Rural Areas, · Rural Areas, Small- and Medium-Sized Local Authorities and World Governance...

Matthieu Calame F WGnForum for a new World Governance

Forum pour une nouvelle Gouvernance MondialeF GMn

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Rural Areas, Small- and Medium - Sized Local Authorities and World Governance

Proposal Papers

The Forum for a new World Governance encourages the drawing up and circulation of a series of Proposal Papers. The papers present the most relevant proposals for generating the breakthroughs and changes necessary for building a new, fairer and more sustainable world governance.

The Proposal Papers are published in different languages and cover five broad categories of world governance:

Environment and management of the planet

The economy and globalization

Politics, state structures and institutions

Peace, security and armed conflicts

Knowledge, science, education and the information and communication society.

Forum for a new World Governance – FNWG -

December 2010

www.world-governance.org

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Cover image: Dorothy-Shoes, The Passenger (Copyright Dorothy-Shoes)

Rural Areas, Small- and Medium - Sized

Local Authorities and World Governance

Matthieu Calame

December 2010

R u r a l A r e a s , S m a l l - a n d M e d i u m - S i z e d L o c a l A u t h o r i t i e s a n d W o r l d G o v e r n a n c e

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C o n t e n t s

IntroductIon.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Issues raised by metropolization affecting rural areas and small- and medium-sized local authorities (SMLA). .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .7

Defining rural areas and SMLA. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .7

What about the sustainable metropolis?. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .9

ProPosals. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 10

I. Preserving political and cultural capacities . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11

1.Strengthenlocaldemocracy. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 11

2.Localmoneyandcredit . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 12

3.Decentralizeeducationanddecision-makingcentres . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 14

4.Reinforcelocalgovernment . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 14

5.Openuppathsofcommunicationbetweenruraldwellers. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 15

6.Promoteskillsandsupportruralpopulareducation . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 16

7.Establishnetworksofmedium-sizetowns ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...16

8.Strengthenlocalculturallife. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 17

II. Producing resources. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..19

9.Astabilizingagriculturalpolicy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

10.Ensureeasyaccesstomarketinformation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

11.Modifythelandownershipmodel. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 20

12.Participativeseedselection. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 21

13.Encouragemigrationtoruralareas . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 21

14.Energyandorganicmaterials.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

III. Protecting vital natural resources .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

15.Ecologicaltaxsystem . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25

16.Forestryenergypolicy .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

17.Supportagroforestry.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

18.Halturbanizationofthebestland. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 28

19.Reversethemarket-basedapproachtogreenhousegases. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 29

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Introduction

Issues raised by metropolization affecting rural areas and small- and medium-sized local authorities (SMLA)

Fourmajortrendscharacterizetoday’sworld:

-globalpopulationthatissettokeeprisinguntil2050,whenitwillreach9.5billion;thisgrowthwillbeparticularlystrongincities.2007markedthemo-ment when, for the first time in history, the urban population became morenumerousthantheruralpopulation;thisimbalanceissettowiden;

-citiesoftenexpandontothemostfertilelands;urbanizationtendstoconcen-trateoncoastalareas,borderingseasandmajorrivers;

- water and energy problems are set to continue, due both to demographicgrowthandglobalwarming;

-foodsuppliesforpoorcitydwellersareproblematic,asillustratedbytherecentfoodcrisis.

Itappearsthathumanityishavingtofaceupnotonlytoanunprecedentedlevelofurbanization,butalsotothedevelopmentofmajormetropolises,megalopo-lisesand,moregenerally,conurbationsinhabitedbyseveralhundredthousandorevenmillionpeople.Althoughmajorurbancentreshavehistoricallyhadastrongeconomic,social,politicalandcultural impactonthecountrysideandsmaller urban centres, this influence will only increase once the majority oftheplanet’spopulationarecity-dwellers—orevenmega-city-dwellers.Andal-thoughthepastbearswitnesstotheexistenceofalmostexclusivelyruralcivili-sations,suchanexistencehasbecomehardtoimagineintoday’sworld,impos-sibletoimaginefortomorrow’sworld.TheruralworldandSMLAwillhavenochoiceotherthancarvingoutaplaceforthemselvesthatfitswithintheurbanworld.Thereistheaddedfactorthaturbanpopulationsaremadeupmainlyofruralpeople;ifwegobacktwoorthreegenerations,theywerealmostexclusi-velyruralinorigin.

Defining rural areas and SMLA

HowcanwedefineSMLA,ruralareasandthepopulationthatinhabitsthem?

The rural concept is defined in relation both to wilderness areas and urbanareas.

Inrelationtowildernessareas,ruralareasarethosemanagedrelativelyintensi-


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velybyhumans.Theterm“relativelyintensively”isusedsincewildernessareasarethemselvesmanaged.Wethereforeneedtoacceptthattheboundarybetweenthemissomewhatblurred.Butwecanidentifyruralareasasplacesinhabitedbysedentarypopulationswhereeachplotoflandisowned,eitherindividuallyorcollectively,orhasamanagerthatusuallyusesitforasocio-economicactivity.Thisiswhatdistinguishesruralareasfromlargesparsely-populatednaturalandwildernessareas.

Althoughtheboundarybetweenwildernessareasandruralareasisdifficulttodefine, theboundarybetween rural areasandurbanareas is amatterofpureconvention.Whatsizedoesasettlementhavetoreachtostopbeingahamletandbecomeavillage,tograduatefromvillagetomarkettown,markettowntosmalltown,smalltowntomedium-sizedtown,andfromtheretolargetownandontomegalopolis?SettlementsofbetweeneightandtenthousandinhabitantsarecalledvillagesinIndiabuttownsinEurope.However,itisclearthatoncea settlementhas reachedacertain size, it is sobig that relationsbetween itscentreandthesurroundingcountrysidebecomemoretenuousifnotnon-exis-tent—ininhabitants’imaginationsatleast.Thesamedoesnotapplytosuppliesand,mostespecially,waste: thecitydwellermightwellknownothingof thecountryside,butitremainsnonethelessvitaltothemetropolis.

It is true however that the notion of surrounding countryside no longer hasanyrealmeaningformanyinhabitantsofmajorcities.Thecitythusbecomesaworldofitsown,whoseinhabitantsnolongervisitruralareasonthefringesoftheirurbanuniverse.Theymayinfactneverhavefrequentedthesefringeareas,sincemanycitydwellersaremigrantsordescendedfrommigrantsfromfar-offplaces.Iftheydovisitthecountryside,itisusuallyfaraway,theirplaceofbirth.Aparalleldevelopmentisthatcities’needsaregrowingtosuchanextentthattheycannolongerbemetbyadjacentruralareas,andcitiesarebeginningtotradewithfar-offregionsinaprocesswhichfurtherweakensthebondthattiesthemtosurroundingruralareas.

So,inthiscontext,wherecanwepositiontheboundarybetweenruralareasandSMLAontheonehandandurbancentresontheother?Betweenapproxima-tely20,000and100,000inhabitantsdependingonthetransportinfrastructureandstateofconservation.WethenhavetoacceptthatruralareasandSMLAwillincludesettledareaswhoseactivitiesandmoremodestsizeexcludethemfromthecategoryofmetropolis,andthatremaincloselylinkedtothesurroun-dingareas.Ifwearedeterminedtodefineapreciseboundary,wecanplaceitat30,000inhabitants,keepinginmindthearbitrarycharacterofthisfigure.

Usingthisdefinition,ruralareasandSMLAconstituteawholethatincludesmanagedforestedareas,farmingareasandsettledareas.Theseareasofferahuge


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diversityofsituations,fromprosperouszonestothoseindecline,fromsparselypopulatedareas,possiblyonthepointofbeingabandoned,tohighpopulationdensityandveryactivezoneswithanetworkoftownsandtradeactivities,orevenlocalauthoritiesthathavecomeintotheorbitofbigcitiesandhavetakenonasatelliteroleineconomic,culturalandpossiblypoliticalterms.

Theseareasshareacommonsetofchallengesthattheyallhavetoface:

-usingfarming,forestryandfreshwaterfish-farmingtomanageartificialecosys-temsforproducingfoodandrawmaterialswhilstadoptingasustainableecolo-gicalapproach;

-retainingadegreeofcultural,political,demographicandeconomicautonomyinthefaceofdevelopingcities;

-increasingly,supplyingnewglobalamenities,suchascontributionstoclimatebalanceandwaterpurification.

Thesesharedchallengesenableustodistinguishanumberofkeyissues:

-ruralareas’politicalandculturalcapacities;

-theproductionofeconomicresources(food,fuelandtextiles);

-protectionofvitalnaturalresources(water,soil,biodiversity).

Wehaveoptedtoclassifytheproposalsbelowaccordingtothesethreecategories.

What about the sustainable metropolis?

Itisclearthatruralareas’long-termprosperitywillbefareasiertoachieveifurbanareasthemselvessucceedindevelopingharmoniously.Andtheywillnotbeabletodosoiftheygrowtoofast.Harmoniousurbandevelopmentthereforerequiresruralareastoretaintheirappeal.Itisalsoapparentthatcities’extremeeconomicandbiologicaldependenceonruralareas requiresco-ordinatedde-velopmentandarethinkofthenatureofexchangesbetweencitiesandruralareas.Themetropolizationofpopulationsthusencouragesustodeviseanewattractiveruralitythatcomplementsurbandevelopment.

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Proposals

NB:theproposalsbelowaretechnicalandinstitutionalinnature.Theydonotdirectlyaddressthequestionofvaluesandmotives.Theyarebasedonthehypo-thesisthatruralcommunitiesarereasonablyunifiedandmotivatedbyasincereintention to create harmonious development. Even the most sophisticated ofsystemscouldnotfurtherthedevelopmentofahumancommunitythatistornapartbyinternecinestrifethatpromotesotherpeople’sunhappinessratherthangeneralwell-being.Ifsomeoftheseproposalsthusseeminapplicableinagivencontextduetolocalfeelings,strongopinionsandhatred,theonlyansweristhemoralprogressofindividuals,aprerequisiteforanyrealprogressachievablebyhumanbeings.

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Proposal 1: Strengthen local democracy

“The inhabitant of New England is devoted to his township, not because he was born there as much as be-cause he views the township as a strong, free social body of which he is a part and which merits the care he devotes to its management.”

AlexisdeTocqueville,Democracy in America,partI,chapterV

Strengthening local democracy meets two imperatives:

-increasingindividuals’participation;

- involving local people, strengthening rural areas’cohesionandthustheirpoliticalandeconomicforceinthefaceofmajorcities.

Strengthening participation in rural areas

AmedievalGermanadage said that“theairof thecitygrantsfreedom.”Atthattimeagreatmanyfree

I Preserving Political and Cultural Capacities

Diego Hernández, Jardín, 2004

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citiesgrantedfreedomtofugitiveserfswhotookre-fuge there. The question of political and economicfreedom in rural areas and the concrete opportuni-ties they offer individuals is central to their futuredevelopment.The reduced scaleof ruraleconomiesmakesthemeasytocontrolbytheauthorities,justasa limitednumberofpeople caneasily control theirresources.Economic andpolitical power is concen-tratedinthehandsofmajorlandowners,feudallordsand despots, and without this power, no initiativescansucceed.

Cities, on the other hand, seem to offer more op-portunities, even if mediocre, and a degree of ano-nymity thatprovidesanescape fromsocialcontrol.Citiesareoftenimpossibletocontrol,whichiswhytheyarefearedbytheauthorities.Citydwellersformacrowdthatrepresentsapoliticalforceinitself;thisforcemaywellbeblind,butitsexplosiveactionshavemoreofanimpact,sincegovernmentstendtobehea-dquartered inmajorcities.Sincethebirthofcities,the political authorities have always feared urbanriotsratherthanruralriots,sincetheformeraremorelikelytoleadtorevolution,whereasthelatteroftenremain peasant uprisings. Economic opportunitiesandthepowerofthepeoplecontrastwiththerigidandinegalitarianeconomicandsocialrelationsthatcharacterize rural areas, inevitably giving thecity amagneticappeal.

Therevitalizationofdemocracyinruralareas,mea-ningthesearchforacollectivevisioninvolvingandbenefitingthegreatestpossiblenumberofpeople,istheonlyantidotetothetrendforurbanmigration.Itistruethatthecountrysidecannevercompetewiththecityintermsofindividualopportunityandanony-mity.Itcan,however,provideanalternativeoption:asocialsystemwheresocialcontrolisindisputabilitymoreinevidence,butthatdoesgiveindividualsmoreofasayinimportantissues.Wherecitiesofferindivi-dualopportunityandanonymity,ruralareascanoffercollective action and participation. In other words,lessindividualfreedom,butmorecollectivefreedom.

Inconcreteterms,thisimpliestwoactions:strengthe-ninglocalmunicipalpowerandfairlydistributingtheexerciseofthatpower.

Strengtheningmunicipalpowerandensuringthatthemunicipalityisnotamerecoginthegovernmentma-chineoragovernmentintermediaryisvitaliftheexer-ciseoflocaldemocracyistobemorethanpurelyfor-mal.Butthisalsorequiresthatruralmunicipalitiesbeentitieswithadegreeofpowerandendowedwiththeirowncapacities.Doesamunicipalityofunder10,000inhabitantshavethedynamicitneedstoacquirerealautonomyinitschoices?AcountrylikeDenmarkfelttheanswer tobeno, and in theearly2000sprocee-dedtoreformlocalauthoritiestocreatemunicipalitieswithnotlessthan20,000inhabitants.Thisisthesame

conceptbehindFrance’sgroupingtogetherofmunici-palities(communautésdecommunes).

Distributingmunicipalpowercantakeseveralforms.Oneofthekeyideasistoreplacethemunicipalexe-cutive model that emulates the presidential modelwith a system based on the principle of joint deci-sion-making.Themayorshouldbelimitedtotheroleof council president at most. This approach wouldmeet twoobjectives: limiting individualpower,andexercising local democracy based on more directlyaccessible subjects. Municipal spirit is the breedinggroundofdemocracy.

Strengthening collective initiatives

“Now, take away power and independence from the mu-nicipality, and all you will ever find there are subjects and no citizens”

Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, partone,chapterV

Ruralareasthatfunctionaccordingtoasociallyandpolitically feudal model have no future as autono-mousanddynamicpoliticalentities.Onlydemocra-ticruralareascanprovidetheappeallikelytoretainorattractenterprisingindividuals.Giventhatcities,all else being equal, almost always offer more op-portunities for enterprising individuals to carry outindividualprojects,ruralareashavetoholdouttheprospectofacollectivelocalvision.Itisinterestingtonotehowmanymigrants fromthecities to ruralareas are indeed in search of a community project.Theyareoftenquicktotakeuptheofferofacceptingresponsibilities in the smallestmunicipalities.Localdemocracythusguaranteesacollectivedevelopmentprocess.Whereasthemanifestpowerofcertaincitiesstandsinplaceofavisionandmeanstheycandowi-thoutsuchavision,madedifficultbytheirhugesizeandinertia,ruralareasneedasharedvisiontoexist.Localdemocracyisthusquitesimplythespringboardfor autonomous development and resistance to thepullofthecity.1

Proposal 2: Local money and credit

Obtain the credit necessary for local development

Theissueofaccessingcreditisagenericdevelopmentproblem.Making credit available results inproduc-tive investments which in turn generate activity.The specific issue for rural areas is that historicallythe balance of capital flows between urban and ru-ralareashasveryoftenbeenfavourabletotheurbanenvironment.Theseflowsoftenbenefitedtheurbaneliteexclusively,allowingitsmembersto:

-either,graduallybuyupruralareas.Thistherefore

1.Gérer ensemble les territoires (Managing Rural Areas Together),Jean-EudesBeuretetAnneCadoret,ECLM,2010.

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representedacounter-flowfromtheurbantotheru-ralsphere,butrarelyaproductiveinvestmentgene-ratingactivity;itconstitutedinsteadasimpletransferofownership;

-or,investinnewmanufacturingortradingactivities;

-or,spendextravagantsumsofmoneyon,inparticular,buildingmansionsandconsumingluxuryproducts.

FromPisistrateinthe6thcenturyBCEtothe11th

centuryWangAnshiandontoQuesnayinthe18thcentury, economic reformers in rural societies haveoftenaddressedtheissueofprovidingaccesstocreditforpeasant farmers.Thecreationof farmingcreditsinseveralcountriesintheearly20thcenturycorres-pondedtothesameneedtoirrigatethefarmingworldwithcapital2.InOctober2007,theWorldBankreco-gnizedthisneedinits2008report,notingthelackofinvestmentinthefarmingworldandrecommendingamajorincreaseinsuchinvestment.

Theissueaddressedisinvariablyofcreditforinves-tinginagriculture.However,theruralworldcannotbe reduced to agriculture alone. The FAO beganworkingonthenotionofruralcredit,providingthefollowingdefinition: Rural finance encompasses the range of financial services offered and used in rural areas by people of all income levels. It includes agricultural fi-

nance, which is dedicated to financing agricultural related activities such as input supply, production, distribution, wholesale, processing and marketing, and microfinance which provides financial services for poor and low income people by offering smaller loans and savings services, whi-le accepting a wider variety of assets as collateral. The following diagram illustrates the overlapping relationships between these different terms.3ItisalsosignificantthattheFAOmakesthelinkwithmicrocredit.

The basics of rural finance

Itwouldbewrongtobelievethattheruralworld isalways lacking incapital.Howe-ver,themarketissonarrowastoprecludebankingservicesbeinglucrative:

-verylargecustomersrarelyexistandde-mandisoftenonthemicrolevel;

-smallregionssometimeshavetoofewin-vestorstogeneratebanking.

Logically, this situationpoints to two so-lutions:

-theauthoritiesbearingsomeofthetran-sactioncosts;

-adoptingafederal,participativeapproachtoreducecostsandachievecriticalmass.

Thecreationofjointruralbanks,madeupofprivatestakeholderssuchasfarmersandruralentrepreneursandlocalauthorities,isakeytoolforfinancingruraldevelopment.

Issuing rural money?

The creation of a rural bank implies thecreationofmoney,asitdoesforeveryotherbank.Butcould theprocessbe taken fur-ther?Moneycreatedbybanksremainsemi-nently volatile and can quickly disappear

fromthelocaleconomy.Capitalflightcanariseatanymoment.Thisproblemsuggestscompensatingforthelackofcapitalandsimultaneouslypreventingitsflightbycreating localmoney,ashappened inEuropedu-ringtheMiddleAges,whensmalltownsandabbeyssometimesmintedtheirownmetallocalcurrencyandhelpedtostimulatethelocaleconomy.

Creatingmoneymaybeasurprisingnotion,butwhatismoneyotherthanrecognitionofadebtwhosede-btor is so trustworthy that there isuniversal accep-tanceofthisrecognitionasameansofpayment?The1930sdepressionproducedagreatmanylocalcurren-cies.ThemovementiscurrentlyrevivinginEurope,particularlyGermany4.Ruralcurrencies,aversionoflocal currencies, represent a more problematic butmoreeffectivesolutionthanruralcredittoprovidealong-termanswertothelackofcapital.

Cf, Financer l’agriculture, Quels systèmes bancaires pour quelles agricultures ? (Financing Agriculture: which banking systems for which type of agriculture?), AndréNeveu,ECLM2001

3.http://www.fao.org/AG/agS/subjects/fr/ruralfinance/index.html

Loreto Corvalán, Untitled, 2009

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Proposal 3: Decentralize education and decision-making centres

The general education and decision-making systemsareapowerfulcomponentintheattractionofthecity.Themorethatstudiesareprolongedandspecialized,themoreimportantitistoattendmajoreducationalinstitutions,whichare located in thebigcities.Fur-thermore,studentsinhighereducationtendtobeatanagewhentheymeet their futurepartnersandgetmarried. And what happens to a couple formed atuniversity inthecity?Thecityprovidesthespouses,with their similar levels of education and identicalprofessionalaspirations,withanenvironmentthat issocio-culturallyneutral.Thebigcitywherethecoupleformednaturallybecomestheidealplaceforthemtoliveandstrikeacompromisebetweenprivateandpro-fessionallife.Thisappliesinalmosteveryculture.In-dividualsthushavetomakechoicesconcerningtheir:

-placeofhabitation;

-profession;

-partner.

Rarelycantheycombinecompletefreechoiceofpro-fession, place and partner. This means that even ifindividualswould like to return to thecountryside,theirchoiceofprofessionandpartnerpreventsthemdoingso.

Clearly, the more centralized a country’s educationand decision-making functions, themselves genera-torsofskilledemployment,themorecentralizedthecountryitselfbecomes,creatingaviciouscircle.

Decentralization of education raises a specific pro-blem:thesituationofteachers.Asfarasstudentsareconcerned,studyinginmedium-sizetownsmayhavesomedrawbacks,forexampleintermsofculturallife,butalsoclearadvantages,especially intermsof thecostofstudieswhenlocalauthoritieshavedecidedtoinvestinstudenthousingeitherdirectlyorindirectlybyencouraginglocalpeopletorenttheirproperty.

Evenwhenstudentsneedtoworktosupportthemsel-ves, student employment canbeorganized efficientlyinasmallerregion.Sinceagricultureandtourismareactivities thatcallonhugenumbersof seasonalwor-kers, itwouldbeworthwhilematchinguniversityho-lidays with peak periods of rural working. The moveto configure summer holidays to coincide with ruralwork originated in Europe. It is therefore feasible toestablishpositivesynergiesbetweenstudentneedsandruralareas.Theneedsofteachers,ontheotherhand,are harder to meet. They are often married to otherteachers and are strongly attached to the need for aculturallife,somayhesitatetomovetoruralareas.Thesolutionpartiallyresidesinstimulatingculturallifeandincreatingnetworksoftowns(proposals7&8).

In termsof decentralizingdecision-making, in addi-tiontostrengtheningthepowerandresponsibilitiesoflocalauthorities,particularlymunicipalities(seepro-posal1),theEuropeanexampleshowsthatthepublicfunctioncanbedecentralized:EUauthorities,ratherthanbeingconcentratedinonecity,arespreadacrossEurope. Deconcentration of power also avoids thesyndromeseeninacitylikeLondon,whereamajorityofthenation’slifebloodisconcentratedinacity-sta-te.Acomparisonofcentralizedandnon-centralizedstatesshowsthattheformerarenotnecessarilymoreprosperousorbetterdeveloped.Decentralizingpowercentresmustthereforebeconsideredasabenefitbothintermsofdemocracyanddevelopment.

Proposal 4: Reinforce local boards

Inthetextbelow,theterm“board”isusedinasenseinspiredbytheexperienceofneighbourhoodboards,combining local authorities and inhabitants, ratherthan the more usual meaning, referring to a publicestablishmentdedicatedtoaspecifictechnicaltask,(transportboard,waterboard,etc.)ormanagementmechanism:publicservicesthataredirectlymanagedasopposedtocontractedout.

Since rural areas have a limited number of clients,theopportunitiesforeconomiesofscalearealsolimi-ted.Thisappliesbothtopublicandprivateservices.The market-based principles of supply and demandandfreeandfaircompetitioncanonlybebeneficial—indeedcanonlyexist—whentherearenumerouseconomicplayers.Sincethisisnotthecaseinruralareas,theresultiseitherservicecutsorpricesthatarehigh, verging on prohibitive. Rural economies veryquicklybecomecharacterizedbydefactomonopoliesoranabsenceofsupply.Tryingtointroducecompe-titionbetweengrocersorgassupplierswhenthereisonlyone,ornoneatall,becomesajoke.Themarketcannotthereforeoperateinruralareassinceitdoesnot exist for many activities. And the distinctionbetweenprivateandpublicsectorbecomesmeanin-gless.Especiallywhenlocalauthoritiesarethemsel-vestoosmalltodeveloparealpublicsectororeventoemploystaff.

The promotion of collective forms of action andmanagement combining local authorities with in-habitants in localboards isauseful solution in thiscontext.Oneoftherolesofsuchboardscouldbetoorganizeandrunvolunteeractions.Developmentofnon-commercial activities is particularly importantinareaslackingincapitalandactivity,whereneedsarenotbeingmetbutwherethereisaplentifulsupplyofwillinglocallabour.

Itwouldalsobeusefultodesigntheseboardstobeameansofpayingtaxesinworkinghoursratherthan

4.SeeBernardLietard,Les monnaies régionales (Regional Currencies), ed. ECLM 2008

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money, when financial resources are scarce. A sys-temof thiskinddoes tend tobring tomind scenesofmedievalforcedlabour,butthissystemwasrepre-hensibleforitsexcessesnottheprinciple.Ataxonlyeveraimstomobilizeresourcesfromthecommunitytomeetthecommunity’sneeds.Thecurrentformoftaxationonlymobilizesmoney.Creatingaboardand

a non-commercial mobilization of the community’spowertotakeactioninordertomeetthecommuni-ty’sneedsoffersanalternativemethodforachievingtheseobjectives.

Proposal 5: Open up paths of communication between rural dwellers

Outlyingareastendtobecharacterizedbyalackofhorizontallinks.Theseareasdeploretheprimacyofcitiesbuthavetheir sights setexclusivelyonthem,neglectingtocreatelinkswithotheroutlyingareas.Inotherwords,byomittingtoestablishacentralrela-tionshipwitheachother,theyremaintiedtothecity.By creating horizontal links with other rural areas,theywouldbetakingakeystepinfreeingthemselvesfromthissubjugation.

Severalmovementsareworkingtoopenupruralpo-pulations’mentalities. InSweden, theHelaSverigeskaleva(PopularMovementCouncil)hascreatedaruralparliamentthatmeetseverytwoyears,theassizesoftheruralworld.Thesemovementsmirrortheruralworld’sneedforacollectiveandspecificvoice,tobegivenformnotaspartofaspontaneousprocess,but

bybeingdiscussedandgraduallybuiltupoverthe years. The crea-tion of a long-lastingframework formakingthis voice heard wi-thin institutions is animportantissue,invol-vingthreefactors:

-trainingpolitical,ad-ministrative and eco-nomicruralmanagers;

- establishing bodiesenabling rural stake-holders to establishdialoguebetweeneachother and with natio-nalauthorities;

-theexistenceofaru-ral policy and specificruralbudgets.

Training rural managers

When agriculture wasmodernized in the1950s, theFrenchgo-

vernmentfelttheneedtotrainmanagersinthenewagricultural model. It therefore founded IFOCAP,InstitutdeFormationdesCadresPaysans (TrainingInstitute forFarmerManagers)whichquickly evol-vedtoincludecivilsocietyandelectedrepresentati-ves.Localauthoritiesusuallyhavethecharacteristicsthatjustifytheneedforspecifictrainingofitspartici-pants:electedrepresentatives,developmentofficers,entrepreneursandevenvolunteerorpaidmanagersfrom civil society. Training could also address legalissues,communicationstools,administrativeinstitu-tions, social and technical innovations and specifictoolsforunderstandingruralareas,particularlylocalecologicalfactors.

Bodies enabling rural stakeholders to establish dialogue between each other and with national authorities

The fact that a country is economically and admi-nistratively centralized increases the importance of

Isabelle Tournoud, Le coin des mauvaises graines, 2008 (Courtesy Galerie Nathalie Béreau)

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representationforrural issues.Theissuehereisnotsomuchtherepresentationofeachareaindividually,which can be undertaken by any one public figurewithvaryingdegreesofsuccess,butratherruralareas’capacitytocollaborateandproduceajointplananddemands.Thisproposalisnotthereforebasedonmul-tiplyingbilateralrelationsbetweenanoutlyingareaand the central power, but on creating a collectiveconsultationbody.Giventheabsenceoflegalfoun-dations,itwouldnotnecessarilybeusefultoattemptto institutionalize rural parliaments. However, thecreationofnational ruralplatforms shouldhelp to-wardstheemergenceofaspecificplanforruralareas.

Rural policy and rural budgets

A society’s long-term commitment to a given issueis translated into specific policies and budgets. Inthe18thcenturyforexample,theexistenceofnavalministriesreflectedtheperceivedimportanceofthenavy.Therangeofministriespaintsafairlyaccuratepictureofthehighsandlowsofanation’sorpoliticalentity’s priorities. They reveal the long-term com-mitment to a given sphere. Such commitments actasaunifyingforceforthevariousstakeholders,whichusethemasanoutletfortheirdemandsandtogiveconcreteformtotheirvision.Theexistenceofaruralpolicygivestheneedtodiscussandformulate jointprinciplesapracticaldimension.

Proposals 6: Promote skills and support rural popular education

With a few rare exceptions, it is unlikely that ruralareaswillattempttobasetheirgrowthondevelopingcentres of excellence or attracting major industries,dependent as they are on plentiful unskilled labourwhich,almostbydefinition,isconcentratedinthebigcities.Andevenifanareaaccidentallysucceedsinat-tractingacompanythatcreatesemployment,depen-denceonasingleemployerrepresentsamedium-termrisk.Anentireareaisatthemercyofaturnaroundorsimplyachangeinindustrialstrategy.Ruralareasfinditdifficulttoprovideabroadrangeofeducation,edu-cationintheusualsenseofthetermatleast.Foreco-nomicreasons,linkedtothelow-densitypopulation,conventionaleducationwillalwaysbelimited.

However, ruralareascandrawstrength froma lesserdegreeofstakeholderspecializationandtheexistenceofcloserlocaltiesbetweenfamilies,electedrepresenta-tives,companiesandtrainers.Theyarethereforewellsuited toadifferent typeofeducationbasedonpro-motinglocalstakeholders’skillsandmoreinteractiveeducationalmethods.Itisnoaccidentthatruralareaswhich have focused on education have often shownthegreatestdynamismintermsofpopulareducation

and interactive educational methods. The MaisonsFamilialesRurales(MFR)movementisemblematicofthisapproach.Themovement’sunderlyingprinciplesare“sandwicheducationalmethods,familyresponsibi-lity,aglobalapproachtoeducationandparticipationinlocaldevelopment.”Itcurrentlynumbers1,000es-tablishments,over600inEurope,almost300inLatinAmerica,160inAfricaandaround10inAsia.

Insteadofoptingfordevelopingsecondaryeducationbasedonanurbanmodel,publicauthoritiessearchingforanefficientsystembutwithfewresourcestospendcould usefully develop a rural education system ac-cordingtoMFRprinciples:sandwichtraining,familyinvolvementandaglobalapproach.Inadditiontoafasterimplementationofsecondaryeducationwherenoneexists,thistypeofeducation,orientedtowardsidentifyingandpromotinglocalresources,developingaspiritofinitiative,autonomyandexperimentationandaglobalapproachbetterpreparesstudentsforru-ral societies,whichwillneveroffer apoolof skills,serviceandsupportcomparabletourbanareas.Intheruralcontext,acombinedacademicandvocationaleducationismorethananasset:itisanecessity.

Proposal 7: Establish networks of medium-size towns

Ruralareas’strengthliesintheirtowns.Bywhichwemeanmedium-sizetowns,intouchwiththesurroun-dingareasandsharingajointdestinywiththem.Inother words, a locally-oriented town as opposed totheSingaporeancity-statemodel,integratedintoandtotallygovernedbytheglobaleconomy.

The presence of these locally-oriented towns is es-sentialforofferinglocalservices—education,healthand culture — and the employment opportunitiesthatgiveanareaitsappeal.Ineconomicterms,thesetownsoperateinharmonywiththenearbycountrysi-de to develop a dynamic local economy. Breathingnewlifeintoaruralarealackingtownsofthistypeisextremelydifficult.Thereasonsaresimple:marriageandfamilychoices.Inrelationtothesocialnorm,acouple’sdecision to setuphome far fromacity in-volvessomucheffortthatitisrareforbothmemberstoacceptandsuccessfullymanagethesituation.Itisfrequentlythewifewhogivesup,astheonewhoveryoftenhastodealwithdailylifeandherchildren’sfu-ture.Thesituationbecomesparticularlydifficultdu-ringteenageyears.

In terms of regional development, the creation ofa network of medium-size towns is a more suitablelong-termsolution than theestablishmentof regio-nalcitieswithinternationalaspirations.

Maintaininglocally-orientedtownsrequires:

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-thenationalpublicauthoritiestoconstantlytrytopromote minimal quality of service throughout thearea,withaprioritygiventothesetownsratherthansettingupalimitednumberofcentresofexcellence.Despitethegenerallyacceptedidea,excellenceemer-gesspontaneouslyaslongasabroadhigh-qualitybaseexists,whereasartificiallyinducedexcellencefailstoproducetheexpectedlevereffect,asdemonstratedbythelongstandingexistenceofsociallydividedsocie-tieswhereapatricianeconomic,politicalandintel-lectualelitecoexistswiththe‘plebeians’;

-localcouncillorstoestablishapermanentdialoguebetweenthetownanditssurroundingareawiththegoalofcreatingsynergies.Thetoolsfordoingsoarecooperationbetweenmunicipalities,asharedvisionof development, local patriotism that goes beyondreflexive localism, and shared profits and benefits.Thelocalcultureofpowerisdecisiveatthislevel.Aconflictualcultureofpower isacripplinghandicap.Anareacannotbe savedordevelopedwithout thecooperationofitsinhabitants.

Proposal 8: Strengthen local cultural life

Culture’sassociationwithleisureandartisticactivitiesconcealsitstruecivicimportance.ItissaidthatPeri-clessupportedartisticactivity,particularlythetheatre,becausehefeltthatitstrengthenedthecity.Cultureshouldthereforebeviewedinthisway:anactivityin-volvingtheentirepopulationthathelpstostimulatethecommunity,givemeaningto its futureandiden-tity,strengthencohesionandfostercreativity.

It is vain to pretend that rural areas can competewith major cities in terms of cultural offerings, bywhichwemeanmainstreamculturalactivities.Theseculturalofferingsarepartofaculturemarketwhichclearly distinguishes between consumer (spectator)andproducer(artist).Theruralcontextisfocusedonstrengtheningthelocalcapacitytoproduceculture.The19thcentury industrializationofEuropewhichdramaticallychangedthefaceofitscountrysidecoin-cidedwiththeemergenceoffolklore.Theeconomicandsocialupheavalsofthetimebroughtintoques-tionlocalidentitiesthatwerebecominglessapparent.Therediscovery,oreventheexnihilodevelopment,ofcostumes,traditionsandpopularartsplayedakeyrole in rebuilding local identities. Folklore helpedpeopletodealwiththechangingworldbyprovidingthemwitha senseof permanencewhilst remainingtruetothemselves.

Theexistenceofa local identity,a formof low-keyand inclusive patriotism, helps to create resilienceanddynamism.Culturalactionthereforeneedstoberooted in popular culture, in other words activitiesthatincludethegreatestpossiblenumberofinhabi-tants.Thisisimportantfortworeasons:

-ruralareascannotusuallyaffordtomaintaincultureprofessionals;

- theobjectof this typeofpopularculture is to in-volve populations and give them a role in creatingculturalactivity.

Thisrequiresaculturalpolicyspecifictoruralareasratherthanacopyofmajorcities’policies,butwithreducedfunding.

Identifying and developing cultural actions

Itisevidentlybettertobasethisprocessonacultu-ralpast,ifoneexists,sinceitisfareasiertofocusoncontinuity,evenwitharomanticizedpast,ratherthancreateapopularculturefromnothing.Thisnaturallyrequireselectedrepresentativesandlocalcivilsocietytoabandonanyenduringcolonizationcomplexandagreetoworktowardsunearthing,gatheringandor-ganizingthevariouselementscomposinglocaliden-tity. This also requires, as a minimum, a collectiverecordfortheentirearea.

Victoria Calleja, Messenger, 2005

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Oncetherecordhasbeenestablished,culturalpolicyandactionscanbeadopted,aimingtopromoteanddevelopelementsoflocalidentitybyorganizingthematdifferentlevels:

- at the school level, implying establishing a closelinkwiththeschool.Thismayposeaproblemiftheteachingstaffarehostiletoanythingthatmay,tova-ryingdegrees,beassimilatedtoanassertionoflocalidentity;

-attheeconomiclevel,involvingcooperationwiththeworldofcraftspeopleandsmallbusinesses.Well-known examples are the AOC (Appellation d’Ori-gineContrôlée) label inFranceand the institutionof “living national treasures” in Japan: craftspeoplewhoareexpertintheirartandsupportedbythelocalauthorityinexchangefortrainingapprentices.Thistypeofapproachiseminentlypracticableattheinfra-nationallevel;

atthesociallevel;promotingculturenaturallyinvol-vestheworldofnon-profitorganizations,particularlythoseworkinginpopulareducation.Theseorganiza-tionscancreatelinkswiththerestofthepopulation.However,supportforthisworldissometimesdifficultduetothesponsorshipculture,whichmakestheex-pectedreturnsunclear.Withinthiscontext, supportfor cultural life is considered as a “free” act, whosemain,orevenunique,rewardfor localauthorities is

in terms of image, with the exception of the majorfestivalswherelocalauthoritiescanexpectfinancialgains. Ifwetakethecivicaspectofculturalpoliciesseriously,theissueoftheconsequencesforthepopu-lation and area, and how they are managed, shouldnotbeseenasacorruption,butshouldbeattheheartoftherelationshipbetweenthepublicauthoritiesandthosebenefitingfromtheirsupport.ThisisthePrin-cipleofPericles. Itmaywellwoundthesensibilitiesofartistswhoproclaimtheneedforfreedominorderto create. There is clearly a contradiction betweentheartists’absolutefreedomandthecivicfunctionofartwhenfreedomisrecognizedasnotbeingtheonlyessentialsocialvalue.Supportfortheartsthenbeco-mes a form of social contract rather of sponsorship.However, the twoapproaches cancoexist,weightedinvaryingdegrees,withinthesameculturalpolicy.Itisalsoimportantthatcivic-orientedcultureisnotsys-tematicallydevalued in comparison tohighculture.Thisproblemrelatesdirectlytotheworldofartandits relationship with the rest of society. It is similarto the relationship between university research andteaching,theformerbenefitingfromamorenobleandprestigiousreputationthanthelatter.Wewillmerelypoint out that many artists have shown that a linkwithpopularculturecanactasaspurtooriginalcrea-tivity rather thanahandicap.Culture, like researchanddemocracy,gainsfrombeingparticipative.

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IIProducing Resources

Proposal 9: A stabilizing agricultural policyRuralareascannotbereducedtotheagriculturalbu-sinessalone.However,itisoneoftheactivitiesthattypifiesruralareasanddifferentiatesthemfromurbanareas. Furthermore, agriculture very often serves tostructure the area itself, forbetterorworse.At theinternational level, agriculture still provides almosthalfofjobsworldwide.45%oftheworld’spopulationarestillsmall-scalefarmersorfarmworkers.

Althougheachlocalauthorityhastheremittoexa-

minelocalneedsintermsofagriculture,theagricul-turalbusiness ismainly structuredbynationalpoli-cies. During the WTO negotiations in July 2008,theagriculturalissueprovedtobeastumblingblock,withIndiawantingtoavoidopeningupagriculturalmarketsforfearofdestabilizingitsruralpopulation.Agriculturethusneedstomeetthreechallenges:feedpeople,helptostabilizesocietiesbyavoidingmassiveruralexodus,andprotecttheenvironment.

Althoughitisoftendifficulttodefineatthenationallevelall thedetailsof interactionsbetweenagricul-ture and regions, it remains possible to outline the

Patricio de la O., Nueva Cosecha mecánica, 1989


mainlinesofagriculturalpoliciesnecessarytomeetthesethreechallenges,withthehopethattheycanbeextendedtotheinternationallevel.

High food prices

Supporting farming populations and enabling themtoinvestandeducatetheirchildrenrequireskeepingthepriceofagriculturalfoodstuffshigh.Everycountrythat underwent development in the 20th century,switching from farming societies to industrializedsocieties, adopted far-reaching agricultural policies.Quesnay setout thisprinciple in the18thcentury:“Asisthepurchasablevalueofthings,soisthereve-nue.Abundanceandnovalueisnotwealth.Dearthandhighpricesismisery.Abundanceandhighpricesisopulence.Letusnotbelievethatlowpricesarepro-fitabletothelaboringclass;forcheapnessofproductslowersthewagesofthelaboringpeople…”5Lowpricesruinsmall-scalefarmers,whoflocktothecitywheretheyfailtofindalternativeemploymentandformanunproductivepopulationfeedingoncheapfoodstuffswhoselowcostcontributestofurtherdestructionofsmall-scalefarmers’livelihoods,andsoandsoforth.This represents the vicious circle of peasant farmerplebeianization.

It is thus essential for food prices to be kept highthroughdirectactioninthemarkets(countercyclicalpurchaseandresale,storagecapacity).

High cost of the productive resource

In the absence of a safety net, expensive foodstuffscanleadtothedevelopmentofpracticesthatdamagethe environment and devastating land speculationcausing small-scale farmers to disappear. This pro-blemcanbeovercomebymaintainingahighcostofproductiveresourcesbasedon:

- a high land tax serving to curb land annexation(comparabletoleasinglandtothelocalauthority6);

- taxes on other productive resources: water, fuel,inputs,pesticidesandseeds;

-aminimumwage.

The combination of high prices for agricultural pro-ducts andproductive resourcesnaturally favours eco-nomic stakeholders that produce much with few re-sources,preciselythegoalofsustainabledevelopment.

Proposal 10: Ensure easy access to market informationIntermediaries are often blamed for rural underde-velopment. Although the criticism is often well-founded, it fails to take into account the workingsof mediation and, amongst other elements, setting

ofprices.Intermediariesareusuallyfarmorefamiliarwith themarket thanproducers. In specialized sec-tors, theauthoritiesoroftenevenprivateconsortiasuchastraders’federationsarequicktosetupsharedinformation platforms. Fairs and markets, in parti-cular,haveplayedthisrole,bringingtogethersellersandbuyersinthesameplacesothatinformationcancirculatemorefreelyandwithlessdistortion.

It isundoubtedlyoneof thepublic authorities’ res-ponsibilities to supply small-scale economic playerswiththeinformationthatenablesthemtonegotiateon an even footing with intermediaries. Especiallysincecurrentcommunicationstoolsareonaparwith,surpasseven,availablemeansoftransport.

Proposal 11: Modify the land ownership modelRural areas are primarily differentiated from urbanareas by physical space: the land. Rural areas haveanabundanceofspace.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatitshouldbeputtobaduse,quitetheopposite.Unfortunately, rural areas often make mistakes andfailintheirlandmanagementpractices.Thisspringsfroma scarcityof resources,absenteeowners—forbothdevelopedandundevelopedland—individualegos thatareharder todealwith in small societies,andsimplyalackofconscientiousnessandskill.

On theotherhand, the collectivemanagementofpublicgoods—property inthiscase—hasprovedinthepasttobeapowerfultoolforsocialcohesion,political education and economic production inmany rural societies.This typeofpublic goodsma-nagementoftenenduresinmountainousareas,wherethelandistooruggedtohavebeenannexed.Thesepublicgoodsrepresentanintermediarystagebetweenprivategoodsandstategoods.Markeddifferencesinthe rights attached to ownership also exist. Wheresomecountriescontinuetostaunchlyprotectowners’rights (for example,with theRomanusus et abususlegalprinciple),others strictly limit the rightsatta-ched toownership,with local authority restrictionsandrigorouscontrol,asseenintheNetherlands.

It isvital for localauthorities tobeable tomanagetheirlandresponsively.Whenlandneedstobepro-tectedinthenameofthecommongood,thismayim-plyestablishingcontractsbetweenthestateandlocalauthorities.Thisapproachwouldinvolve:

-strengtheningthehandoflocalauthoritiesandmuni-cipalitiesinthefaceofremoteandabsentowners,par-ticularlyforreusinglandthatislittlemanagedornotmanagedatall.Thisimpliesthelocalauthorityhavingtherighttoimposecertainconstraints(actualpresen-ce,maintenance,properuse,etc.)and,ifnecessary,topenalizeownersandpre-emptabandonedproperty;

5.Quesnay,General Maxims of the Economical Government in an Agricultural Kingdom,quotedbyM.Augé-LaribéinThe Agricultural Re-volution,AlbinMichel1955.Theselinespro-videuswithastrikingparalleltothecurrentsituationoftheglobaleconomy,agriculturalandnon-agricultu-ral:underthe

pretextoflavishingconsumerswithlow-

costproducts,wehaveputpressureatthegloballevelonthewagesandincomeofen-tirepopulations,withdamagingresults.

6.Thistaxcouldbeleviedinproportiontolandfertility,asinGermany,whereitisbasedontheBodenschätzung standardizedsoilassessment.

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-makinglocalauthoritiesresponsiblefortheconse-quencesoftheirlocalmanagementpracticesintermsofadjacentareas,particularlyatdownstream(thisre-latesparticularlytowatermanagement);

-drawingupcontractsbetweenthelocalandregionallevelswhentheareahastofulfilmajorecologicalro-les,includingwaterandforestrymanagement.

Proposal 12: Participative seed selection

Erosion of domestic biodiversity

Forthousandsofyears,humanbeingsandtheanimalandvegetablespeciestheyhavedomesticatedtomeettheirneedshavecohabitedandevolvedtogetherinrural areas. Despite appearances, this domestic bio-diversity is in escheat. Jacques Pernès provided anexcellentanalysisoftheprobleminthe1960s:“We can thus free ourselves from the frightening illusion that the air-conditioned safes used to store seeds and tissue cultures represent the only solution to protect us against our own waste. Unavoidably observable in every country is a three-way genetic depletion of crops: with the focus on a handful of crops given a profitable level of producti-vity and mechanization, there are less cultivated species; there are less varieties cultivated per species, despite the deceptive abundance of variety catalogues, since the va-rieties are often only slightly modified copies of a unique ideotype customized to suit technological and commercial constraints; varieties are less genetically polymorphous since it is easier, for commercial reasons, to multiply and protect simple and reproducible variety structures.”7

The result in terms of domestic biodiversity is hi-ghly salutary. The FAO estimates that China had10,000varietiesofwheatin1949.Thisfiguredrop-pedto1,000in1970,anderosionisbelievedtohaveincreasedsince.86%ofthe7,098varietiesofappleusedbytheUSAbetween1804and1904havedisap-peared.Thefigureis95%forcabbages,91%forcorn,94%forpeasand81%fortomatoes.Andsoonadin-finitum.Thesefiguresdoneedtobeapproachedwithcaution:it isdifficulttoidentifyatwhichpointthevarietiesaredifferentiated,andthusdifficulttoassessthelossofdiversity.Theydononethelessbearwitnesstoawide-reachingandworryingphenomenon.

Small-scale farmer or participative selection

Thesolutiontothiserosionproblemistoreturntothepracticeofparticipativeselectionusedbeforetheindustrial revolution. However, the practice shouldbe elective and not imposed. Whereas in the pastpeasantfarmercommunitiescouldnotexchangeva-rietiesandhadnochoicebuttodiversify,thecontem-porarycontextisaboutpromotingtheprotectionand

developmentoflocalvarietiesusingarecognizedandsustainedapproach.ThisisthesolutionprofferedbyPernès: “[...] The second, more deep-reaching and ef-fective [package of measures to combat genetic depletion] will involve delegating the creation of varieties to farmers themselves, who will renew and select polymorph and ori-ginal varieties and populations. Seed production compa-nies will take on an increasingly important training and consultancy role as well as working to create and intro-duce genitors and source populations which will quickly leave the ghetto of the stations to be selected by expert small-scale farmers themselves. This vision, allotting eve-ryone a role in genetic resources and plant improvement, may seem utopian to those who have never had the chance of marvelling at the expertise and wisdom of peasant far-mers, the heirs to all the plant domesticators of the past. They range from the traditional corn and bean farmers in Mexico and Guatemala to Chinese peasant farmers producing diverse wheat varieties and creating millet, rice and soy, and African peasant farmers managing millet and sorghum varieties as well as multiple pulses and so on.”Agronomicresearchbodiesandpeasantfarmingcommunitiesarelaunchinginitiativesofthiskind.

This implies that the public authorities recognizenot just the selection of generic and homogeneouscommercial varieties but also initiatives based onparticipativeselectionandproduction8,andtherela-tionshipbetweenthetwotypesofseeds.Commercialseedsmustnotbeconfusedwith seedsproducedbyparticipativeselection,whichhavedifferentcharac-teristics.Thisrequires:

-creatingcataloguesforparticipativeselectionseeds;

-recognitionofthecommunitiespractisingthistypeofselection;

-specificresearchanddevelopmentaidprogrammes.

Proposal 13: Encourage migration to rural areasFacedwithexplosiveurbangrowthandruralexodusincertainpartsoftheworld(notforgettingthatotherregionssufferfromtheoppositeproblem:aruralpopu-lationgrowingtoofast), statesoftenadoptmeasuresthatcoerceratherthanincite:theywanttodissuadepeoplefromcomingtocities,butwithoutmakingthecountrysideattractive.Andlocalauthoritiessufferingfromdepopulationsometimeshaveatendencytoshedcrocodile tears: they complain about depopulationwithoutreallydoinganythingtoremedythereasonsbehindit(seeproposal11onlandownership).

Local authorities undergoing depopulation oftendreamofattractinganeconomicplayerwiththeca-pitalandexpertisetoprovideemployment for localfamilies,preferablybringingchildrentothearea,and

7.JPernesetal.Managing plant generic resources,Volume2,Manual

8.Italyhaslongrecognizedlocalvarieties.

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doingnothingtooverturnlocalsociologicalbalancesnorcompetewithlandownersintheconcentrationof local land. In reality, successfulnew integrationsusually work thanks to a community’s commitmentandcapacitytomakeconcessions,notablyintermsoflandandrealestate,oreveninvestinginnewactivi-tiestosmooththepathforthearrivalofenterprisingbutcapital-poorpeople.

Themanypossiblemeasures forencouragingmigra-tiontoruralareasinclude:

-developinghighqualitypropertycompared to theurbanenvironment,particularlybydevelopingaren-talmarket;

-aidfromthestateorlargecitiesforthosesettingupinruralareasintheformofinitialgrantsandsubsi-dizedloans(asisalreadythecaseinseveralcountriesforagriculture);

-providingbusinessservicessuchasaccountingandIT inareaswhere theprivatedevelopmentofbusi-nessesisstagnant(seeproposal4onlocalboards);

- a welcome and integra-tion policy, particularly forpartners when they are notinvolved in the developedactivity;

- providing guarantees forfinancial partners, or evencontributing financially totheinvestment.

Proposal 14: Energy and organic materialsItisascarcelyquestionedfactthatthesocialmodelthatde-velopedinEuropeinthelate18thcenturyconsumeshugequantitiesofenergy.Itbeganwithcoal,thenmovedontooil and, to a lesser extent,hydroelectricity.Humanpro-duction, transport, habitatandcomfort(heatingandairconditioning) all depend onintensive energy consump-tion. This high energyconsumption society is nowcomingupagainsttwoissues:

- limited resources, eventhough exploitation of oilshale and coal liquefactionwillnodoubtbeenough to

holdoutuntiltheendofthecentury;

-climatedisruptionduetoanthropogenicgasemis-sions thathasalready led todeep-reachingchangesinglobalandlocalecosystems.

Evenifgreatprogresscanandmustbemadeintermsof the sustainable city, and although the city canbotheconomizeandfixenergy,especiallybyputtingitsroofsurfacestobetteruse,ruralareasarealreadyhavingtoplayarole,andwillbeincreasinglycalledontodoso,as:

- carbon sinks to partially fix greenhouse gases(GHG);

-anareaforproducingenergy.

Afterall,oilandcoalaremerelythesurplusofthebio-massaccumulatedtensofmillionsofyearsago.Todayasinthepast,theprocesswherebysolarenergyisfixedbytheearth’secosystemsproducesusableenergy.

Twomethodsforfixingenergythatcallonruralareascurrentlyexist:

-solarpanelsandwindturbines,whichareprimarily

José Esteban Basso, Boceto, 2002


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mechanical.Butit isunlikelythatthismethodwillbeusedexclusively,evenwiththeemergenceofam-bitiousprojects for solarplants located in theheartofthedesert;

-theuseofplants.Therelationshipbetweenhuma-nityandphotosynthesiswillprobablybeasstrongasever.Ruralareaswillremainattheheartofthisrela-tionship,astheplacewheresolarenergyisfixedandtransformedintolivingorganicmatter(plants)thendeadmatter,intheformofsoilhumus.

Thechallengeliesinworkingsimultaneouslyto:

-maintain fertility in ecosystems, which are highly dependentontheircarbondensitysincetheirfertilityguaranteestheoperationofthewatercycleandahighlevelofresilienceandofbiodiversity.Overexploitationofbiomaterialscanleadtothesystem’sdepletion;

-produceenergyusingdifferentapproaches.Aforest-basedapproachusingligneousandperennialplants,and an agricultural approach either using farmingby-products or promoting energy-producing crops.Examples include the use of corn or sugar cane toproduceethanolandpalmoiltoproduceoil;

- produce enough foodtofeedagrowingpopulationuntilthemiddleofthecentury.

In conclusion, exhaustion of fossil energy resourcesand, especially, the climate changes caused by thegreenhousegasesproducedbytheuseoftheseresour-cesisincreasingtheimportanceofecosystems.TheirimportanceliesinstoringCO2,themaingreenhousegas,supplyingmaterialsandenergiesthatcanreplacethoseproducedbypetrochemicalsandcarbonchemi-cals,andcontinuingtoproducefood.

Recognizing the Kyoto protocol at the infranational level

The Kyoto protocol on greenhouse gas emissionswent no further than the national level; in otherwords, it did not specify the way in which respon-sibilitywouldbedividedupwithineachnation.Al-thoughstatessigningtheprotocolacceptedtheobli-gationtoreducetheirgreenhousegasemissions,theirfootprintalsoincludesfixation,whichisoftenlinkedtotheir forests.However,nomechanismis inplaceatthenationallevelformeasuringthecontributiontothenational footprintofdifferentregionswithinthesamecountry.Furthermore,asystemforinternalcompensationsdoesnotexist,eventhoughtheleastindustrialized regionswith less intensiveagriculturepartiallyoffsettheemissionsofthemoreindustriali-zedandintensiveareas.

This distortion needs correcting and intra-nationaladjustmentsmadebetweenthelocalauthorities, forcitiesandregions,withahighlevelofemissions—generallyrichareas—andlocalauthoritiesthatfix

energy,thattendtobepoorareas.Ruralareasnatu-rallyfearbeingsanctuarizedandcolonizedbypower-fulauthoritiesinthenameofthenationalinterest,aphenomenonthatcanariseifpoliciesforbuyingupandirreversiblyfreezinglandareadoptedratherthanalimited-durationandregularlyreassessedcontract.The fact is that an area’s ecological contribution ispermanentand shouldbe recognizedas such.Ruralareas need to be proactive and turn their energy-fixingroleintoanasset.Todoso,theyneedtoascriberealvalue—financialifnecessary—atthenationallevel to thepositivecontribution theymake to thecountry’secologicalbalance.

In addition to carbon fixing, local authorities needtoworktomaintainon-siteanypossibletransforma-tionofaccumulatedbiomassintoconsumerdurablesinordertoretainanyaddedvalue.Theenergyques-tioncanthusserveasanopportunityforruralareas,as long as they take the initiative, appropriate theprocessandkeepcontrolofit.Takingupadefensivepositionisdoomedtofailure,giventheissuesatstakeandthestateofnecessity.

Advantages and risks of green energies

Aneconomybasedongreenenergyandmaterialsisthuspossible,butdoesalsoposeathreattolocalcom-munitiesandauthorities.Thespectreofbeingturnedintoanareaproducingonlypalmoil,cornor sugarcanetoproduceethanolisalltooreal.

Thisrequireslocalauthoritiesto:

-properlymanagetheirland(seeproposals11and9);

-carefullyselectbusinessesthatsetupintheirarea,ta-kingintoaccounttheirecologicalandsocialimpacts;

-ensuretheyhavethecapacitytoorganizethedeve-lopmentofthesebusinessactivitiesthemselves

Developing the effective use of rural areas

Meetingthesechallengesinvolvesanorganizationalprocesscomparable to themost sophisticatedurbanplanning.Ruralareaecologyaimingtoidentifysyner-giesthatincreaseproductionefficiencyandminimizewasteisvital.

Itwillalsobeimportanttousetechniquesincluding:

-waterpurificationaspartofacarbonfixingprocess(lagooningplusshort-cyclecoppicing);

-agroforestrycombiningfoodcropsandtrees;

- productionof ecomaterials suchas insulatingma-terialsmadeofplantfibresandrecyclingthemintheformofcompost;

andtoorganizedifferentactivitiesintheareas:

-distributeforestsoverwatercatchmentareas,along

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watercoursesandalongslopebreaks;

-setupcollectiveheatinginstallationslinkedtoavaila-bleresources(forexample,woodchipfromsawmills);

-spreadlivestockoperationsacrosstheareatoattainoptimal agronomic balance between animals andcrops;

- install energy-generating infrastructures (wind orsolar)inareaswherefarmingandforestryopportuni-tiesarelimited.

Local energy agencies

Integration of the different activities is technicallyappealing but socially delicate. Without the intro-ductionof interventionistpractices, itwillgeneratemajortransactioncostsbetweenstakeholders.Formu-latingcollectiveenergystrategiesinaruralareaen-couragesthecreationofenergyagenciesatthelocallevel.This in turn encourages the establishmentofpartnershipsbetweenstakeholderslikelytoinfluencepoliciesonsettlementandoccupationofruralareas,water treatment, and the location of farms, forestsandfactories.Localauthoritiesthathavemadepro-gressinintegratingtheiractivitieslocallywillbeonestepaheadinthechallengeoftacklingenergyissues.

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III

Protecting Vital Natural ResourcesProposal 15: Ecological tax system

Tax consumables and detax labour

The oft-cited dematerialization of the economy isnot mirrored in reality. Water, mineral ores, fossiland fissionable energy consumption all continue togrowunchecked,fuelledbylowrawmaterialsprices.Itisclearthatthemarketisincapableofsustainingalong-termvisionandcannotinternalizeenvironmen-taleffects.Which iswhy itproducesabruptcorrec-tivemeasures,withdevastatingsocialconsequences.Therecentmiserycausedbythesuddenupsurgeinoilandfoodstuffpricesisoneexample.

It is only the public authorities that can graduallyincreasethepriceofrawmaterialsandguideecono-

micstakeholderstowardsmeasuredchanges.Thetaxsystemisanidealtooltodoso,servingasitdoestodirecttheeconomyinthelongterm.

Thegoalofachievingsustainabledevelopmentthe-reforeimplies:

-taxingmaterialproductionresources;

-reducingtaxonlabour.

Ecotaxesneedtobeintroduced,orexistingecotaxesincreased,on:

-water;

-energy;

-mineralores(asdistinctfromrecycledmetals).

Wastealsoneedstobetaxedaccordingtothepollu-ter-paysprinciple.

Catalina Prado, Serie de las visitas IV, 2009


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In addition to its dissuasive role, this ecotaxwouldalsocontributetofinancingwhateconomistscallen-vironmentalamenitiesorenvironmentalservices,i.e.the social orbiological functionsoftenprovidedbywilderness and rural areas.Thebest example is thepurification role played by certain wilderness andruralareas(forests,marshesandmangroveswamps).An ecotax of this kind, directly affecting industryandthereforeallitsconsumers,particularlyincities,couldthushelptofinancethemanagementandlow-levelexploitationoftheseareas.

Implementing the tax system

Thequestionsthenraisedare:atwhichlevelshouldthistaxsystembeappliedandhowshouldthesumsgeneratedbeused?

Setting up the tax system at the local level wouldcreate distorted competition. It implies that theauthority—regional,stateorgroupofstates—thatadoptssuchataxsystemhastherighttoprotectitsmarkets against products from countries that havenot adopted the same type of measure. The ecotaxwouldthusbeappliedattheborder,whichinvolvesacceptingarestrictiononfreetrade.

Anotherandnodoubtbettersolutionwouldbetolaythefoundationsforaglobaltaxsystem.

Implementation difficulties

Settingupthiskindof taxsystemmaybeaspoliti-callydelicateasitistechnicallysimple,especiallytheglobaltaxoption.Sodoesacrediblealternativeexist?Thereisthequotamarket,butitisjustaspoliticallydifficulttoputinplaceandfarmoretechnicallycom-plex. The difficulty of setting up an ecotax systemisthusatechnicalissue—howbesttointroduceit—rather thanapolitical issue: should itbe imple-mentedornot?

Fromatechnicalstandpoint,itissimplyavalue-ad-ded tax adjustable according to products’ environ-mentalimpact.Itwouldvarydependingonthetypeofproduct:iron,oil,hydraulicenergy,cement,etc.

Ecotax stakeholders

Setting up ecotaxes requires drawing on traditionaltaxsavoir-fairecombinedwithenvironmentalknow-how. International bodies like the IMF and WTOcouldcoordinatetheimplementationofecotaxesatthegloballevel.

Proposal 16: Forest energy policy

Restore continental environments’ biological functions

The forest is themost efficientof all ecosystems tohavemadeanappearanceonearthintermsofcarbonfixing (which combats the greenhouse effect), soilcreationandpreservation,andwaterregulation,bothlocallyandglobally.

-Carbonfixing:eveninconditionscharacterizedbyhighmineralization(fastdestructionofdeadorganicmatterbysoilmicro-organisms),theforestecosystemmaintainsamassof100to200tonnesofcarbonperhectare. Forest ecosystems are home to 80% of theplanet’splantcarbonand40%ofsoilcarbon9.Onlyhighaltitudeorhighlatitudecoldgrasslandsandverywetzones(peatbogs)couldtodobetter.Ifhumanswanttostabilizethegreenhouseeffect,theyneedtomake proper use of the carbon source provided bygrowingforests.

- Soil creation and preservation: carbon accumula-tesinsoil,givingitstructureandsomeofitsfertility(particularlybiological life).The forestcanbeusedtoreconstitutedamagedsoil,eitherwithreplantingsorbytakingareasonablepercentageoforganicforestmatterfixedeachyearandspreadingitonfarmlands,eithergreen(thetechniqueknownasRamialChip-pedWood)oraftercomposting.

-Water regimeregulation: the foresthasa three-wayeffectonthewaterregime.It formscloudsabovethecontinentalmassesby“sweating”(evapotranspiration).Theevopotranspiredwaterdoesnotreturntotheseabutfallsonthecontinentalmasses.Secondly,theforestcreatesporoussoil,whichallowsrainwatertoinfiltratethesubsoilwhereitcanberetained.Thirdly,theforestisdarkerthanbaresoilandthusreducesthealbedo(theextenttowhichthesoilreflectsthesun’slight).Sincetheraysareabsorbed,theairiscoolerandencouragescondensationofatmosphericandrainwater.Mountainreforestationindryregions,liketheAtlasMountainsandMountLebanon,isthebestwaytobringtherainbackandhaltdesertificationoftheplains.

Humans’ actions are often the cause of areas tur-ningtodesert.The lightthatreachestheseareas isnotusedforphotosynthesisbutisreflected,thusin-creasingthegreenhouseeffect.Slowandcarefulre-forestationofdesertareascouldalsogosomewaytosavingexistingprimevalforests.Respectfulexploita-tionoftheseforestscouldalsobeconsidered(seetheForestStewardshipCouncil:http://www.fsc.org/).

Reconfiguring forest exploitationhas theaddedad-vantageofofferingmajorpotentialintermsofcrea-tingwealthandjobs.

Humanity needs a global forestry plan for all thesereasons.

9.Sources:ONF(FrenchNationalForestService),CIRAD(FrenchAgriculturalResearchCentreforInternationalDevelopment),EU.

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Implementing the plan

The main difficulty facing forestry activities is thelong-term investments they require. In contrast totheexploitationofnaturalforests—aprocesssimilartoharvesting—plantingandmaintainingdomesticforests,withapossiblyhighlevelofbiodiversity,re-quiresconstantcareoverthemediumterm(25years)orlongterm(200years).However,thismaintenancework is usually concentratedon the start-upperiodorduringthefirst20years,afterwhichthefirsttreestobecutdownstart togenerate income.Areplan-tationoperationthereforerequireslong-termaction

thatcanusuallyonlybeimplementedbyauthorities.Individualsandprivateinvestorscanusuallymanageaforestonceitisstabilized,onconditionthatcertainfiscal or legal measures (such as supervising the fo-rest’scondition)encouragethemtodoso.

Historygivesusseveralexamplesofsuccessfulfores-trypolicies,bothinEuropeandAsia.Thesepoliciesprovideprototypeswithprinciplesthatcanbeadap-tedforuseelsewhere.

Stakeholders in the plan

Private stakeholders in the Forest StewardshipCouncilhavedemonstratedthatitispossibletopro-moteproperforestmanagementintermsof lookingafter existing forests. The Kyoto protocol and coo-peration agreements provide useful frameworks for

reforestationagreements.AndtheFAOcouldeasilydevelop a forestry arm, especially since most coun-tries have a forestry department. Furthermore, theWorldBankandthedevelopmentbankscouldserveaspotentiallyeffectivefinancingtools.

Proposal 17: Support agroforestry

Modify farming and food-producing models

Food is one of the biggest challenges facing huma-nity in the 21st century. Itis almost certain that thecurrent farming and food-producing model will notbe able tomeethumanity’sneeds,asit:

- requires huge amounts offossil energy (particularlyforproducingfertilizers);

- requires huge amounts ofwater(73%ofpumpedfres-hwater is used for agricul-ture);

-destroysthesoil.

What are thismodel’s cha-racteristics? It focuses ongrowing cereals (wheat,corn and rice) and annuallegumes, mainly soy, lives-tockrearingonanextensive(deforested area) or inten-sivebasis,bothwithcerealsusedasfeed.Ithastendedtofollow the north Europeanmodelandmarginalizeddrytrees, which need little ornoirrigation.

Nonetheless,manypositive examplesof using treesforfoodpurposesdoexist,includingalmond,bread,walnut,oliveandchestnuttrees.Treesliketheaca-ciaarealsousedforfodderindryareas.Agriculturalpracticesthatusetreesaregenerallyknownasagro-forestry.

On condition that it requires little or no irrigationandisbasedonadiversityof trees,agroforestryhasmanyadvantages:

-soilpreservation;

-improveddroughtresistance;

-positiveimpactonlocalclimate;

-positiveimpactonwatercycle;

-fuelproduction(wood);

Nils-Udo, Autel d’eau Méréville, 2010 (détail)


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-extraordinarylevelofproductivitywithnoneedforinputs.

An added benefit is that agroforestry requires morelabour,apositivefactorforcountrieswithstrongde-mographicgrowth.

Itisimportanttonotethatthedevelopmentoffoodtreescanalsohaveadirectimpactonurbanandperi-urbanagriculture.

Implementation

The widespread adoption of agroforestry requires acombinationofthreetypesofchanges:

-agronomic;

-economic;

-cultural.

From the agronomic standpoint, agroforestry is of-tensuccessfullymanageddespitelittleinvestmentinresearch.Somedegreeof researchhas alreadybeenundertaken,butthereremainsawidemarginforpro-gress in termsof selectingandcombining treesandmanagement mechanisms (plantation density, asso-ciationwithannualcrops), and signs for the futureareundoubtedlypromising.

Supportingagroforestry implies securing specific in-vestmentsandloans,giventhereturnoninvestmenttimescale. We should note that the creation of theemphyteutic lease, a long-term lease featuring theobligationtoplantfruittrees,intheRomanEmpireofthe3rdcenturycorrespondedtothelessee’sneedtoobtainareturnoninvestment.

Agroforestry development implies a shift in eatinghabits—ashiftthat isalreadybecominginevitable,forexample,withtheneedtoreduceredmeat.Howe-ver,replacingsaccharoseextractedfromsugarbeetbyfructose taken from fruit, or sunflower and rape oilsbyarboriculturaloilsdoesnotposeamajorproblem.Reducing the proportion of cereals in people’s dietsis more delicate. However, it is worth noting that alargepercentageofthesecerealsareusedtofeedcattle,whicharenotnaturalgrain-eaters.Pigswouldbequitehappytoeatgroundacornsratherthancorn!Onba-lance,dietarychangesappeartobeminor.Moreover,weknowthateatinghabitsfollowfashions.Thewides-preadadoptionoftheUSdietisrootedinAmericanculturalappealratherthananynutritionalmerit.

Implementation stakeholders

Anumberofinternationalnetworkspromotingagro-forestryalreadyexist(seehttp://www.worldagrofores-try.org).

Agreatmanyresearchteamsarealreadyatworkonagroforestry models, and many farmers are discove-

ring or returning to this type of practice. Withoutformingahugemajority,theynonethelessrepresentaspringboardforamorewidespreaduptakeofagrofo-restrypractices.

Infinancialterms,stakeholdersliketheWorldBank—whichadmittedtofailingtoinvestsufficientlyinagriculturein2007—couldeasilyadoptalong-termloanspolicytopromotethesetypesofpractices,sub-sidizedbygovernmentsifnecessary,asinEurope,.

Sincedietaryhabitsarecultural,thepublicauthori-tiescoulduse their foodpolicies, andpublicfiguressuchasactorsandsportspeopletheirhighprofile,topromoteanewmodel.

Proposal 18: Halt urbanization of the best land

Protect the soil resource

Thehighcostoftransportandpreservationdifficul-tieshavehistoricallyledtocitiesbeingdevelopedinareaswhereproductionandsupplywaseasy.Whichiswhymanyoftoday’smajorcitiesinAsia(BeijingandTokyo),Europe(LondonandParis),Africa(Cairo)andtheAmericas(MexicoCity)arefoundedonex-tremelyfertileland.Atatimewhenhumansneedtomakethebestpossibleuseofallavailableresources,itisabsurdtoseetheurbanfabricneutralizingthepla-net’sbest land.This situation isespeciallyworryinggiventhatsofarnothingseemstohavebeenabletocurburbancreep,eventhoughtheincreaseinoilandtransport prices should eventually have an impactwhich, ifnot anticipated,will bebothcatastrophicandviolent.

Itisthereforevitaltoprotectthebestland,eitherbyencouragingdensergrowthinthecityorthedevelo-pmentofcitiesonnon-fertilelands.

Threetoolscanbeusedtodoso:

-prohibitingconstructiononfertilefarmland;

-introducingabuildingtaxlinkedtothesoil’spoten-tialforfertility;

-reducingtheappealofcitiesbuiltonfertilesitesbyrelocatingadministrativeandpowercentrestoothersites,whichcouldhaveapositiveeffectoncityandcountryplanning.

Thissolutioncallsforamoreglobalurbanstrategy.

Implementation

Implementation of this kind of measure provides aperfectexampleofactivesubsidiarity,sinceitrequiresthenational,regionalandlocallevelstocollaborate.Justasacitycannotsolvetheproblemalone,central

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administrationcannotsolveitwithoutthecoopera-tion of the local authorities. International involve-ment,however, isnotrequiredtoadoptthesetypesofpolicies.

Implementation difficulties

Wecouldimaginethattheproblemisevenmoreacu-teforcountriesfacingfastanduntrammelledurbani-zation.However,poorpopulationsarenotnecessarilythosedevelopingonfertilezones.RiodeJaneiropro-videsanexampleofacitywhereunplannedhousingspringsupinabandonedareas,i.e.areasthatarenotfertile. The elite population is more likely to causetheproblem.

Proposal 19: Reverse the market-based approach to greenhouse gases

Incorporate economic issues into ecological issues

Greenhousegasmarketsare rooted inaworthyde-sire:toincorporateecologicalquestionsintoecono-micquestions.However,thismarket-basedapproachisbasedoncurrency.Anditisclearthatcurrencyhasbeenslowlydematerializedoverthelastcentury.Itisbecomingincreasinglyevidentthatcurrencymirrors,incomplexways,anation’spast,presentandfuture

Andrea Carreño, Bretagne, 2010

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power. “Power” is being used in the broadest senseof the term, incorporating the economic, political,culturalandmilitaryaspects.

Basingthegreenhousegasmarketsonthedollarbe-causetheUSAwonthelastworldwar,orontheyuanbecause we are anticipating China’s increasing in-fluencemaywellbewellfoundedfromananthropo-logicalstandpoint;buttheproblemremainsthattheclimatecrisisisnotanthropologicalinnature,butacrisisofself-regulationoftheearth’sclimatesystem.

Frommanypointsofview,humanactivitycanessen-tiallybeseenastotallyenmeshedinatypeofsuper-economy:thecarboncycle.Wecanlikentheearth’secosystem to a meta-system of carbon transactions.When we eat, breath, defecate, run, grow and die(possiblybybeingeatenbyanothermemberof theecosystem),wecanlikentheseeventstochangesofstatusandcarbontransfers.

The challenge is thus not to incorporate carbon into the economy, but the economy into carbon.

Thelogicalapproachwouldbeforhumanitytoadopta carbon currency, similar to other currencies. Anattemptcouldbemadetoassimilateemissionrightsinto thenewcurrency.However, their limitedcha-racter only very partially confers on them the cha-racteristics of currency, if only because societies donothaveacarbonaccountingsystemalongsidetheirconventionalmonetaryaccountingsystem.

Nevertheless, rural areas would have everything togaininpromotingthistypeofcurrency,forthesim-ple reason that theycouldbe the issuers.Acarboncurrencywouldlogicallybebackedbycarbonstocks.Andthesestockswouldlogicallybethebiomassac-cumulatedinwell-managedruralareas.

Matthieu Calamewas born in 1970 and is an agricultural engineer. He converted the country estate belonging to the Charles Léopold Mayer Foundation for the Progress of Humankind, La Bergerie, north of Paris, to a sustainable management model. He was also president of the Institut Technique d’Agriculture Biologique (ITAB - Organic Farming Technical Institute) for three years. He currently heads the Charles Léopold Mayer Foundation for the Progress of Humankind.

Hehaswrittenthefollowingworks,publishedbyEditionsCharlesLéopoldMayer:

Lettre ouverte aux scientistes. Alternatives démocratiques à une idéologie cléricale

[Open Letter to Scientists: Democratic Alternatives to a Clerical Ideology],2011;

La Tourmente alimentaire[The Food Turmoil],2008;

Une agriculture pour le XXIe siècle[Agriculture for the 21st

Century],2007.

www.world-governance.org

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This Proposal Paper is published with the support of the Charles Léopold Mayer Foundation

Rural Areas, Small- and Medium - Sized Local Authorities and World Governance

F WGnForum for a new World Governance

Forum pour une nouvelle Gouvernance MondialeF GMn

Foro por una nueva Gobernanza MundialF GMn

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