Russia in the 19th Century

Alexander INicholas I

Alexander II & IIINicholas II

Russia in the 19th Century

• Russian society remained semi-feudal and backward, with much popular discontent.

• Russia remained isolated from Western culture and did not modernize.

• Oppression & censorship increased and the government was inefficient.

• Czars were anti-liberal• Russia was weak internationally & began to lose

foreign wars (Crimean, Russo-Japanese)

Economic reforms, in general

• Industrialism• Government led by finance minister, Witte• Railroad construction--trans-Siberian railway• Protective tariffs, foreign loans• Booming petroleum and steel industry• but…poor standard of living, poor working

conditions, resistance from freed serfs, no unions or strikes

• Growing business class benefited and supported the government, didn’t want to challenge the tsar

Repression and Revolution

• Peasant revolts• Intelligentsia and anarchists• reprisals and repression by state • assassination of the tsar (Alexander II)• Russification• pograms against Jews• uncompromising repression by Nicholas II• Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)• Revolution of 1905: Bloody Sunday

Russia: Decembrist Uprising (1825)

Alexander I (1810-1825) initially favored Enlightened despotism but after 1815 grew increasingly reactionary. His death led to a power vacuum.

Nicholas I assumed the Russian throne after death of Alexander I.

Decembrists (junior military officers): upper-class opponents of the autocratic Russian system of gov’t, who supported popular grievances among Russian society. Failed in their revolt.

Nicholas became Europe’s most reactionary monarch

Intellectuals developed two opposing camps in this period:

Slavolphiles believed that Russian village (the mir) culture was superior to that of the West.

Westernizers wanted to extend the “genius of Russian culture” by industrializing and setting up a constitutional gov’t.

Nicholas I (1825-55)“Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationalism”

• Dictatorial ruler who stood for strong nationalism, autocracy, and religious orthodoxy.

• He did the following:– Expanded the royal bureaucracy – Published a new legal code– Fostered industry and Railroads– Enforced strict censorship with secret police– Had strong control over the military– Lost the Crimean War– Put down a Polish revolt

Autocracy

• Defender of the old paternalistic discipline against the influence of rotten pagan France

• Horror of the Decembrists revolt• The Tsar is the father• The third section of the Chancery was in

charge of state security– Shadowed 2000 persons annually

Nationality

• Slavophils thought Russian institutions superior to institutions of the west.

• Extension of Russian influence over the neighbouring countries, Balkan countries, countries to the south (Armenia), Vladivostok founded in the east.

• Suppression of the Polish revolt 1831

Russia lost the Crimean War 1854-56(More on this later)

• Tsar Nicholas died during the war• Russian strength proved to be an illusion• Lack of communication hindered mobilisation• Industry unable to provide weapons• The autocratic government was forced to

reform, otherwise Russia and Autarchy would perish

Alexander IIGeneral Overview

Alexander II (1855-81)

• A conservative reformer, who abolished serfdom in 1861.

• Had to deal with loss of Crimean War• Zemstvo Laws: created local assemblies to

solve local problems in 1864.• As reform led to radical demands, many

groups began to plot and carry out terrorist acts.

• 1881: Alexander was assassinated in 1881

Alexander IICrimean War… continued

Effect of Crimean war (Started under Nicholas I, ended after Alexander II was in charge)

• Internationally– Austria isolated from Russia and the west.

• Opening up for Italian unification• France becomes dominant power• Prussia gains prestige among German states

– Russia becomes isolated and the unification of Germany becomes more likely.

• In Russia– Reforms from above 1855-1874

Russian foreign policy after the Crimean war

• From 1856-1870 Russia passive– Bitterness towards Austria because Austria had not

supported Russia in the war– Russian aim to revise the Black Sea clauses of the treaty of

Paris– 1856-63 friendship with France the strongest power in

Europe– Renounced this friendship after

• French adventures in Italy and • the sympathy for the Polish revolt 1863 in France

Leaning towards Prussia

• Prussia offered aid against the Polish rebels• Russia remained neutral during Prussian wars

of unification• During the Franco-Prussian war 1870 Russia

renounced the Black Sea clauses• The other powers opposed this in principle but

notin action

Alignment with Germany 1870-90• Bismarck alignes Prussia with Austria and

Russia in the Dreikeiserbund.– A dubious friendship because of conflicting

interest in the Balkans

• 1877-78 Russia declares war on Turkey after the brutal Turkish suppression of the Bulgarian uprising

• Treaty of San Stefano (march 78) created a big Bulgaria– However in – The Congress of Berlin in June 1878 Bulgaria was

reduced and so also Russian influence in the Balkans

San Stefano and Berlin concress

The end of German friendship

• After the Congress in Berlin Germany became suspicious of Bismarck

• The alliance lasted to 1890 when the new German emperor Wilhelm II refused to renew the Reinsurance treaty with RussiaRussia turns to France for alliance (entente 1894)

– After Crimean war Russia had limited scope for influence in Europe and focused on expansion in Asia.

• Alaska sold 1867• Foundation af Vladivostok 1861

Alexander IIPolicies

Emancipation

• Emancipation of 40 million serfs 1861– Peasant serfs received land but had to pay for it.

• The government compensated the landowners with government bonds but the peasants paid redemption to the state for 49 years

• The Mir, the peasant commune was responsible for these payments.

• The landowner kept one third of the land, usually the best

• The mir could repartition land

Zemstvos

• Assemblies for local government that replaced landlord government

• Elected assemblies but still dominated by landlords.

• Responsible for administering– Schools, public health, poor relief, roads.

• Alexander turned down suggestions for national Zemstvo of Zemstvos

Military and educational reform

• Conscription reduced from 25 years to 6• Universal military service by draw• Military service no longer punishment for

crimes• Education liberalized, increased number of

university students and liberalization of curriculum, 2000 women in univ. 1881

• Gymnasiums founded (history not allowed)• Zemstvos allowed to open primary schools

Economic reform

• Railway building 700-14000 miles 1855 to 1881.

• Encouraged grain export with success• Establishment of banks encouraged.• Settlement limitation on Jews lifted,

– They can trade and work as artisans everywhere in Russia

The radical opposition

• Alexanders II reforms raised hopes but he was not ready to go further– Typical dilemma of the reformer, you can not

satisfy both the liberals and the conservatives– The intelligentsia: a critically thinking minority

• Blended the ideas of slavophiles and westernisers• Wanted some kind of a unique Russian freedom • Tended to be absolutists, wanted to find the “truth”

– No compromises – tended to be fanatical

Opposition taking form in the 1860’s

• Bakunin – anarchy of the simple peasant• Herzen – Socialism based on the mir• Chernyshevsky –

– What is to be done?– Fundamental change necessary– Democracy means individual freedom, self-

government and a federal system

Alexander and the intelligentsia

• The Zemstvos called for a central Zemstvo– Alexander rejected the idea then– The intelligentsia had no outlet for their ideas in

practical politics – had no influence– Many of them would have supported the Tsar– Now they became underground fanatics– Attempts on Alexanders live 1866 and 1867 made

him more reactionary

Rise of terrorism

• The “Peoples Will” split out of Land and Liberty”.– Made repeated attempts on the Tsars life.– When PW killed him in March 1881 Alexander he

had just given approval for a national assembly.– The new Tsar Alexander III was conservative and

under influence of Pobedonostsev like his son Nicholas II.

Alexander III

• Influenced by the conservative Pobedonostsev– Autocracy agains democracy– Orthodox against other sects– Russian against other nationalities

• Attempted to reinstate the influnce of the nobility and attack the Zemstvos– Limited franchise – 21 000 to 7000 in St. Petersburg– Raising tuition fees for universities– Illiteracy rate 79 % 1897!!

• Pan-slavism becoming influential

Russification• Russian 45% of the population of the empire in 1897

(total pop. 125 mill.)• Confiscation of church property in Poland• University in Warsaw closed 1869• Russian as an administrative language• Similar attacks on Ukrainians, Tartars, Georgians.• Alexander III also attacked nations that had been

loyal to the Tsar like the Finns, Baltics and Armenians.

• Alexander also limited rights of Jews and pogroms were supported. Jews become socialists and Zionists

Nicholas II (1894-1917)• Industrial progress occurred during his reign, but

urban & rural conditions remained miserable and the population was on the verge of revolution. – Serge Witte (1892-1903) great finance minister who

thrust Russia towards industrialization• 1905: Russia lost the Russo-Japanese war.• 1905: Revolution occurred which included the

Bloody Sunday massacre.– The czar was forced to accept the October Manifesto

which created the Duma (pop-elected parliament w/ legislative power).

Nicholas, continued

• Nicholas failed to uphold his promises made in the Oct. Manifesto and instead promoted more conservative policies under his chief agricultural advisor, Stolypin.– Stolypin was assassinated by rebels