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Running head: FEMALE PROBATION OFFICERS
Letter of Intent
Female Probation Officers: The Challenge of
Work-life Balance in the Context of Traumatic Stress
Graduate Counselling Applied Psychology
March 2010
Heather Rattai
Supervisor: Dr. Patricia Fisher, PhD, R.Psych., L.Psych.
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Female Probation Officers: The Challenge of
Work-life Balance in the Context of Traumatic Stress
Problem Statement
Shifts within the workplace and the family during the last 30 years have produced a
proliferation of research focused on the relation between work and family (Clark, 2000;
Greenhaus, Collins, & Shaw, 2003; Mcelwain, Korabik & Rosin, 2005). While previous research
has examined the effects of multiple roles in the traditional workforce, there has been little
attention paid to women in non-traditional occupations characterized by high exposure to
traumatic stresses (Dushinski, 2006). One of those nontraditional careers is that of probation
officer.
There has been conflicting research findings regarding work-family relations. Some
research has found that employed women are vulnerable to role conflict from work-family
relations due to the demands of multiple roles (Bernas & Major, 2000; Casper, Martin, Buffardi
& Erdwin, 2002; Livingston & Judge, 2008). However, other researchers have concluded that
there are mental, physical and relationship benefits for an employed mother with multiple roles
(Barnett & Hyde, 2001; van Steenbergen, Ellemers & Mooijaart, 2007).
When examining the topic of work and family for mothers employed as probation
officers, the dynamics related to this specific occupation and client-population need to be
considered – specifically, exposure to workplace traumatic stress (Fisher, 2000). Workplace
traumatic stress includes primary and secondary traumatic stress. Primary traumatic stress refers
to an individual’s direct experience of threat, danger, or traumatic injury. In contrast, secondary
traumatic stress refers to an individual’s second-hand exposure to a traumatic event. For
example, if one staff member is assaulted by a client, that staff member has experienced a
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primary traumatic stress. However, those witnessing the assault will have experience secondary
traumatic stress (Fisher, 2000; Saakvitne & Pearlman, 1996). In addition, female probation
officers with and without children may experience important differences in their vulnerability to
and responses to traumatic stress. This exploratory study compares female probation officers
with children to those without children in terms of the risk factors, the symptoms, and the effects
of primary and secondary traumatic stress exposure.
Project Rationale
While numerous studies have also been completed on work-family relations, their focus
has remained limited to occupations within the private sector (Greenhaus et al., 2003; Lee,
Reissing & Dobson, 2009; Lyness & Judiesch, 2008). The research to date has yielded
conflicting and incomplete findings in the area of work-family relations. For example, while
Barnett and Hyde (2001) found benefits for employees holding multiple roles, other researchers
have demonstrated negative physical and psychological impacts of work stressors on work-
family relations (Allen, Herst, Bruck & Sutton, 2000; Beatty, 1996; Burke, 2004). The literature
has yet to examine the work-family dynamics as applied to probation officers.
Exposure to traumatic stressors is a critical element of probation work. Despite the
tremendous amount of research on primary and secondary trauma, there is a paucity of research
regarding the risks and effects of primary and secondary trauma on corrections personnel, and
specifically female probation officers. Working as a probation officer involves a variety of roles
and includes exposure to direct danger from threatening clients as well as exposure to secondary
trauma in the form of “trauma material, including graphic descriptions of violent events,
exposure to the realities of people’s cruelty to one another” (Saakvitne & Pearlman, 1996, p. 45).
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In addition, probation officers are faced with systemic workplace stresses including
limited resources, numerous roles, pressured deadlines, and a multitude of offenders’ daily life
problems. Exposure to both the traumatic and systemic stressors on a continual basis can
negatively impact a probation officer both professionally and personally (Fisher, 2000). There is
a growing body of research examining the (negative) effects of trauma exposure on related
occupations such as trauma counsellors (Adams & Riggs, 2008; Brady, Guy, Poelstra & Brokaw,
1999; Collins & Long, 2003; and Figley, 2002), social workers (Cunningham, 2003), ambulance
paramedics (Regehr, Goldberg & Hughes, 2002), correctional officers (Lambert, Cluse-Tolar &
Hogan, 2007) and law enforcement personnel (Daum & Johns, 1994; Wexler & Logan, 1983).
The purpose of this exploratory project is to extend our understanding of the role that trauma
exposure may play in the lives of women probation officers. In particular, this project will
compare female probation officers who are mothers with children in the home, and female
probation officers without children in the home in regard to the symptoms and effects associated
with primary and secondary trauma.
Due to the lack of research in this area, the current study will be exploratory in nature.
Exploratory data analysis can take a field of inquiry in a new, unexplored direction. Whereas
confirmatory data analysis is based on previous theories, data or knowledge in order to test a
specific hypothesis; exploratory data analysis is a “technique for investigating the structure of the
data set about which you have few preconceptions” (Giles, 2000, p. 122). Since there was no a
priori theory or research that could guide assumptions about work-life relations for female
probation officers, these analyses will begin with exploratory data analysis to identify the most
plausible model that fits the results. Exploratory studies are strongly heuristic first stage
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investigations and typically employ basic and robust descriptive statistical analyses (Tukey,
1977).
Supporting Literature
There have been divergent findings regarding the effects of work-family relations for
employed mothers. Some researchers have suggested that the additional role of mothering can
act as a buffer against job related stress or even create energy and skills to use in another role
(Barnett & Hyde, 2001; van Steenbergen et al., 2007). Yet Desrochers, Lehoux, Halpren, and
Tse, (n.d.) found that employed mothers may be at increased risk for experiencing stress in the
form of work-family conflict and a lack of balance among their life roles because they have
difficulty prioritizing their commitments to these roles.
Physical and psychological stress within the work and family domains have been
examined (Allen et al., 2000). A positive association has been found between work-family
conflict and factors such as anxiety, irritability, emotional distress, job stress, alcohol use,
burnout, and quality of life (Allen et al., 2000; Burke & Greenglass, 1999; Burke & Mikkelsen,
2006; Frone, Russell & Barnes, 1996; MacEwen & Barling, 1999). Work-family conflict has
also been found to be associated with increased reports of physical and somatic complaints
(Allen et al., 2000; Liu, Spector & Shi, 2008). In a study of Norwegian police officers increased
job demands and role conflicts were significantly related to work family conflict (Burke &
Mikkelson, 2006).
Research has found differences between how individuals with and without children
balance work and family and how they each experience work-life conflict (Lee, Reissing &
Dobson, 2009; Mcelwain et al., 2005). MacEwen and Barling (1994) found increased levels of
anxiety and depression in relation to work-family conflict for women but not for men.
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Depression was found to be positively related with work-family conflict for women with
children but not for women without children (Beatty, 1996). A review of the research of work-
family relations and physical and psychological stress-related variables demonstrated a
consistent and strong relation (Allen et al., 2000).
The field of corrections features “an additional set of challenges that are not encountered
in other fields” (Fisher, 2000, p. 6). These specific types of stress must also be considered when
exploring female probation officers with children. Research on law enforcement and corrections
personnel have painted a picture of stress and burnout which manifests in depression, anxiety,
job dissatisfaction and high levels of turnover (Castle & Martin, 2006; Lambert, Cluse-Tolar &
Hogan, 2007; Tracy, 2003; Wexler & Logan, 1983). Fisher (2000) combines the multitude of
stresses affecting probation officers into a two dimensional approach. The two dimensions are
workplace systemic stress including burnout, and job stress; and workplace traumatic stress
including primary and secondary trauma. Within each of these dimensions there are situational
and workplace risk factors and individual risk factors (Fisher, 2000). The risk factors of both
systemic and traumatic stress may be compounded by the addition of the mothering role
(Desrochers et al., n.d.), or as suggested by Barnett and Hyde (2001), this additional role may
provide some amount of protection against the stress.
Probation officers may experience an array of reactions in their work with offenders and
victims (Collins & Long, 2003). Secondary trauma can occur when an individual hears, reads or
witnesses a traumatic event. A number of workplace risk factors have been found to be related to
secondary trauma including workload, the nature of the work and clients, exposure to traumatic
material, supervision and resources, training, and work context and environment (Baird &
Kracen, 2006; Miller, 1998). There are also a number of individual risk factors including
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personal history of trauma, personal support, and personal circumstances (McCann & Pearlman,
1990; Miller, 1998; Pearlman & MacIan, 1995). Probation officers are frequently exposed to
material that results in secondary trauma (Fisher, 2000). Ongoing exposure to secondary trauma
may result in physical, emotional, cognitive, behaviour, interpersonal and existential symptoms
(Adams, Boscarino, & Figley, 2006; Fisher, 2000; Pearlman & Saakvitne, 1995).
In addition to exposure to secondary trauma, probation officers sometimes experience
direct violence, such as an assault, resulting in primary trauma. Not all individuals who are
exposed to trauma will experience clinical difficulties (Briere, 1992; Finklehor, Hotaling, Lewis
& Smith, 1990). There are a number of factors that have been found to predict an individual’s
vulnerability to traumatic situations. These workplace factors include the traumatic experience
itself, training and preparation, and resources (Brewin, Andrews & Valentine, 2000). Individual
risk factors are trauma responses, support, trauma history, and family history (Regehr, Goldberg
& Hughes, 2002). The effects of primary trauma can include physical symptoms, psychological
symptoms, cognitive symptoms, behavioural symptoms, and interpersonal symptoms (Cadell,
Regehr, Hemsworth, 2003; Herman, 1992; Karatzias et al., 2007).
Project Procedures
To study the effects and risk of workplace systemic stress and workplace traumatic stress
on female probation officers with children and those without children, I will start with a search
of electronic databases such as PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, ERIC, and library resources, using
keywords such as post traumatic stress disorder, primary trauma, secondary traumatic stress,
vicarious trauma, compassion fatigue, probation officers, corrections, work-family conflict, and
work-life balance. Another source of information will include my project supervisor, Dr. Fisher,
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who is very knowledgeable in this field and will provide helpful resources and guidance for this
project.
The focus group for this study is probation officers employed by British Columbia (BC)
Community Corrections. The data was collected in 2006 by Dr. Patricia Fisher during voluntary
2-day workshops for all BC Community Corrections personnel on workplace stress and trauma
in corrections. Therefore, the current study involves secondary data analysis exploring a specific
sub-group from a different position1. Accessing this data set on female probation officers
provides the opportunity to answer new research questions and test new frames of references
which can add to the informational value of the original data (Boslaugh, 2007). This form of
research allows for unobtrusive and less expensive methods of studying a topic.
The research project which generated the large data set, to which I have been granted
access, was provided with ethical approval by the BC Government Ministry of Public Safety and
Solicitor General prior to the original data collection. The data collection represented a self-
assessment component of an intensive 2-day workshop program developed by Dr. Fisher: “The
Road Back to Wellness: Stress, Trauma and Burnout in Corrections”. The workshops were
facilitated by BC Community Corrections probation officers who were trained to provide the
program by psychologist, Dr. Fisher. The Wellness workshop contained 3 major elements (a) a
psychoeducational component regarding the mechanisms and effects of workplace traumatic and
systemic stress, (b) a set of self-assessments regarding the risk and resiliency factors associated
with workplace traumatic and systemic stresses, self assessments regarding self-care, and self
1 Rebman, S.L.T (2003). Traumatic Stress Risk Factors and Symptoms of Depression in B.C. Adult
Probation Officers: Clinical and Organizational Implications. Master of Arts Thesis, Department of
Educational Psychology and Leadership Studies, University of Victoria
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assessment for the range of symptoms and effects that may result from stress exposure
(Appendix B), and (c) focus on beneficial strategies in participants’ workplace and personal life
that will increase their resiliency and improve their quality of life. At the beginning of the
workshop, all participants were informed of the purpose of the study, and were assured that they
were completing the survey anonymously. Participants were also informed that participation was
voluntary and that results of the research would be made available to the participants. Informed
consent was received from all study participants (Appendix A). In addition to the measurement
instruments, each study participant completed a one page demographic cover sheet regarding
gender, age, job classification, region of employment, type of caseload, years in position,
primary relationship, children, care of others, financial stress, and membership in minority
group. The measurement instruments were placed into sealed envelopes and forwarded directly
to Dr. Fisher. Each data set was identified only by a randomly generated numeric code and at no
time were participants’ names recorded with the data collection. The data was entered onto an
Excel spreadsheet and all data was held under conditions specified by the “Canadian Code of
Ethics for Psychologists” (Canadian Psychological Association, 2000).
The current study will be based on completed response sets of 120 female BC
Community Corrections probation officers (67 with children and 53 without children). The focus
of the study will be on the primary and secondary traumatic stress variables for female probation
officers. Given the lack of previous research focused on primary and secondary trauma in
relation to work-family relations for female probation officers, the current study will be an
exploratory study. Statistical analysis will include robust simple descriptive statistics
(percentages, mean, s.d., etc) and standard tests of significance (e.g. t-tests, F tests and Chi
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squares) to compare female probation officers with and without children. Results will be
presented in written form, graphs and tables.
Potential Implications of the Project
This exploratory study compares female probation officers with children to those without
children in terms of risk factors and the effects of primary and secondary traumatic stress. This
provides a valuable opportunity to study an otherwise unexamined group and the results will
provide important insights into the possible effects for women probation officers. While building
on research in the areas of primary, and secondary trauma, and work-family dynamics, this
research will provide a Canadian focus that addresses women in a non-traditional occupation.
Initiating research in this important area may facilitate the development of targeted resources for
female probation officers to assist with the risks and effects of primary and secondary trauma.
The findings also have implications for future organizational policies and intervention
development.
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Appendix A
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Appendix B
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