UNIT – IVAd hoc networks, localization, MAC issues, Routing protocols, global state routing (GSR), Destination sequenced distance vector routing (DSDV), Dynamic source routing (DSR), Ad Hoc on demand distance vector routing (AODV), Temporary ordered routing algorithm (TORA), QoS in Ad Hoc Networks, applications.

Mobile Ad hoc NETworks (MANETs) are wireless networks which are characterized by dynamic topologies and no fixed infrastructure. Each node in a MANET is a computer that may be required to act as both a host and a router and, as much, may be required to forward packets between nodes which cannot directly communicate with one another. Each MANET node has much smaller frequency spectrum requirements that that for a node in a fixed infrastructure network. A MANET is an autonomous collection of mobile users that communicate over relatively bandwidth constrained wireless links. Since the nodes are mobile, the network topology may change rapidly and unpredictably over time. The network is decentralized, where all network activity including discovering the topology and delivering messages must be executed by the nodes themselves, i.e., routing functionality will be incorporated into mobile nodes.

A mobile ad hoc network is a collection of wireless nodes that can dynamically be set up anywhere and anytime without using any pre-existing fixed network infrastructure.

MANET- Characteristics

Dynamic network topology Bandwidth constraints and variable link capacity Energy constrained nodes Multi-hop communications Limited security Autonomous terminal Distributed operation Light-weight terminals

Need for Ad Hoc Networks

Setting up of fixed access points and backbone infrastructure is not always viable

– Infrastructure may not be present in a disaster area or war zone– Infrastructure may not be practical for short-range radios; Bluetooth (range ~ 10m)

Ad hoc networks:– Do not need backbone infrastructure support– Are easy to deploy– Useful when infrastructure is absent, destroyed or impractical

Properties of MANETs MANET enables fast establishment of networks. When anew network is to be

established, the only requirement is to provide a new set of nodes with limited wireless communication range. A node has limited capability, that is, it can connect only to the nodes which are nearby. Hence it consumes limited power.

A MANET node has the ability to discover a neighboring node and service. Using a service discovery protocol, a node discovers the service of a nearby node and communicates to a remote node in the MANET.

MANET nodes have peer-to-peer connectivity among themselves. MANET nodes have independent computational, switching (or routing), and

communication capabilities. The wireless connectivity range in MANETs includes only nearest node connectivity. The failure of an intermediate node results in greater latency in communicating with

the remote server. Limited bandwidth available between two intermediate nodes becomes a constraint for

the MANET. The node may have limited power and thus computations need to be energy- efficient.

There is no access-point requirement in MANET. Only selected access points are provided for connection to other networks or other MANETs.

MANET nodes can be the iPods, Palm handheld computers, Smartphones, PCs, smart labels, smart sensors, and automobile-embedded systems\

MANET nodes can use different protocols, for example, IrDA, Bluetooth, ZigBee, 802.11, GSM, and TCP/IP.MANET node performs data caching, saving, and aggregation.

MANET mobile device nodes interact seamlessly when they move with the nearby wireless nodes, sensor nodes, and embedded devices in automobiles so that the seamless connectivity is maintained between the devices.

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MANET challengesTo design a good wireless ad hoc network, various challenges have to be taken into account:

Dynamic Topology : Nodes are free to move in an arbitrary fashion resulting in the topology changing arbitrarily. This characteristic demands dynamic configuration of the network.

Limited security : Wireless networks are vulnerable to attack. Mobile ad hoc networks are more vulnerable as by design any node should be able to join or leave the network at any time. This requires flexibility and higher openness.

Limited Bandwidth : Wireless networks in general are bandwidth limited. In an ad hoc network, it is all the more so because there is no backbone to handle or multiplex higher bandwidth

Routing : Routing in a mobile ad hoc network is complex. This depends on many factors, including finding the routing path, selection of routers, topology, protocol etc.

Applications of MANETSThe set of applications for MANETs is diverse, ranging from small, static networks that are constrained by power sources, to large-scale, mobile, highly dynamic networks. The design of network protocols for these networks is a complex issue. Regardless of the application, MANETs need efficient distributed algorithms to determine network organization, link scheduling, and routing. Some of the main application areas of

MANET’s are:

Military battlefield – soldiers, tanks, planes. Ad- hoc networking would allow the military to take advantage of commonplace network technology to maintain an information network between the soldiers, vehicles, and military information headquarters.

Sensor networks – to monitor environmental conditions over a large area Local level – Ad hoc networks can autonomously link an instant and temporary

multimedia network using notebook computers or palmtop computers to spread and share information among participants at e.g. conference or classroom. Another appropriate local level application might be in home networks where devices can communicate directly to exchange information.

Personal Area Network (PAN ) – pervasive computing i.e. to provide flexible connectivity between personal electronic devices or home appliances. Short-range MANET can simplify the intercommunication between various mobile devices (such as a PDA, a laptop, and a cellular phone). Tedious wired cables are replaced with wireless connections. Such an ad hoc network can also extend the access to the Internet or other networks by mechanisms e.g. Wireless LAN (WLAN), GPRS, and UMTS.

Vehicular Ad hoc Networks – intelligent transportation i.e. to enable real time vehicle monitoring and adaptive traffic control

Civilian environments – taxi cab network, meeting rooms, sports stadiums, boats, small aircraft

Emergency operations – search and rescue, policing and fire fighting and to provide connectivity between distant devices where the network infrastructure is unavailable. Ad hoc can be used in emergency/rescue operations for disaster relief efforts, e.g. in fire, flood, or earthquake. Emergency rescue operations must take place where non- existing or damaged communications infrastructure and rapid deployment of a communication network is needed. Information is relayed from one rescue team member to another over a small hand held.

Routing in MANET’s

Routing in Mobile Ad hoc networks is an important issue as these networks do not have fixed infrastructure and routing requires distributed and cooperative actions from all nodes in the network. MANET’s provide point to point routing similar to Internet routing. The major difference between routing in MANET and regular internet is the route discovery mechanism. Internet routing protocols such as RIP or OSPF have relatively long converge times, which is acceptable for a wired network that has infrequent topology changes. However, a MANET has a rapid topology changes due to node mobility making the traditional internet routing protocols inappropriate. MANET-specific routing protocols have been proposed, that handle topology changes well, but they have large control overhead and are not scalable for large networks. Another major difference in the routing is the network address. In internet routing, the network address (IP address) is hierarchical containing a network ID and a computer ID on that network. In contrast, for most MANET’s the network address is simply an ID of the node in the network and is not hierarchical. The routing protocol must use the entire address to decide the next hop.

Some of the fundamental differences between wired networks & ad-hoc networks are:

Asymmetric links: - Routing information collected for one direction is of no use for the other direction. Many routing algorithms for wired networks rely on a symmetric scenario.

Redundant links: - In wired networks, some redundancy is present to survive link failures and this redundancy is controlled by a network administrator. In ad-hoc networks, nobody controls redundancy resulting in many redundant links up to the extreme of a complete meshed topology.

Interference: - In wired networks, links exist only where a wire exists, and connections are planned by network administrators. But, in ad-hoc networks links come and go depending on transmission characteristics, one transmission might interfere with another and nodes might overhear the transmission of other nodes.

Dynamic topology: - The mobile nodes might move in an arbitrary manner or medium characteristics might change. This result in frequent changes in topology, so snapshots are valid only for a very short period of time. So, in ad-hoc networks, routing tables must somehow reflect these frequent changes in topology and routing algorithms have to be adopted.

Summary of the difficulties faced for routing in ad-hoc networks

Traditional routing algorithms known from wired networks will not work efficiently or fail completely. These algorithms have not been designed with a highly dynamic topology, asymmetric links, or interference in mind.

Routing in wireless ad-hoc networks cannot rely on layer three knowledge alone. Information from lower layers concerning connectivity or interference can help routing algorithms to find a good path.

Centralized approaches will not really work, because it takes too long to collect the current status and disseminate it again. Within this time the topology has already changed.

Many nodes need routing capabilities. While there might be some without, at least one router has to be within the range of each node. Algorithms have to consider the limited battery power of these nodes.

The notion of a connection with certain characteristics cannot work properly. Ad-hoc networks will be connectionless, because it is not possible to maintain a connection in a fast changing environment and to forward data following this connection. Nodes have to make local decisions for forwarding and send packets roughly toward the final destination.

A last alternative to forward a packet across an unknown topology is flooding. This approach always works if the load is low, but it is very inefficient. A hop counter is needed in each packet to avoid looping, and the diameter of the ad-

hoc network.

Types of MANET Routing Algorithms:

1. Based on the information used to build routing tables :• Shortest distance algorithms : algorithms that use distance information to build

routing tables.• Link state algorithms : algorithms that use connectivity information to build a

topology graph that is used to build routing tables.

2. Based on when routing tables are built:• Proactive algorithms : maintain routes to destinations even if they are not needed.

Some of the examples are Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV), Wireless Routing Algorithm (WRP), Global State Routing (GSR), Source-tree Adaptive Routing (STAR), Cluster-Head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR), Topology Broadcast Reverse Path Forwarding (TBRPF), Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) etc.

Always maintain routes:- Little or no delay for route determination Consume bandwidth to keep routes up-to-date Maintain routes which may never be used Advantages: low route latency, State information, QoS guarantee related

to connection set-up or other real-time requirements Disadvantages: high overhead (periodic updates) and route repair

depends on update frequency

• Reactive algorithms : maintain routes to destinations only when they are needed. Examples are Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad hoc-On demand distance Vector (AODV), Temporally ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA), Associativity-Based Routing (ABR) etc

only obtain route information when needed Advantages: no overhead from periodic update, scalability as long as

there is only light traffic and low mobility. Disadvantages: high route latency, route caching can reduce latency

• Hybrid algorithms : maintain routes to nearby nodes even if they are not needed and maintain routes to far away nodes only when needed. Example is Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP).

Which approach achieves a better trade-off depends on the traffic and mobility patterns.

Destination sequence distance vector (DSDV)Destination sequence distance vector (DSDV) routing is an example of proactive algorithms and an enhancement to distance vector routing for ad-hoc networks. Distance vector routing is used as routing information protocol (RIP) in wired networks. It performs extremely poorly with certain network changes due to the count-to-infinity problem. Each node exchanges its neighbor table periodically with its neighbors. Changes at one node in the network propagate slowly through the network. The strategies to avoid this problem which are used in fixed networks do not help in the case of wireless ad-hoc networks, due to the rapidly changing topology. This might create loops or unreachable regions within the network.

DSDV adds the concept of sequence numbers to the distance vector algorithm. Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number. Within ad-hoc networks, advertisements may propagate along many paths. Sequence numbers help to apply the advertisements in correct order. This avoids the loops that are likely with the unchanged distance vector algorithm.

Each node maintains a routing table which stores next hop, cost metric towards each destination and a sequence number that is created by the destination itself. Each node periodically forwards routing table to neighbors. Each node increments and appends its sequence number when sending its local routing table. Each route is tagged with a sequence number; routes with greater sequence numbers are preferred. Each node advertises a monotonically increasing even sequence number for itself. When a node decides that a route is broken, it increments the sequence number of the route and advertises it with infinite metric. Destination advertises new sequence number.

When X receives information from Y about a route to Z,

Let destination sequence number for Z at X be S(X), S(Y) is sent from Y If S(X) > S(Y), then X ignores the routing information received from Y If S(X) = S(Y), and cost of going through Y is smaller than the route known to X, then X

sets Y as the next hop to Z If S(X) < S(Y), then X sets Y as the next hop to Z, and S(X) is updated to equal S(Y)

Besides being loop-free at all times, DSDV has low memory requirements and a quick convergence via triggered updates. Disadvantages of DSDV are, large routing overhead, usage of only bidirectional links and suffers from count to infinity problem.

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Dynamic Source RoutingThe Dynamic Source Routing protocol (DSR) is a simple and efficient routing protocol designed specifically for use in multi-hop wireless ad hoc networks of mobile nodes. DSR allows the network to be completely self-organizing and self-configuring, without the need for any existing network infrastructure or administration. The protocol is composed of the two main mechanisms of "Route Discovery" and "Route Maintenance", which work together to allow nodes to discover and maintain routes to arbitrary destinations in the ad hoc network. All aspects of the protocol operate entirely on-demand, allowing the routing packet overhead of DSR to scale automatically to only that needed to react to changes in the routes currently in use.

Route discovery. If the source does not have a route to the destination in its route cache, it broadcasts a route request (RREQ) message specifying the destination node for which the route is requested. The RREQ message includes a route record which specifies the sequence of nodes traversed by the message. When an intermediate node receives a RREQ, it checks to see if it is already in the route record. If it is, it drops the message. This is done to prevent routing loops. If the intermediate node had received the RREQ before, then it also drops the message. The intermediate node forwards the RREQ to the next hop according to the route specified in the header. When the destination receives the RREQ, it sends back a route reply message. If the destination has a route to the source in its route cache, then it can send a route response (RREP) message along this route. Otherwise, the RREP message can be sent along the reverse route back to the source. Intermediate nodes may also use their route cache to reply to RREQs. If an intermediate node has a route to the destination in its cache, then it can append the route to the route record in the RREQ, and send an RREP back to the source containing this route. This can help limit flooding of the RREQ. However, if the cached route is out-of-date, it can result in the source receiving stale routes.

Route maintenance. When a node detects a broken link while trying to forward a packet to the next hop, it sends a route error (RERR) message back to the source containing the link in error. When an RERR message is received, all routes containing the link in error are deleted at that node.

As an example, consider the following MANET, where a node S wants to send a packet to D, but does not know the route to D. So, it initiates a route discovery. Source node S floods Route Request (RREQ). Each node appends its own identifier when forwarding RREQ as shown below.

Destination D on receiving the first RREQ, sends a Route Reply (RREP). RREP is sent on a route obtained by reversing the route appended to received RREQ. RREP includes the route from S to D on which RREQ was received by node D.

Route Reply can be sent by reversing the route in Route Request (RREQ) only if links are guaranteed to be bi-directional. If Unidirectional (asymmetric) links are allowed, then RREP may need a route discovery from S to D. Node S on receiving RREP, caches the route included in the RREP. When node S sends a data packet to D, the entire route is included in the packet header{hence the name source routing}. Intermediate nodes use the source route included in a packet to determine to whom a packet should be forwarded.

J sends a route error to S along route J-F-E-S when its attempt to forward the data packet S (with route SEFJD) on J-D fails. Nodes hearing RERR update their route cache to

remove link J-D

Advantages of DSR:

Routes maintained only between nodes who need to communicate-- reduces overhead of route maintenance

Route caching can further reduce route discovery overhead A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due to

intermediate nodes replying from local cachesDisadvantages of DSR:

Packet header size grows with route length due to source routing Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network Care must be taken to avoid collisions between route requests propagated

by neighboring nodes -- insertion of random delays before forwarding RREQ

Increased contention if too many route replies come back due to nodes replying using their local cache-- Route Reply Storm problem. Reply storm may be eased by preventing a node from sending RREP if it hears another RREP with a shorter route

An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a stale cached route, thus polluting other caches

An optimization for DSR can be done called as Route Caching. Each node caches a new route it learns by any means. In the above example, When node S finds route [S,E,F,J,D] to node D, node S also learns route [S,E,F] to node F. When node K receives Route Request [S,C,G] destined for node, node K learns route [K,G,C,S] to node S. When node F forwards Route Reply RREP [S,E,F,J,D], node F learns route [F,J,D] to node D. When node E forwards Data [S,E,F,J,D] it learns route [E,F,J,D] to node D. A node may also learn a route when it overhears Data packets. Usage of Route cache can speed up route discovery and can also reduce propagation of route

requests. The disadvantages are, stale caches can adversely affect performance. With passage of time and host mobility, cached routes may become invalid.

Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV)AODV is another reactive protocol as it reacts to changes and maintains only the active routes in the caches or tables for a pre-specified expiration time. Distance vector means a set of distant nodes, which defines the path to destination. AODV can be considered as a descendant of DSR and DSDV algorithms. It uses the same route discovery mechanism used by DSR. DSR includes source routes in packet headers and resulting large headers can sometimes degrade performance, particularly when data contents of a packet are small. AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the nodes, so that data packets do not have to contain routes. AODV retains the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only between nodes which need to communicate. However, as opposed to DSR, which uses source routing, AODV uses hop-by-hop routing by maintaining routing table entries at intermediate nodes.

Route Discovery. The route discovery process is initiated when a source needs a route to a destination and it does not have a route in its routing table. To initiate route discovery, the source floods the network with a RREQ packet specifying the destination for which the route is requested. When a node receives an RREQ packet, it checks to see whether it is the destination or whether it has a route to the destination. If either case is true, the node generates an RREP packet, which is sent back to the source along the reverse path. Each node along the reverse path sets up a forward pointer to the node it received the RREP from. This sets up a forward path from the source to the destination. If the node is not the destination and does not have a route to the destination, it rebroadcasts the RREQ packet. At intermediate nodes duplicate RREQ packets are discarded. When the source node receives the first RREP, it can begin sending data to the destination. To determine the relative degree out-of-datedness of routes, each entry in the node routing table and all RREQ and RREP packets are tagged with a destination sequence number. A larger destination sequence number indicates a more current (or more recent) route. Upon receiving an RREQ or RREP packet, a node updates its routing information to set up the reverse or forward path, respectively, only if the route contained in the RREQ or RREP packet is more current than its own route.

Route Maintenance. When a node detects a broken link while attempting to forward a packet to the next hop, it generates a RERR packet that is sent to all sources using the broken link. The RERR packet erases all routes using the link along the way. If a source receives a RERR packet and a route to the destination is still required, it initiates a new route discovery process. Routes are also deleted from the routing table if they are unused for a certain amount of time.

An intermediate node (not the destination) may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to sender S. To determine whether the path known to an intermediate node is more recent, destination sequence numbers are used. The likelihood that an intermediate node will send a Route Reply when using AODV is not as high as DSR. A new Route Request by node S for a destination is assigned a higher destination sequence number. An intermediate node which knows a route, but with a smaller sequence number, cannot send Route Reply

When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node D) on link (X,Y), it generates a RERR message Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at node X. The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR. When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for D using destination sequence number at least as large asN. When node D receives the route request with destination sequence number N, node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is already larger than N.

Sequence numbers are used in AODV to avoid using old/broken routes and to determine which route is newer. Also, it prevents formation of loops.

Assume that A does not know about failure of link C-D because RERR sent by C is lost.

Now C performs a route discovery for D. Node A receives the RREQ (say, via path C-E-A)

Node A will reply since A knows a route to D via node B resultingin a loop (for instance, C-E-A-B-C )

Neighboring nodes periodically exchange hello message and absence of hello message indicates a link failure. When node X is unable to forward packet P (from node S to node D) on link (X,Y), it generates a RERR message. Node X increments the destination sequence number for D cached at node X. The incremented sequence number N is included in the RERR. When node S receives the RERR, it initiates a new route discovery for D using destination sequence number at least as large as N. When node D receives the route request with destination sequence number N, node D will set its sequence number to N, unless it is already larger than N.

Another example for AODV protocol:

Assume node-1 want to send a msg to node-14 and does not know the route. So, it broadcasts (floods) route request message, shown in red.

Node from which RREQ was received defines a reverse route to the source. (reverse routing table entries shown in blue).

The route request is flooded through the network. Destination managed sequence number, ID prevent looping. Also, flooding is expensive and creates broadcast collision problem.

Route request arrives at the destination node-14. Upon receiving, destination sends route reply by setting a sequence number(shown in pink)

Routing table now contains forward route to the destination. Route reply follows reverse route back to the source.

The route reply sets the forward table entries on its way back to the source.

Once the route reply reaches the source, it adopts the destination sequence number. Traffic flows along the forward route. Forward route is refreshed and the reverse routes get timed out.

Suppose there has been a failure in one of the links. The node sends a return error message to the source with incrementing the sequence number.

Once the source receives the route error, it re-initiates the route discovery process.

A routing table entry maintaining a reverse path is purged after a timeout interval. Timeout should be long enough to allow RREP to come back. A routing table entry maintaining a forward path is purged if not used for a active_route_timeout interval. If no data is being sent using a particular routing table entry, that entry will be deleted from the routing table (even if the route may actually still be valid).

Cluster-head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR)The cluster-head gateway switch routing (CGSR) is a hierarchical routing protocol. It is a proactive protocol. When a source routes the packets to destination, the routing tables are already available at the nodes. A cluster higher in hierarchy sends the packets to the cluster lower in hierarchy. Each cluster can have several daughters I and forms a tree-like structure in CGSR. CGSR forms a cluster structure. The nodes aggregate into clusters using an appropriate algorithm. The algorithm defines a cluster-head, the node used for connection to other clusters. It also defines a gateway node which provides switching (communication) between two or more cluster-heads. There will thus be three types of nodes— (i) internal nodes in a cluster which transmit and receive the messages and packets through a cluster-head, (ii) cluster-head in each cluster such that there is a cluster-head which dynamically schedules the route paths. It controls a group of ad-hoc hosts, monitors broadcasting within the cluster, and forwards the messages to another cluster-head, and (iii) gateway node to carry out transmission and reception of messages and

packets between cluster-heads of two clusters.

The cluster structure leads to a higher performance of the routing protocol as compared to other protocols because it provides gateway switch-type traffic redirections and clusters provide an effective membership of nodes for connectivity.

CGSR works as follow:

periodically, every nodes sends a hello message containing its ID and a monotonically increasing sequence number

Using these messages, every cluster-head maintains a table containing the IDs of nodes belonging to it and their most recent sequence numbers.

Cluster-heads exchange these tables with each other through gateways; eventually, each node will have an entry in the affiliation table of each cluster-head. This entry shows the node’s ID & cluster-head of that node.

Each cluster-head and each gateway maintains a routing table with an entry for every cluster-head that shows the next gateway on the shortest path to that cluster head.

Disadvantages:

The same disadvantage common to all hierarchal algorithms related to cluster formation and maintenance.

Hierarchal State Routing (HSR)A hierarchal link state routing protocol that solves the location management problem found in MMWN by using the logical subnets. A logical subnet is : a group of nodes that have common characteristics (e.g. the subnet of students, the subnet of profs , employees etc. ). Nodes of the same subnet do not have to be close to each other in the physical distance.

HSR procedure:

1. Based on the physical distance, nodes are grouped into clusters that are supervised by cluster-heads. There are more than one level of clustering.

2. Every node has two addresses :I. a hierarchal-ID ,(HID), composed of the node’s MAC address prefixed by the

IDs of its parent clusters.II. a logical address in the form <subnet,host>.

3. Every logical subnet has a home agent, i.e. a node that keeps track of the HID of all members of that subnet.

4. The HIDs of the home agents are known to all the cluster-heads, and the cluster-head can translate the subnet part of the node’s logical address to the HID of the corresponding home agent.

5. when a node moves to a new cluster, the head of the cluster detects it and informs the node’s home agents about node’s new HID.

6. When a home agent moves to a new cluster, the head of the cluster detects it and informs all other cluster-heads about the home agent’s new HID.

To start a session:

1. The source node informs its cluster-head about the logical address of the destination node.

2. The cluster-head looks up the HID of the destination node’s home agent and uses it to send query to the home agent asking about the destination's HID.

3. After knowing the destination’s HID, the cluster-head uses its topology map to find a route to the destination’s cluster-head.

Disadvantages: cluster formation and maintenance.

Optimized Link State Routing ProtocolOptimized link state routing protocol (OLSR) has characteristics similar to those of link state flat routing table driven protocol, but in this case, only required updates are sent to the routing database. This reduces the overhead control packet size and numbers.

OSLR uses controlled flood to disseminate the link state information of each node.

Every node creates a list of its one hop neighbors. Neighbor nodes exchange their lists with each other. Based on the received lists, each node creates its MPR.

The multipoint relays of each node, (MPR), is the minimal set of 1-hop nodes that covers all 2- hop points.

The members of the MPR are the only nodes that can retransmit the link state information in an attempt to limit the flood.

Security in MANET’sSecuring wireless ad-hoc networks is a highly challenging issue. Understanding possible form of attacks is always the first step towards developing good security solutions. Security of communication in MANET is important for secure transmission of information. Absence of any central co-ordination mechanism and shared wireless medium makes MANET more vulnerable

to digital/cyber attacks than wired network there are a number of attacks that affect MANET. These attacks can be classified into two types:

1. External Attack: External attacks are carried out by nodes that do not belong to the network. It causes congestion sends false routing information or causes unavailability of services.

2. Internal Attack: Internal attacks are from compromised nodes that are part of the network. In an internal attack the malicious node from the network gains unauthorized access and impersonates as a genuine node. It can analyze traffic between other nodes and may participate in other network activities.

Denial of Service attack: This attack aims to attack the availability of a node or the entire network. If the attack is successful the services will not be available. The attacker generally uses radio signal jamming and the battery exhaustion method.

Impersonation: If the authentication mechanism is not properly implemented a malicious node can act as a genuine node and monitor the network traffic. It can also send fake routing packets, and gain access to some confidential information.

Eavesdropping: This is a passive attack. The node simply observes the confidential information. This information can be later used by the malicious node. The secret information like location, public key, private key, password etc. can be fetched by eavesdropper.

Routing Attacks: The malicious node makes routing services a target because it’s an important service in MANETs. There are two flavors to this routing attack. One is attack on routing protocol and another is attack on packet forwarding or delivery mechanism. The first is aimed at blocking the propagation of routing information to a node. The latter is aimed at disturbing the packet delivery against a predefined path.

Black hole Attack:: In this attack, an attacker advertises a zero metric for all destinations causing all nodes around it to route packets towards it.[9] A malicious node sends fake routing information, claiming that it has an optimum route and causes other good nodes to route data packets through the malicious one. A malicious node drops all packets that it receives instead of normally forwarding those packets. An attacker listen the requests in a flooding based protocol.

Wormhole Attack: In a wormhole attack, an attacker receives packets at one point in the network, ―tunnels them to another point in the network, and then replays them into the network from that point. Routing can be disrupted when routing control message are tunnelled. This tunnel between two colluding attacks is known as a wormhole.

Replay Attack: An attacker that performs a replay attack are retransmitted the valid data repeatedly to inject the network routing traffic that has been captured previously. This attack usually targets the freshness of routes, but can also be used to undermine poorly designed security solutions.

Jamming: In jamming, attacker initially keep monitoring wireless medium in order to determine frequency at which destination node is receiving signal from sender. It then transmit signal on that frequency so that error free receptor is hindered.

Man- in- the- middle attack: An attacker sites between the sender and receiver and sniffs any information being sent between two nodes. In some cases, attacker may impersonate the sender to communicate with receiver or impersonate the receiver to reply to the sender.

Gray-hole attack: This attack is also known as routing misbehavior attack which leads to dropping of messages. Gray-hole attack has two phases. In the first phase the node advertise itself as having a valid route to destination while in second phase, nodes drops intercepted packets with a certain probability.

Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA)o TORA (Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm) is a source initiated on demand routing protocol.o It was invented by Vincent Park and M. Scott Corson from university of Maryland in 1997 for

wireless ad hoc network.o TORA is a highly adaptive, efficient, loop-free and scalable routing protocol based on link reversal

algorithm.o The main objective of TORA is to limit message propagation in the highly dynamic mobile computing

environment. It means, it is designed to reduce communication overhead by adapting local topological changes in ad hoc network. Another main feature of TORA routing protocol is the localization of control packets to a small region (set of nodes) near the occurrence of a topological changes due to route break. Hence, each node of the network required to contain its local routing and topology information about adjacent nodes.

o TORA supports multiple routes to transmit data packet between source and destination nodes of mobile ad hoc network. In short, TORA exhibits multipath routing capability.

o The TORA's operation can be compared to that of water flowing downhill toward a sink node through a grid of tubes that model the routes in the real world network. The tube junctions represent the nodes, the tube themselves represent the route links between the nodes, the tube's water represents the packets flowing between nodes through the route links toward the destination, as shown in the figure:

o Considering the data flow to be downhill, each node has a height with respect to the destination node. The analogy also makes it easy to correct routes in case of link failure or error.

o One of the biggest advantages of TORA is that it can operate smoothly in a highly dynamic mobile environment. It provides multiple paths for any source-destination pair. For this purpose, teach node must maintain routing information about their one-hop neighbors.

o TORA works in three main phases:o Route creation: Route creation from source to destination.

o Route maintenance: Maintenance of the route.o Route erasure: Erasing of the route when the route is no longer valid.

o TORA attempts to build a separate directed acyclic graph (DAG) by each node to every destination. When a route to a particular destination is required, the source node broadcasts a QUERY packet containing the address of the destination. The route query propagates via the network till it reaches either the destination or an intermediate node containing the route to the destination.

o TORA contains a quintuple metric which consists of:o Logical time of link failure.o Unique ID of the node that defines the new reference level.o A reflection indicator bit.o A propagation ordering parameter.o Unique ID of the node.

Hybrid Protocol - Zone Routing ProtocolsHybrid protocols attempt to take advantage of best of reactive and proactive schemes. The basic idea behind such protocols is to initiate route discovery on demand but at a limited search cost. One of the popular hybrid protocols is zone routing protocol (ZRP).

Zone routing protocol (ZRP)o Zone routing protocol is a hybrid of reactive and proactive protocols. It combines the advantage of

both reactive and proactive schemes.o ZRP was invented by Zygmunt Haas of Cornell University. Zone routing protocol finds loop free routes

to the destination.o ZRP divides the network into zones of variable size; size of the zone is determined radius of length ?,

where the ? is the number of hops or nodes to the perimeter of the zone and not the physical distance.o In other words we can say that, the neighborhood of the local node is called a routing zone.

Specifically, a routing zone of the node is defined as the set of nodes whose minimum distance in hops from the node is no greater than the zone radius.

o A node maintains routes to all the destinations proactively in the routing zone. It also maintains its zone radius, and the overlap from the neighboring routing zones.

o To create a routing zone, the node must identify all its neighbors first which are one hop away and can be reached directly.

o The Process of neighbor discovery is governed by the NDP (Neighbor Discovery Protocol), a MAC level scheme. ZRP maintains the routing zones through a proactive component called the intra-zone routing protocol (IARP) and is implemented as a modified distance vector scheme. Thus IARP is responsible for maintaining routes within the routing zone.

o Another protocol called the inter-zone routing protocol (IERP) which is responsible for maintaining and discovering the routes to nodes beyond the routing zone.

o This type of process uses a query - response mechanism on-demand basis. IERP is more efficient than standard flooding schemes.

o When a source node send data to a destination which is not in the routing zone, the source initiates a route query packet.

o The latter identified by the tuple <source node ID, request number>. This request is then broadcasted to all the nodes in the source nodes periphery.

o When a node receives this query, it adds its own identification number (ID) to the query. Thus the sequence of recorded nodes presents a route from the current routing zone. Otherwise, if the destination is in the current routing zone of the node, a route reply is sent back to the source along the reverse from the accumulated record.

o A big advantage of this scheme is that a single route request can result in multiple replies of route. The source can determine the quality of these multiple routes based on such parameter as hop count or traffic and choose the best route to be used.

Global State Routing(GSR): Introduction Global State Routing is based upon the fundamental concepts of link state routing. In Link State Routing(LSR), one of the node floods out a single routing table information to

its neighbors and those neighbors floods out that table to further nodes. This process continue to take place until the routing table is received by all the nodes throughout the network.

But in case of Global State Routing, the routing table of a particular node is broadcast-ed to its immediate neighbors only. Then initial tables of those neighboring nodes are updated. These updated tables are further broadcast one by one and this process continue to take place until all the nodes broadcasts their tables to each node in the network.

 

Concept : Link State routing

 

Concept : Global State Routing GSR protocol uses and maintains three tables for every node individually. These tables

are:1. Distance Table : This table contains the distance of a node from all the nodes in network. 

Global State Routing : Distance Table

 

2. Topology Table : This table contains the information of Link state data along with the sequence number which can be used to determine when the information is updated last. 

Global State Routing : Topology Table

 

3. Next Hop Table : Next hop table will contain the information about the immediate neighbor of a particular node. 

Global State Routing : Next Hop Table

 

These tables are updated on every step and ensures that each node receives correct information about all the nodes including their distances.

 

Global State Routing Protocol : Working GSR broadcasts the routing tables to its immediate neighbors rather than flooding it to

all the nodes as Link State Routing protocol does. Consider a network of 4 nodes having a distance of “1” on each of its edge. Below

mentioned steps will let you know how GSR works and how its routing tables are updated.

 

Global State Routing : Example Network

 

Steps1. For Node “X” : Firstly three tables as mentioned above will be maintained which

includes distance table, Topology table and Next hop tables. This same process will be done for rest of the nodes too.

For “X”

2. Secondly, broadcasting of all the tables will be done to all the immediate neighbors of “X” i.e. “Y” and “Z”.

3. These tables are updated at “X”, “Y” & “T” nodes respectively.4. Same will be done for node “Y”. After first updation from “X”, node “Y” will broadcast

the tables to its immediate neighbors i.e. “X” & “T” and those tables will be updated accordingly. This will be done for “T” & “Z” also.

5. Once done, all the nodes “X”, “Y”, “Z” & “T” will be having the updated routing tables containing distances from each, with the help of which an optimal path can be chosen if data needs to be transferred from one node to other.

 

For X: For Y:

      For Z: 

6. Now, broadcasting of topology tables of “X” will take place to its neighbour i.e. “Y” & “Z” and updated tables will be like as mentioned below.

For Y: 

For Z:

7. Similarly, these tables are further updated with topology tables of “Y”, “Z” & “T” as done in case of “X.

 

Advantages : Global State Routing Protocol Higher accuracy of GSR in generating optimal path as compared to LSR. Broadcasting reduces error rate as compare to flooding used in LSR.

Disadvantages : Global State Routing Protocol Large bandwidth consumption. Higher operational cost. Large Message size resulting in more time consumption.

QoS in Ad Hoc Networks QoS can be defined as the ability of the network to provide different services to various types of network traffic. It means that the goal of QoS is to achieve a more deterministic network behaviour so that data carried by the network can be better delivered and the resources can be better utilized. In wired networks there are four typical QoS metrics, namely, bandwidth, delay, delay variance (jitter) and packet loss. In MANETs service coverage area and power consumption can be added (Satyabrata, Ch., Amitabh, M., 2001).

In wired networks there are two QoS models widely used: IntServ (Integrated Services) providing hard QoS but with low scalability, and DiffServ (Differentiated Services) used in the Internet. Unfortunately, both are not suitable for MANETs due to their specific characteristics. When QoS model for MANETs was designed, these specific features of mobile ad hoc networks had to have been considered. Especially, features like dynamic network topology, bandwidth constraint and limited power of nodes which make MANETs really specific. And due to them it is not possible to use conventional QoS models from wired networks. The design also needed to take under consideration the fact that a lot of MANETs are connected to the Internet. This section describes shortly three QoS models designed for mobile ad hoc networks.

1 Flexible QoS Model for MANETsFrom essential requirements stated above Flexible QoS Model for MANETs (FQMM) was proposed. It combines some features of IntServ and Diffserv models. It is a hybrid scheme of per-flow provisioning as in IntServ and per-class provisioning as in DiffServ (Xiao, L., 2010).

FQMM operates at the IP layer with the cooperation with Medium-Access layer. It is divided into data forwarding and control plane. The main purpose of data forwarding plane is to classify incoming packets going through traffic conditioner and packet scheduler. The control plane handles preparation for data forwarding operation with specific protocols and algorithms cooperation. This model defines three categories of nodes: ingress, interior and egress node. This kind of nodes differentiation is borrowed from DiffServ model from wired networks. Ingress node is a source node sending data to destination. Interior nodes are nodes forwarding data to other nodes according to some routing decisions.

Lastly, the destination node is called egress node. Interior nodes forward data packets by certain PHB (Per Hop Behaviour) according to the Diffserv field in the packet header. We can look at MANET as one DiffServ domain bounded with the ingress and egress node (Chen, Y. et al., 2002). It is important to note that due to the mobility of nodes in MANETs, the nodes can have different roles as they move. FQMM can provide per flow QoS for high-priority flows. The question is how many high-priority flow sessions are possible in MANETs. Another open issue is the scheduling performed by intermediate nodes. The evaluation of FQMM performance and some experiments with this model can be found in (Lee, S. B. et al., 2000).

2 Integrated Mobile Ad hoc QoS framework

The Integrated Mobile Ad hoc QoS framework (iMAQ) is a QoS framework for MANETs. We cannot call it QoS model because it is not so complex and does not provide the whole architecture for QoS support in MANETs. It is a cross-layer approach involving network layer and so called middleware service layer.

As nodes are mobile, the network can become partitioned which leads to missing data. Predictive location-based QoS routing protocol, with middleware layer cooperation, predict network partitioning. The main role of middleware layer is to replicate data among different network groups in order to provide better data accessibility before partitioning occurs. More details about this framework can be found in (Nirmal, M. et al., 2004).

3 SWANSWAN is a distributed network model that assumes best effort medium-access control and feedback-based control mechanisms. It is a stateless approach using rate control for UDP and TCP best-effort traffic. It uses ECN (Explicit Congestion Notification) fields to regulate real-time traffic in order to react dynamically to topology changes. The fact that SWAN is a stateless model and thus it does not require maintaining information at network nodes makes it scalable and robust QoS model for MANETs. The details and evaluation study of SWAN model is described in (Basagni, S. et al., 2004; Zhang, N., Anpalagan, A., 2009).