojectedPoliticalInstitutionsinatreatmentoftheeffectofclimatesoncivilization,adiscussionrelevanttothepresentdiscussion:"Totilttheaxisoftheworldwithafingerortosaytoman,'Covertheearthandbesociable,'wasthesamethingforHewhoneedsneitherhandtoactnorvoicetospeak"(CollectedWritings,IV,55).

94.SeeMontesquieu,SpiritoftheLaws,XVIII,3:"Itisnaturalforapeopletoleaveabadcountryinsearchofabetterandnotforthemtoleaveagoodcountryinsearchofaworseone."CompareMachiavelli,DiscoursesonTitusLivy,I,1.

95.RousseaureferstoEngland.SeeMontesquieu,SpiritoftheLaws,XVII,5.

Page576

96.RousseaualsospeaksofthesenaturaldisastersasthecausethatunitesmenandbeginstomakethemspeakintheSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,4647).SeealsoPoliticalFragments,X(CollectedWritings,IV,56).Fortheancienttraditionsofnaturaldisasters,asidefromthefloodanddestructionoftheTowerofBabelrecountedinGenesis(7:108:14;11:19),see,amongothers,Plato,Laws.III.667a682a,Timaeus,22a25d,andCritias,108e109a,etpassim;Lucretius,Dererumnatura,I.10271034,V.333347,380415.

97.CompareRousseau'ssimilardescriptionoftheSwissinhisConstitutionalProjectforCorsica(Pléiade,III,914).

98.Seenote83above.

99.Ontheuseoffireamongmenandanimals,seeSecondDiscourse,note*8(CollectedWritings,III,8283).Theterm"fleetingsociety"(sociétéfugitive)makesitappearthatRousseauisreferringheretoHelvétius,whousestheterminhisDel'Esprit(1758;Discourspremier,chap.1).Thewordtranslatedas"stupid"herealsomeans''beasts."SeeRousseau'slettertoVoltaireofSeptember10,1755(CollectedWritings,III,105anded.n.2).

100.SeeGenesis21:2533.

101.Forthechaosfeignedbythepoets,see,e.g.,Ovid,Metamorphoses,I.531;Lucretius,Dererumnatura,II.118122.AsGourevitchnotesinhiseditionoftheEssay,DescartesusesthesamephraseasRousseau(DiscourseonMethod,5,secondparagraph).

102.RousseauappearstorefertoBuffon'stheoryaselaboratedinhisAnimauxcarnissiers(1758;vol.7),whereBuffoncriticizesRousseau'stheoryofman'soriginaldietasexpressedintheSecondDiscourse.

103.SeetheparallelaccountintheSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,46).RousseauappearsinbothaccountstodrawonLucretius,Dererumnatura,V.13901402.Fortherelationshipofdancingandsingingin

connectionwiththeoppositionofnorthandsouth,seeCondillac,Essaisurl'originedesconnaissanceshumaines,II,i,8.

104.ThenecessaryintermarriagewithinfamiliesinprimitivetimeswasacommonsubjectinRousseau'stime.See,forexample,Grotius,DroitdelaGuerreetdePaix,I,5,§12(trans.Barbeyrac);Pufendorf,Droitdelanatureetdesgens,I,2,§6(trans.Barbeyrac);Montesquieu,PersianLetters,LetterLXVII.

105.Seenote40above.

106.InRousseau'sdraftthischapterwasoriginallyentitledChapterIX,butwaslaterchanged.

107."Similar"translates"semblables,"whichhasotherwisebeentranslated"fellow-men."

108.SeeRousseau,Emile,II(Pléiade,IV,374;Bloom,128).

109.SeeMontesquieu,SpiritoftheLaws,XVIII,4.

110.Thefirstwordamongthemwasnot"aimez-moi,"but"aidez-moi."AsStarobinskiremarksinhiseditionoftheEssay,Rousseautakesadvantagehereofthecontrastbetweenthehard"d"andthenasal"m"inthetwophrasesinordertomaketheoppositionbetweenthemevidenttotheearinFrench.

111.RousseaudiscussesMohammed,amongothers,aspersuasivepoliticalandreligiousfoundersintheSocialContract(II,7;seealsoIV,8).AsintheSocialCon-

Page577

tract,RousseauhereappearstohaveVoltaire'sMahomet(1743)inmind.SeehisdiscussionofthisplayintheLettertod'AlembertontheTheatre(ed.Bloom,3032)aswellasthe"ProfessionofFaith"intheEmile,IV(Pléiade,IV,632633andnote;Bloom,311313).

112.Thenotionofamutualoriginofsongandpoetrywasacommonnotioninantiquity.SeealsoCondillac,Essaisurl'originedesconnaissanceshumaines,II,i,2,§§1415;5,§46;8,§§7379.

113.Inthedraftmanuscript,Rousseauwrote"Relationships"inthemargininthesamefashionasthechapterheadingsandnumbers(seenote6above),althoughthisapparentchapterheadingwasnotnumbered.

114.TherelationshipbetweensongsandlawsisindicatedbytheGreek"nomos,"whichcanmeaneither"law"or"song."SeeAristotle,Problems,XIX.28;MartianusCappela,DeMusica(=DeNuptiisPhilologiaeetMercurii,IX),313g.Seenote6toRousseau'sOnthePrincipleofMelody,translatedabove.

115.Strabo,Geographica,I.ii,6.

116.Quintilian,Institutiooratoria,I.x.1718:"ArchytasandAristoxenusheldthattheformerwassubordinatetothelatter,whileweknowthatthesameinstructorswereemployedfortheteachingofboth....[Thesamefactisprovedby]Eupolis,whomakesProdamusteachbothmusicandliterature,andwhoseMaricas,whowasnoneotherthanHyperbolusindisguise,assertsthatheknowsnothingofmusicbutletters"(TheInstitutiooratoriaofQuintilian,trans.H.E.Butler[Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,LoebClassicalLibrary,1920]).InhiseditionoftheEssay,GourevitchnotesthatRousseaumakesseveralerrorsintranscribingthispassage,mostnotablysubstitutingAristoxenuswhereQuintilianspeaksofEuenus.

117.SeeRousseau'sarticleMUSIC[Musique]inhisDictionaryofMusic,p.444below,wherehereferstotheEssay.CompareMontesquieu's

discussionofancientmusicinhisSpiritoftheLaws,IV,8.

118.PierreJeanBurette(16651747)wasamusicianandmedicaldoctorwhocollaboratedontheJournaldessavantsandwasamemberoftheAcadémiedesInscriptionsetBelles-Lettres.BurrettetranscribedmusicsettoanodeofPindar(Aristonmenhudor)andonebyHorace.BothodeswereoriginallyreproducedbyMarinMersenneinhisHarmonieuniverselle(1636).RousseaudiscussesbothMersenneandBuretteandatsomelengthinthearticleMUSIC[Musiqe]inhisDictionaryofMusic,translatedbelow.

119.JeanTerrasson(16701750),Laphilosophieapplicableàtouslesobjetsdel'espritetdelaraison(1754),publishedposthumouslyandeditedbyd'Alembert.Inthiswork,TerrassonpraisesRameauandattackshisadversaries,includingRousseau:"ThemusicofRameauisoneexampleofthenewbeautiesalwaysrejectedbysome"(p.30).Terrasson,professorofGreekandLatinphilosophyattheCollègedeFrance,wasapartisanofthemodernsintheQuarrelbetweentheancientsandmoderns.RousseaureferstoTerrassoninhisEmileasaproponentofthesuperiorityofthemoderns(IV;Pléiade,IV,676;Bloom,343).

120.Forasimilardiscussionofmoralcauses,physicalcauses,andtaste,seeEmile,IV(Pléiade,IV,671676;Bloom,340343).SeealsoRousseauDialogues,SecondDialogue,(CollectedWritings,I,112113).

Page578

121.Thecomparisonbetweenpaintingandmusic,withdesignrepresentingthemelodyandcolorationtheharmony,wasacommontropeinthisperiod.SeealsoPlato,Republic,X,600e601b."Contour"translates"trait"inthispassageandintheremainderofthischapter.

122.ForBurette,seenote118above.

123.TheanalogybetweentherefractionofcolorsintheprismandthenotesofthemusicalscalewasmademostimportantlybyNewtoninhisOpticks(Pt.1,qu.14).Newton'spropositionwasdiscussedinthearticle"Coulour"intheEncyclopedia,andwastakenupmostimportantlybyCastel,whose"ocularclavichord"Rousseaulampoonsinchap.XVIbelow.

124."Relationships"translates"rapports,"whichcanalsobetranslated"ratios"andhasbeentranslatedassuchwhenitclearlyhasthissense.

125.RousseauparodiesRameauinthepreviouspassage.Forexample,inhisNouvellesréflexionssurladémonstrationduprincipledel'harmonie(1752)Rameauwrites:"ThebeautifuledificesoftheGreeksandRomans...wereallbuiltontheproportionsdrawnfrommusic,whichwelljustifiestheideathatIhavelonghad,thatinmusicresidesmostcertainlytheprincipleofalltheartsoftaste"(Jacobi,V,123124).SeealsotheendofRameau'sErrorsonMusicintheEncyclopedia,translatedabove.

126.ThisisthedefinitionofmusicRousseaugivesattheoutsetofthearticleMUSIC[Musique]intheDictionaryofMusic,translatedbelow.

127.RousseauhereopposesRameau'ssupposedexperimentasreported,amongotherplaces,inhisTreatiseonHarmony,Bk.3,chap.40(Gossett,331341).HeexplainsthebasisofhiscriticismattheoutsetofhisExaminationofTwoPrinciples,translatedabove.

128.SeePlato,Phaedo,84e85a.

129.RousseauappearstorefertoRameau'sPlatée(1745),whichincludes

achorusofcroakingfrogs.

130.InRousseau'sdraftthischapterwasoriginallyentitled:"Howourliveliestsensationsoftenactthroughmoralimpressions."

131.ForRousseau'ssimilardiscussionofindicationsthatanimalsaswellashumansseemtoshowsignsofnaturalpity,seeSecondDiscourse(CollectedWritings,III,36).IntheEmile,Rousseauremarksthat"itisimportanttoobservethatsomethingmoralentersintoeverythingconcernedwithimitation,"andthenwritesinanotetothestatement:"ThisisprovedbyanessayonthePrincipleofMelody,whichwillbefoundinthecollectionofmywritings"(IV;Pléiade,IV,672;Bloom,340).InhisowncopyoftheEmile,RousseauchangedthereferencetotheEssayontheOriginofLanguages(Pléiade,IV,1618).

132.Rousseaureferstothesupposedcurefortarantulabitesbydancing,fromwhichcomesthedancecalleda"Tarantella."

133.NicolasBernier(16641734)wasthedirectorofmusicoftheSainteChapelleinParisandthechapelatVersailles.RousseaurelatesthestoryofthemusiciancuredbyaconcertinthearticleMUSIC[Musique]inhisDictionaryofMusic,p.443below.InhisConfessions,Rousseaurelateslearningcantatasbyheartwhilehehimselfwasill(V;CollectedWritings,V,155).

134.SeeEmile,II(Pléiade,IV,409410;Bloom,152):"Gluttonyistheviceofheartsthathavenosubstance."

Page579

135.Rousseaudistinguishesthe"systematizingspirit"fromthe"spiritofobservation,"uponwhichhesayshisown"system"isfounded,inhisLettresmorales(Lettre3;PléiadeIV,10901093).

136.The"ocularclavichord"wasconstructedbytheAbbéLouisBertrandCastel(16881757),whomRousseauhadmetsoonafterarrivinginPariswithhisnewsystemofmusicalnotation(seeConfessions,VII(CollectedWritings,V,238,242243,274).Castelfirstproposedhisclavichordin1725intheMercuredeFranceandelaboratedonitinlaterworks,mostimportantlyhisOptiquedescoulours(1740).Aseparatearticleonthe"Clavecinoculaire"wasincludedintheEncyclopedia.

137.RousseaureferstothefamousautomatedflautistconstructedbyVaucanson(17091782),whopublishedhisMécanismed'unflûteurautomatein1738.

138.Rousseaureferstotheancientteaching,datingbacktothePythagoriansandPlatoandpopularintheMiddleAgesandRenaissance,thattherevolutionofthespherescontainingthecelestialbodiesproducedaharmoniousmusic.

139."Similar"translates"semblable"whichistranslatedas"fellows"intheprevioussentence.Seenote8above.

140.ThisparagraphintheEssayisrepeatedalmostverbatiminthearticlesIMITATION[Imitation]andOPERA[Opéra]intheDictionaryofMusic,bothofwhicharetranslatedbelow.

141.RousseaurefersforemosttoRameau,whoclaimedGreekmusicwasadefectiveversionoftheharmonictheoryhedevelopedinhisworks.However,inhisearlierworks,notablytheTreatiseonHarmony(1722),RameauclaimedthatthemusicoftheGreekswasfoundedonmelodyandnotharmony.Inhislaterwritings,RameauchangedhismindandinsistedthatGreekmusicwasbasedonadefectivenotionofharmony.ThedebatebetweenRousseauandRameauovertherelatedissuesoftheprimacyof

melodyandharmonyandthenatureofGreekmusiccanbefoundinRousseau'sarticleENHARMONIC[Enharmonique]intheEncyclopedia(laterincludedinrevisedformintheDictionaryofMusic)andRameau'scriticalexaminationofthatarticleinhisContinuationofErrorsonMusicintheEncyclopedia,bothtranslatedabove.

142.RousseauelaboratesonthedifferenceamongthemusicalsystemsofvariouspeoplesandincludesexamplesofthemusicoftheGreeks,AmericanIndians,andothers,inthearticleMUSIC[Musique]intheDictionaryofMusic,translatedbelow.

143.ThisparagraphwasadaptedwithminorchangesfromthePrincipleofMelody,p.263above,andwasalsousedintheExaminationofTwoPrinciples,p.275above.

144.Rousseau'sformulationintheversionofthissentenceinthePrincipleofMelody(seep.263above)bringsoutthepun:"theywouldhavesotospeakunderstoodthemunderneath[sousentendüesaudessous]theirsongs."

145.SeetheentryPATHETIC[Pathétique]intheDictionaryofMusic:"Thetruepatheticgenreisinpassionateaccent,whichisnotatalldeterminedbyrules,butiswhatgeniusdiscoversandtheheartfeels,withoutartbeingableinanywaytogiveitlaws."

146.ThiswholechapterwasadaptedwithchangesfromthePrincipleofMelody,pp.265268above.

147.Plutarch,DeMusica,XXX.1141c1142a.Thedialogue,falselyattributedto

Page580

Plutarch,containsasynopsisofPherecrates'playChiron(c.440420B.C.),inwhichMusic,dressedasawoman,complainsthat,insteadofcommandingpoetryasofold,nowsheisstrippedofherrightfulplaceandaccustomedpower.Melanippides(fifthcenturyB.C.)andPhiloxenus(fourthcenturyB.C.)wereinnovatorsinGreekmusic.

148.SeeRousseau,FirstDiscourse(CollectedWritings,II,78).

149.SeePlato,Republic,X.599ce;DiogenesLaertius,LivesofthePhilosophers,"Plato."

150.Neroisthe"fluteplayer"RousseauhasFabriciusdenounceintheimportantprosopopeiaintheFirstDiscourse(CollectedWritings,II,11).

151.FlaviusClaudiusJulianus("JuliantheApostate"),Misopogon,337c.JulianactuallycomparestheGaul'sspeechtothecawingofhoarsebirds.

152.SeeRousseau'sarticlePLAIN-SONG[Plain-Chant]inhisDictionaryofMusic(Pléiade,V,983),whereheappearstoalludetothisdiscussionintheEssay:"ThetimewhentheChristiansbegantohaveChurches...wasthatinwhichMusichadalreadylostalmostallitsancientenergybyaprogressofwhichIhaveelsewheresetforththecauses."

153.JehandesMurs(c.1300c.1350),awidelyinfluentialmusicaltheoristofthelaterMiddleAgesbestknownforhistreatmentofmusicalproportionsandmensuralnotation.RousseaureferstotheSpeculummusicae,longattributedtoJehandesMurs,butactuallywrittenbyJacquesdeLiège(c.1260c.1330).Giovanni-AndreaAngelini-BontempiorBuontempi(c.1630c.1704),publishedhisIstoriamusicain1695.RousseaureadtheworkattentivelywhilelivingatCharmettes,andcreditsitwithsparkinghisinterestinmusicaltheory(seeConfessions,VII;CollectedWritings,V,206).

154.GiuseppeTartini(16921770)wasawell-knownviolinist,composer,andtheoretician.HismostinfluentialworkwastheTrattatodimusica

secondoalverascienzadell'armonia(1754).ForRousseau'sdiscussionofRameau'svibratingstring,seeExaminationofTwoPrinciples,end,p.281above.

155.IntheEmileRousseauwrites:"Iobservethatinthemodernagemennolongerhaveaholdononeanotherexceptbyforceorbyself-interest;theancients,bycontrast,actedmuchmorebypersuasionandbytheaffectionsofthesoulbecausetheydidnotneglectthelanguageofsigns"(IV;Pléiade,IV,645;Bloom,231).SeealsoSocialContract,III,15:"yourindistinctlanguagescannotbeheardoutdoors"(seemoregenerallyIII,1215).CompareAristotle,Politics,VII.4.1326b56.

156.SeeRousseau'ssimilardescriptionofthepublicreadingofthepoetryofHomerandthegreatAtheniantragediansinhisConsiderationsontheGovernmentofPoland,chap.2(Pléiade,III,958).

157.D'Alembert,Delalibertédelamusique(1758),XXIII:"IfFrenchrecitativewereaswellcomposedasitcouldbe,itoughttobeabletoberecitedinItalian."

158.Duclos,RemarquessurlaGrammairegénéraleetraisonnée,I,1.