RUSSIAN FEDERATION POLICY IN THE UNITED
NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC):
SOLVING SYRIAN CONFLICT (2015 – 2018)
By
SELLYANI RAHMAN
016201400157
A thesis presented to
Faculty of Humanities
President University
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
for Bachelor’s Degree in
International Relations Major
Concentration in Diplomacy Studies
May 2019
iv
ABSTRACT
Sellyani Rahman, 016201400157, Russian Federation Efforts in The
United Nations Security Council (UNSC): Ending Syria Conflict
(2014-2018)
Adviser: Hendra Manurung, S.IP., M.A.
Russian Federation or known as Russia, is one of the super powers in the
world so that its movement and foreign policy attracts the world’s attention. Russia
is a country that has close relations with Syria. The relations between Russia and
Syria has been lasting since 1905. Syria is a country located on the Continent of
Asia, precisely in West Asia, which is usually called the Middle East region.
Formerly, Syria was a safe and secure country before the civil war conflict
that occurred in Syria appeared in 2011. Russia, as one of the countries that has
close relations with Syria obviously does not keep silence watching Syria conflict.
Russia has made efforts to resolve the Syrian conflict. These efforts are made
through the Russian Federation's policy in the United Nations Security Council's
(UNSC) decision.
This thesis will discuss the Russian Federation's policy efforts in the United
Nations Security Council decision (UNSC) in resolving the Syrian conflict (2015-
2018).
Keywords: Russian Federation, Super Power, Syria, Asia, Middle East, UNSC
v
ABSTRAK
Sellyani Rahman, 016201400157, Upaya Federasi Rusia Dalam
Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB): Mengakhiri
Konflik Suriah (2015-2018)
Dosen Pembimbing: Hendra Manurung, S.IP., M.A.
Federasi Rusia atau dikenal dengan sebutan Rusia, merupakan salah satu
Negara super power di dunia sehingga pergerakan dan kebijakan politik luar
negerinya menarik perhatian dunia. Rusia merupakan Negara yang memiliki
kedekatan dengan Suriah. Kedekatan tersebut telah berlangsung sejak tahun 1905.
Suriah merupakan Negara yang terletak di Benua Asia, tepatnya di Asia Barat
yang biasanya disebut dengan kawasan Timur Tengah.
Dahulu, Suriah merupakan Negara yang aman dan tenteram sebelum konflik
perang saudara yang terjadi di Suriah muncul pada tahun 2011. Rusia, sebagai
salah satu Negara yang memiliki kedekatan dengan Suriah, tentunya tidak berdiam
diri menyaksikan konflik Suriah. Rusia telah melakukan upaya-upaya dalam
menyelesaikan konflik Suriah. Upaya-upaya tersebut dilakukan melalui kebijakan
Federasi Rusia dalam keputusan Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa
(DK PBB).
Thesis ini akan membahas upaya kebijakan Federasi Rusia dalam keputusan
Dewan Keamanan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (DK PBB) dalam menyelesaikan
konflik Suriah (2015-2018).
Kata kunci: Federasi Rusia, Super Power, Suriah, Asia, Timur Tengah, DK PBB
vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
My first gratitude goes to Allah SWT for giving me strength to finish this
thesis. My deepest thanks goes to my beloved mother, thank you for taking care of
me since I was only a small baby. It is sad that I cannot see you anymore. However,
I do really hope that you are placed in the most beautiful place somewhere in
heaven. This thesis is presented for you, Mom. I would also like to say thank you
to my beloved father as he has been working every day to support my education.
My fourth thanks goes to my little brother for always entertaining me through his
jokes.
A very special thank you goes to Mr. Hendra Manurung, thank you for being
very patient in guiding me to finish my thesis. Thank you to all International
Relations Lecturers of President University, without all of you, I will not be able
to finish my thesis as you guys have given me a very precious knowledge.
Another thank you goes to my university friends. Thank you Roro Ayu
Junita Pradini, Steven Wijaya, Vanessa Azilina, and Rima Adisti Usman for
always being by my side during my study in the past 4 years. Thank you Verdya
Maria Josefine, Aristia Wulandari, Maria Kaemong, Dini Nur Aisyah, Nia
Anggraeni and Anita Evianti for being amazing roommates, I will be missing the
moments we spent together so much!!
Thank you to Mr and Miss President University Foundation for being such
a very meaningful organization and for giving me second home during my study.
Thank you to Maria Angriani for being such a very fun college friend, thank you
for always listening to my stories. I would also like to say thank you to my best
friends since I was in Junior High School: Nurviana Devi Safitri, Nursyarifah Diah
Wulandari, Aini Adzkanursyahra, Fadhliyah Tania, Prita Ciptaningtyas, Nadilah
Kathania, Anjani Yuliandika, thank you for being my loyal friends.
The one who is always very helpful in anything, Rifa Arifah! Rif, thank you
very much, you are the best of the best! Kamelia Hasanah, Annisa Rahmawati and
Vira Reviana, you guys are also the best and thank you for being such fun friends
since we were in Senior High School. Thank you PT Plaza Indonesia Realty, Tbk
vii
for giving me the opportunity to do internship as one of requirements to graduate
from the university where I study.
Thank you Mrs. Stella Kohdong, Mrs. Vera Basauli, Mrs. Dorin Lingga,
Mrs. Karina Eva Poetry, Mrs. Wida Widiyanti, Mrs. Tiar Mitha, Mrs. Sisil
Aditawan, Ms. Rieska Ritonga and Mr. Andi Syarifudin for the knowledge during
my internship, thank you for always encouraging me to finish my thesis. Thank
you Kristy, Lingga, Stephen, Arnold, Kezia, Linggar, Bella, Widia, Manda and
Silvi for filling my internship months with jokes and laughters. It was very fun to
have met you guys.
Last but not least, thank you to Putra Riyadi for always being there for me
during my ups and downs. Thank you for always being the one who is willing to
accompany me everywhere including finding data for thesis. I do really appreciate
it.
Cikarang, May 2019
Sellyani Rahman
viii
Table of Contents
THESIS ADVISER RECOMMENDATION LETTER .......................................... i
PANEL OF EXAMINER APPROVAL SHEET……………………………………... ii
DECLARATION OF ORIGINALITY …………........................................................... iii
ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRAK ........................................................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ............................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................ viii
LIST OF TABLE………..………………………………………………………………… xi
LIST OF FIGURE ............................................................................................................. xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ xiii
CHAPTER I…………………………………………………………………………………… 1
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
I.1. Background ...................................................................................................... 1
I.2. Problem of Statement .................................................................................... 5
I.3. Research Question .......................................................................................... 7
I.4. Research Objective......................................................................................... 7
I.5. Theoretical Framework ................................................................................. 8
I.5.1. Realism ............................................................................................................ 8
I.5.2. National Interest .......................................................................................... 10
I.5.3. Regional Security ........................................................................................ 12
I.6. Scope and Limitation ................................................................................... 14
I.7. Literature Review ......................................................................................... 15
I.8. Research Methodology ................................................................................ 20
I.8.1. Research Method......................................................................................... 20
I.8.2. Research Instrument ................................................................................... 21
I.9. Definition of Term ....................................................................................... 21
I.10. Thesis Structure………………………………………………………………. 22
ix
CHAPTER II ....................................................................................................................... 24
RUSSIAN FEDERATION INTERESTS IN THE UNITED NATIONS
SECURITYCOUNCIL (UNSC) .................................................................................... 24
II.1. Russian Federation and The Creation of United Nations (UN) .......... 24
II.2. Russian Federation As a Permanent Member of United Nations
Security Council (UNSC) ........................................................................... 28
II.3. Russian Federation Strategic Interests in The United Nations
Security Council ........................................................................................... 30
CHAPTER III .................................................................................................................... 34
RUSSIAN FEDERATION – SYRIA RELATIONS ............................................... 34
III.1. The Beginning of Russian Federation – Syria Bilateral Relations ... 34
III.2. Russian Federation – Syria Economic Relations .................................. 38
III.3. Russian Federation – Syria Security Relations ..................................... 40
III.4. Russian Federation Interests Among Syria .................................... 40
CHAPTER IV .................................................................................................................... 43
RUSSIAN FEDERATION EFFORTS IN THE UNITED NATIONS
SECURITY COUNCIL DECISION TO ENDING SYRIA CONFLICT ...... 43
IV.1. The Beginning of Syria Conflict ............................................................ 43
IV.2. Actors Involved in Syria Conflict……………………………………… 54
IV.3 United Nations Security Council in Solving Syria Conflict……… 67
IV.4. Russian Federation Efforts in the United Nations Security
Council (UNSC): Ending Syria Conflict (2015 – 2018)……....... 70
IV.4.1 Russian Federation and Its Veto Power on United Nations
Security Council: Ending Syria Conflict(2015 – 2018) ................... 71
IV.5. Syria Conflict Progression .................................................................... 80
CHAPTER V ...................................................................................................................... 83
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 83
x
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 86
APPENDIX…………………………………………………………………………………… 96
xi
LIST OF TABLE
CHAPTER 4
Table 4.1 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2016…….. 74
Table 4.2 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2017…….. 75
Table 4.3 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2018…....... 79
xii
LIST OF FIGURE
CHAPTER I
Figure 1.1 Researcher theoretical framework………………………………………….. 8
CHAPTER II
Figure 2.1 August 1941 - The Atlantic Charter (UN Photo) ………………………...25
Figure 2.2 August 1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conversations………………………….26
CHAPTER III
Figure 3.1 Figure 3.1 The 10 Largest Arms Exporters, 2012-2016............................41
CHAPTER IV
Figure 4.1 Number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members
of the Security Council between 1946 and 2018…………………………. 73
Figure 4.2 Large Explosion of Missile Attack in Syria 30 April, 2018……………. 82
xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CWC : Chemicals Weapons Convention
EU : European Union
FSA : Free Syrian Army
FSU : Former Soviet Union
ISIS : Islamic State of Iraq and Syria
ISSG : International Syria Support Group
NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organization
OPCW : Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
PRC : People’s Republic of China
RSCT : Regional Security Complex Theory
SCPR : Syrian Center for Policy Research
SIPRI : Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
SNC : Syrian National Council
SNCORF : Syrian National Council for Opposition and Revolutionary Forces
xiv
SOHR : Syrian Observatory for Human Rights
UK : United Kingdom
UN : United
UNGA : United Nations General Assembly
UNHCR : United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNOCHA : United Nations Office for The Coordinators of Humanitarian Affair
UNSC : United Nations Security Council
UNSMIS : United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria
USSR : Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I.1. Background
Russia (official name: Russian Federation) is the largest country in the world
which extends over two continents, Europe and Asia.1 Russian Federation known for
its close relations with Syria far before the conflict of Syria firstly happened.2 During
the Cold War (1947–1991), Syria was an ally to the Soviet Union in opposition to the
Western powers, and a stronger political bond grew.3 Throughout the history, Syria
conflict has been lasted since Bashar al-Assad has ruled Syria in 2000, when his father
passed away following 30 years in charge.4 An anti-regime uprising that started in
March 2011 has spiraled into civil war.5
Russia is also a member of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).6 The
International Syria Support Group (ISSG) is a working group formed to find a
Diplomatic solution to the Syria crisis.7 The ISSG is co-chaired by the US and Russia,
and was established during the 'Vienna Talks' in the fall of 2015.8
The 19 founding ISSG members were China, Egypt, EU, France, Germany,
Iran, Iraq, Italy, Jordan, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, UAE,
UK, UN and the US. Membership has since expanded to include the Arab League,
1 Ziegler, Charles E. The History of Russia, 1. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2009. 2 Scheller, Bente. The Wisdom of Syria's Waiting Game: Foreign Policy Under the Assads, 206. London: Hurst,
2014. 3 Trenin, Dmitri, “Russia's Line in the Sand on Syria: Why Moscow Wants To Halt the Arab Spring” Foreign
Affairs.com. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2012-02-05/russias-line-sand-syria accessed on June
3 2018 4 Perthes, Volker. Syria Under Bashar Al-Asad: Modernization and the Limits of Change, 7. New York, NY:
Routledge, 2006 5 Goldsmith, Leon T. Cycle of Fear: Syria's Alawites in War and Peace, 1. New York: Oxford University Press,
2015. 6 United Nations, “Note to Correspondents: Statement of the International Syria Support Group”
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement-
international-syria-support accessed on March 12, 2018 7 Ibid 8 Ibid
2
Australia, Canada, Japan, Netherlands, Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and
Spain.9
The ISSG's initial efforts produced a set of common principles in line with the
2012 Geneva Communique.10 They also established a timeline beginning in January
2016 for diplomatic negotiations between the Syrian government and opposition, the
start of a political transition within six months, and election within 18 months.11 The
UN Security Council (UNSC) endorsed this strategy in December 2015 with the
adoption of Resolution 2254:
“Reiterating that the only sustainable solution to the current crisis in
Syria is through an inclusive and Syrian-led political process that meets the
legitimate aspirations of the Syrian people, with a view to full implementation
of the Geneva Communique of 30 June 2012 as endorsed by resolution 2118
(2013), including through the establishment of an inclusive transitional
governing body with full executive powers, which shall be formed on the basis
of mutual consent while ensuring continuity of governmental institutions”.
It is also stated on the Resolution 2254:
“urging all parties to the UN-facilitated political process to adhere to
the principles identified by the ISSG, including commitments to Syria's unity,
independence, territorial institutions, to protecting the rights of all Syrians,
regardless of ethnicity or religious denomination, and to ensuring humanitarian
access throughout the century”.12
After a rushed effort to get the parties to the negotiating table in Geneva quickly
fell apart in January 2016, the ISSG reconvened in Munich to focus on improving the
situation inside of Syria before trying again.13 On February 11, the ISSG announced
that its members would exercise "their influence with all parties on the ground" to
facilitate humanitarian access and to start a nationwide Cessation of Hostilities
(CoH).14
By placing unprecedented pressure on both parties, the US and Russia managed
to achieve limited progress on getting aid delivered to besieged areas and a marked
9 United Nations, “Note to Correspondents: Statement of the International Syria Support Group”
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement-
international-syria-support accessed on March 12, 2018 10 Ibid 11 Ibid 12 Security Council Report, “Resolution 2254 (2016)”
https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/s_res_2254.pdf accessed on March 12 2018 13 United Nations, “Security Council Endorses Syria Cessation of Hostilities Accord, Unanimously Adopting
Resolution 2268 (2016)” https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12261.doc.htm accessed on March 12, 2018 14 Ibid
3
reduction of violence. The Syrian government and 97 armed Syrian opposition groups
agreed to the CoH, which came into effect on February 27, 2016 at 00:00 Damascus
time as stated on Resolution 2268 (2016):
“Endorses in full the Joint Statement of the United States and Russian
Federation, as Co-Chairs of the ISSG, on Cessation of Hostilities in Syria of 22
February 2016 and the Terms for the Cessation of Hostilities in Syria (hereafter
referred to as “the Annex”) attached to the Statement, and demands the
cessation of hostilities to begin at 00:00 (Damascus time) on 27 February
2016”.15
Since the relations between Russian Federation and Syria has been lasted from
the Cold War (1947 – 1991), it is very possible for Russia to help Syria in solving Syria
conflict (2015 – 2018) through Russia’s policy in United Nations Security Council.
I.2. Statement of Problem
The close relations between Russian Federation and Syria cannot be separated
from the policy used by Russian Federation in United Nations Security Council
(UNSC).
Russia Federation itself agreed to form a constitutional committee comprising
the Government of the Syrian Arab Republic delegation along with wide-represented
opposition delegation for drafting of a constitutional reform as a contribution to the
political settlement under the UN auspices in accordance with Security Council
Resolution 2254.16
To formulate policies overseas, Russia is concerned about the geographical
position and the possible expansion of the United States and NATO perceived as a
threat capable of changing the world order.17 Syria has a strategic geographic position
for Russia. Its location in the Middle East and its political proximity to Russia are
considered capable of stemming the United States power which assumed as a threat
15 United Nations Docs, “Resolution 2268 (2016)” https://undocs.org/pdf?symbol=en/S/RES/2268(2016)
accessed on March 12, 2018 16The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russian Federation, “Final statement of the Congress of the Syrian national
dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018” http://www.mid.ru/en/web/guest/foreign_policy/news/-
/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/3046246 accessed on March 12 2018 17 NATO, “NATO-Russia relations: the facts” https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_111767.htm accessed
on March 12, 2018
4
and the arrival of the United States in Syria is something that Russia does not expect
due to its possibility in shifting Russia's relations with Syria.18
Russia is also the largest exporter of military equipment to Syria from 2010 to
2013.19 In addition to Syria as a market for Russia in military arms affairs, Syria is also
a Russian market in trade in other commodities such as gas and raw materials in the
Middle East and North Africa region.20
On 15 September 2015, in Dushanbe at a meeting of the Russian-led Collective
Security Treaty Organization, Putin called for a united, international effort together
with Syria to fight the threat of ISIL but also said that Syrian President Assad "is ready
to integrate the same [healthy] part of the opposition into the state's administration".21
On 27 September 2015, President Vladimir Putin stated, in an interview with
CBS's '60 Minutes': "More than 2,000 terrorist-fighters from Russia and ex-Soviet
republics are in the territory of Syria. There is a threat of their return to us. So, instead
of waiting for their return, we are helping President al-Assad fight them".22
In the United Nations General Assembly, 28 September 2015, President Putin
seemed to lay at least part of the responsibility for the Syrian Civil War with unnamed
powers that had been "pushing" for "democratic revolution" in Syria:
“Russia has always been firm and consistent in opposing terrorism in
all its forms. Today, we provide military and technical assistance both to Iraq
and Syria that are fighting terrorist groups. We think it is an enormous mistake
to refuse to cooperate with the Syrian government and its Armed Forces ... We
should finally acknowledge that no one but President Assad's Armed Forces
and Kurd militia are truly fighting the Islamic State and other terrorist
organizations in Syria”.23
18 George, Friedman – Geo Political Future, “Russia Strategy Built Illusion”
https://geopoliticalfutures.com/russias-strategy-built-illusion/ accessed March 12 2018 19 Reuters, “Insight: Syria pays for Russian weapons to boost ties with Moscow”
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-russia-arms-insight/insight-syria-pays-for-russian-weapons-to-
boost-ties-with-moscow-idUSBRE97S0WW20130829 accessed on March 12 2018 20 Anderson, Paul (2019): Beyond Syria’s war economy: Trade, migration and state formation across Eurasia:
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1879366518814657 21 IBP, Inc. Russia Today. Atlas for Business and Political Decision Makers - Strategic Information and
Developments, 118. Morrisville: Lulu.com, 2016. 22 Rose, Charlie. "All Eyes on Putin." Live, Breaking News Today: Latest National Headlines, World News and
More from CBSNews.com and Watch the CBSN Live News Stream 24x7. Last modified September 27, 2015.
https://www.cbsnews.com/news/vladimir-putin-russian-president-60-minutes-charlie-rose/. 23 General Assembly of the United Nations, "Russian Federation." https://gadebate.un.org/en/70/russian-
federation . Accessed on June 13, 2019.
5
Putin again called for cooperation with the Syrian government in fighting
terrorism: "we should acknowledge that no-one except for Assad and his militia are
truly fighting Isis in Syria.24
On September 30, in response to the request of the Syrian leadership, President
Putin asked for and obtained the consent of the Federation Council of the Federal
Assembly of the Russian Federation to use the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
in Syria. It would consist exclusively in the operation of the Russian Air Force to strike
at ISIS positions in Syria.25
Russia continues to assist Syrians in the restoration of a lasting peace and
stability in Syria and to strengthen its sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity. The
Syrian Army, fought with support from the Russian Air Force, had succeeded in
defeating ISIS who attempted to turn the country into an international terrorism base
area. The Astana format launched by Russia, Turkey and Iran has been created to
maintain the ceasefire in Syria, to improve the humanitarian situation. Therefore,
Russia needs to start restoring the ruined social and economic infrastructure and to
build up trust among Syrians.26
These efforts towards Syria done by Russia cannot be separated with its foreign
policy which approved by President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Putin on
November 30, 2016. Article IV no.93 of its current foreign policy shows how Russian
Federation stands for a political settlement in Syria:
IV. Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation
93. Russia stands for a political settlement in the Syrian Arab Republic
and the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the
Geneva communiqué of June 30, 2012, statements by the International Syria
Support Group and relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Russia supports
the unity, independence and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as
24 General Assembly of the United Nations, "Russian Federation." https://gadebate.un.org/en/70/russian-
federation . Accessed on June 13, 2019. 25 Ibid 26 The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russian Federation, “Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov’s opening remarks at
a plenary meeting of the Syrian National Dialogue Congress, Sochi, January 30, 2018”
http://www.mid.ru/en/diverse/-/asset_publisher/zwI2FuDbhJx9/content/vystuplenie-ministra-inostrannyh-del-s-v-lavrova-na-otkrytii-plenarnogo-zasedania-kongressa-sirijskogo-nacional-nogo-dialoga-soci-30-anvara-2018-
goda?_101_INSTANCE_zwI2FuDbhJx9_redirect=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mid.ru%2Fen%2Fdiverse%3Fp_p_i
d%3D101_INSTANCE_zwI2FuDbhJx9%26p_p_lifecycle%3D0%26p_p_state%3Dnormal%26p_p_mode%3D
view%26p_p_col_id%3Dcolumn-1%26p_p_col_pos%3D2%26p_p_col_count%3D6 accessed on March 12
2018 Accessed on June 13, 2019
6
a secular, democratic and pluralistic State with all ethnic and religious groups
living in peace and security and enjoying equal rights and opportunities.27
The above paragraphs help understand the perceived international context in
which Russia’s foreign policy unfolds.
This research intends to look Russian Federation policies that have been
implemented by the Russian Federation on UNSC decision for solving Syria conflict
(2015-2018) and come with a research question that should be elaborated:
What policies have been used by Russian Federation in the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC) in solving Syria conflict (2015-2018)?
I.3. Research Question
What policies have been used by Russian Federation in the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC) in solving Syria conflict (2015-2018)?
I.4. Research Objective
The significance of the Study in the case of chosen topic is to understand the
policy of Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to solve
Syria Conflict (2015-2018).
I.5. Theoretical Framework
As conflicts in the Middle East worsen and western states scramble to send both
military and humanitarian aid, Russia sees an opportunity to gain back some
international influence and power in the region.28 A long-time ally of Bashar al-Assad,
the president of Syria, Vladimir Putin is urging the international community to support
the Syrian government despite its ongoing violent civil war.29 Although Putin and
Assad are allies, Putin’s efforts are not completely self-less. Putin should be seen as a
realist leader, embodying many traits valued by realist international relations theorists.
Russia’s actions in Syria, including supplying the government with arms and
27The Embassy of Russian Federation to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island, "THE
FOREIGN POLICY CONCEPT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION." https://www.rusemb.org.uk/rp_insight/.
Accessed June 10, 2019. 28 Çakmak, Cenap, and Ali O. Özçelik. The World Community and the Arab Spring, 177. Basingstoke: Springer,
2018. 29 Ibid
7
deploying troops to the region, have alarmed many western nations, including the
U.S.30
I.5.1 Neorealism
Realism is an approach to international relations that has emerged gradually
through the work of a series of analysts who have situated themselves within, and thus
delimited a distinctive but still diverse style or tradition of analysis.31 Realism is the
simplest, oldest, and most classical theory in international relations which sees issues
from the side of war-peace, competition, and conflict.32 Realism is generally
considered as the most influential theoretical tradition in international relations.
In the last two decades after World War I, when there was a serious debate about
the exact forms of international relations discipline, there was an increasing awareness
that the aim of the study should be to develop a generation of behavior patterns in
international relations. Former realists bring a variety of experiences and intellectual
pioneers who play a role in the continuation of theoretical discourse into this new
discipline.33
30 Çakmak, Cenap, and Ali O. Özçelik. The World Community and the Arab Spring, 177. Basingstoke: Springer,
2018. 31 Donnelly, Jack. Realism and International Relations, 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. 32 Ibid 33 Ibid
Figure 1.1 Researcher theoretical framework
Neorealism
8
In the effort of supplying weapons to Syria, Russia illegally passed through
NATO airspace, largely ignoring the international agreement and its protocols.34
According to Chaillot Paper No.,146 - July 2018, “if Syria falls, so too will Russian
influence in the Middle East”. This article points out the fact that Russia’s interests in
the Middle East begin with Syria.35 It argues that because Russia has both military and
commercial interests in Syria, any regime change could put these interests at risk.
These investments include a naval facility at Tartus and oil and gas infrastructure
investments.36 Despite the plethora of sanctions imposed on Russia by the international
community, Putin is doing everything in his power to bring Russia back into the game
and prove its importance to the rest of the world.37
In this thesis, the author uses neorealism theory outlined by Kenneth Waltz.
Neorealism is a theory of international relations that says power is the most important
factor in international relations.38
Kenneth Waltz argues that the most capable states end up shaping the
international realm.39 In terms of Russia, its presence in Syria seen as its attempt of
being a world super power, which in realist terms would indeed make the world a more
stable environment. Neo realists have argued that Russia's foreign policy development
has been based on purely on fulfilling Russia's interests which are intended to be of
favor with the initial cooperation with the West period progressed.40 This change in
foreign policy objectives is argued, solely due to the changing distribution of power
internationally and regionally.41 The major domestic assumptions are because Russia's
foreign policy decision makers adopt a political paradigm to guide their decision-
making, metronomically decision-makers make decisions based only on factors in the
international system.42
34 Ross, Cameron. Perspectives on the Enlargement of the European Union, 145. Leiden: BRILL, 2002. 35 EUISS. EUISS Homepage | European Union Institute for Security Studies. Accessed June 10, 2019.
https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/CP_146.pdf. 36 Ibid 37 Johnston, Donald J. Missing the Tide: Global Governments in Retreat, 50. Montreal: McGill-Queen's Press -
MQUP, 2017. 38 Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. Long Grove: Waveland Press, 2010. 39 Ikenberry, G. J. American Foreign Policy: Theoretical Essays, 3. Harlow: Longman Publishing Group, 2005. 40 ResearchGate, "The Realism of Russia's Foreign Policy | Request PDF."
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232990528_The_Realism_of_Russia's_Foreign_Policy. Accessed
June 16, 2019. 41 Ibid 42 Ibid
9
The Implementation of Realism in United Nations Security Council
United Nations Security Council consists of permanent and non-permanent
members and headed by a president.43 The permanent members are the P5; China,
France, Russia, United Kingdom, and United States, while other ten chosen members
are chosen by the UNGA.44 During the six and a half decades of the United Nations all
five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council have more or less actively used
the right of veto, halting decisions or resolutions which, in their view, contradicted their
interests or their understanding of international realities.45 The available statistics on
the veto cover only open sessions of the Security Council, while additional – and
relatively often – the exercise of the veto took place at closed sessions.46
In the case of the crisis in Syria, Russia pursued several interconnected paths:
debates in the United Nations, bilateral negotiations with the Assad regime.47 Among
other channels, the Russian Foreign Ministry activated an Agreement dating back to
2009 on establishing a mechanism known as “Dialogue Russia – League of Arab
States” and coordinated its moves towards the League with China, as another important
P5 member.48 Russia suggested organizing a monitoring mission to Syria that could
represent either the UN or the League of Arab States or both and coordinated a five-
point settlement plan on which the League and Russia agreed.49
There are number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members
of the Security Council from 1946 until present.50 The current debate among
governments about the right of veto resembles very much the debate. Many
governments oppose the veto for its violation of the principle of sovereign equality
among states.51 For instance, an outbreak of a chemical weapons attack carried out by
the Syrian regime in 2013 and has heightened tensions internationally, but Russia and
China who are the permanent members of UNSC do continue to support a regime.
43 United Nations, "Current Members." Accessed June 10, 2019.
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/current-members. 44 Ibid 45 Ibid 46 United Nations Research, “Vetoes” https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick Accessed June 10, 2019 47 Nikitin, Alexander. Bibliothek Der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Accessed June 10, 2019.
https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf. 48 Nikitin, Alexander. Bibliothek Der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung. Accessed June 10, 2019. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf. 49 Ibid 50 United Nations Research, “Vetoes” https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick Accessed June 10, 2019 51 Administrator. "Security Council Reform." What's New. Accessed June 10, 2019.
https://www.globalpolicy.org/security-council/security-council-reform.html.
10
I.5.2 National Interest
The national interest is best to be understood as a social construction. Process
of interpretation presupposes language shared by at least those that determine state
actions.52 In this case, national interest is relatively fixed and equal. National interest is
identified with the "national goal".53 For instance, the interest of economic
development, the interest of development and improvement of the quality of Human
Resources (HR) or interest of foreign investment to accelerate the pace of
industrialization. Hans J. Morgenthau stated that
"The meaning of national interest is survival—the protection of
physical, political and cultural identity against encroachments by other nation-
states".54
Russian Federation has long backed the Assad regime. It has provided
government troops with air support and weapons and given it diplomatic backing at the
UN and in international peace talks.55 Russian Federation wants to keep Assad as its
closest ally in the Middle East and secure its military influence in the region.56 It has an
important military airbase in the western province of Latakia and a naval base in the
Syrian port city of Tartus.57 Russian leaders support a peace deal with broad consensus
among Syria's moderate factions that would allow Assad to remain in power. It has also
hinted it may support limited autonomy for opposition forces in certain regions within
Syria.58
Foreign Policy of Russian Federation in Syria
The approach that Russian Federation uses in implementing its foreign policy
for ending Syria Conflict (2015-2018) is a global political approach.59 The global
political approach is an approach based on the action of a country's reaction or is not
52 Falkner, Gerda. EU Social Policy in the 1990s: Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, 211. London:
Routledge, 2003. 53 Ibid 54 Your Article Library, “National Interest Meaning, Components and Methods”
http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/international-politics/national-interest-meaning-components-and-
methods/48487 accessed on march 12 2018 55 Black, J.L., and Michael Johns. Russia after 2012: From Putin to Medvedev to Putin – Continuity, Change, or
Revolution?, 160. London: Routledge, 2013. 56 Trenin, Dmitri. What Is Russia Up To in the Middle East?, 57. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, 2017. 57 Gvosdev, Nikolas K., and Christopher Marsh. Russian Foreign Policy: Interests, Vectors, and Sectors, 315.
Washington: CQ Press, 2013. 58 Ibid 59 Danks, Catherine. Politics Russia, 10. London: Routledge, 2014.
11
only influenced by the international phenomenon alone, but also the domestic (as a
whole) and is linked to other issues.60
In addition to foreign policy. There are several foreign policy of Russian
Federation related to Syria. Those polices are mentioned on Russian Federation’s
current foreign policy:
III. Priorities of the Russian Federation in Overcoming Global Challenges Shaping a
Fair and Sustainable World Order
27. Russia consistently advocates strengthening international security
and enhancing strategic and regional stability. To this end, the Russian
Federation: supports the creation of zones free from nuclear weapons and other
types of weapons of mass destruction, primarily in the Middle East.61
IV. Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation:
92. Russia will continue making a meaningful contribution to stabilizing
the situation in the Middle East and North Africa, supporting collective efforts
aimed at neutralizing threats that emanate from international terrorist groups,
consistently promotes political and diplomatic settlement of conflicts in
regional States while respecting their sovereignty and territorial integrity and
the right to self-determination without outside interference. As a permanent
member of the UN Security Council and member of the Middle East Quartet of
international mediators, Russia will further strive to achieve a comprehensive,
fair and lasting resolution of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict in all its aspects
consistent with international law.62
93. Russia stands for a political settlement in the Syrian Arab Republic
and the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the
Geneva communiqué of June 30, 2012, statements by the International Syria
Support Group and relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Russia supports
the unity, independence and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as
a secular, democratic and pluralistic State with all ethnic and religious groups
living in peace and security and enjoying equal rights and opportunities.63
95. Russia intends to further expand bilateral relations with the States
in the Middle East and North Africa, including by relying on the ministerial
meeting of the Russian-Arab Cooperation Forum, and continuing strategic
dialogue with the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf.64
Russian Federation Policy in UNSC
As a great power (number one by territorial size and among the top ten global
powers by size of economy and reserves/exports of key natural resources). Russia in
60 Danks, Catherine. Politics Russia, 10. London: Routledge, 2014. 61 "THE FOREIGN POLICY CONCEPT OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION." The Embassy of Russian Federation to United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Island. Accessed June 10, 2019.
https://www.rusemb.org.uk/rp_insight/. 62 Ibid 63 Ibid 64 Ibid
12
the second decade of the twenty-first century perceives itself as a state with global
responsibilities and has a record of global involvements.65
The UN Security Council is obviously considered by Moscow one of the leading
mechanisms for collective global governance and coordination of interests between
major powers.66 Russia’s official National Security Strategy until 2020 postulates that
the United Nations and the Security Council are considered by Russia to be a central
element of the stable system of international relations, based upon respect, equal rights
and mutually beneficial cooperation between states, upon the foundations of civilized
political instruments for resolving global and regional crises.67
The latest edition of the Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation,
which is a major guiding document for implementing Moscow’s foreign policy, also
stresses the central and coordinating role of the United Nations which is a major
organization regulating international relations and possessing a unique legitimacy.68
Moscow played a direct role in the formation of the United Nations, its principles,
Charter and Security Council. At the Moscow Conference of allied states on 30 October
1943 the declaration by the four states on the Issue of Comprehensive Security was
adopted, in which the Soviet Union and the Western allies for the first time declared
the possibility of collective regulation of peace and security in a future post-war world.
Point 4 of that Declaration postulated the need to shape as soon as possible a
comprehensive international organization aimed at maintaining international peace and
security.69
The Declaration established such principles for the future organization as the
sovereign equality of all peaceful states, large and small, the principle of the specific
responsibility of great powers for the preservation and strengthening of peace, the need
to coordinate their ac1. Decree 537 of the President of the Russian Federation, 12 May
2009, p. 5. 2. Preamble, Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation. Adopted by
Presidential Decree on 15 July 2008.70 The formation of the Security Council of the
future international organization was negotiated at Dumbarton-Oaks (USA) in August–
65 Lindley-French, Julian, and Yves Boyer. The Oxford Handbook of War, 75. New York: Oxford University
Press, 2012. 66 Ibid 67 Nikitin, Alexander, “Russia as a Permanent Member of UNSC” https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf. Accessed June 10, 2019. 68 The Embassy of Russian Federation to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern island, "The
Foreign Policy Concept of the Russian Federation." https://www.rusemb.org.uk/in1/. Accessed June 16, 2019. 69 Ibid 70 Ibid
13
November 1944.3 All the basic principles of the UN Security Council were formulated
in those prolonged negotiations, and later developed at the Yalta conference (USSR,
February 1945).71 It was at Yalta that most important issues – procedures for developing
and adopting decisions of the Security Council (including consensus and veto
principles) – were agreed between the leaders of the USSR, the USA and the UK.
As Russian Federation is included as one of UNSC permanent members, Russia
may at any time implementing its policy through its veto power in United Nations
Security Council.72 There have been various conflicts ended by Russian Federation
through veto power in United Nations Security Council counted since 1946.73
I.6 Scope and Limitation
This research will be much more focus on the implementation of Russian
Federation policy on United Nations Security Council solution for solving Syria
conflict (2015-2018). The status of Russian Federation as a permanent member of
United Nations Security Councils makes Russian Federation is possible to use its
policy to solve Syria conflict (2015-2018)74. This research limits to the implementation
of Russian Federation policy in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to solve
Syria conflict (2015-2018). 2015 – 2018 chosen by the author to do the research
because the civil war of Syria continuously happened in 2015 – 2018.75
I.7 Literature Review
This chapter provides the overview of academic library use problem that is
related to this phenomenon. One of prominent aspects of this research is the use of
literature as the basic of research. Through library research, by collecting books from
library and using internet as media to get the sources, the literature from experts and
researchers are collected.
71 Nikitin, Alexander, “Russia as a Permanent Member of UNSC” https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/09461.pdf.
Accessed June 10, 2019. 72 Ibid 73 Ibid 74 Blakkisrud, Helge, and Elana W. Rowe. Russia's Turn to the East: Domestic Policymaking and Regional
Cooperation, 85. Basingstoke: Springer, 2017. 75 Erlich, Reese. Inside Syria: The Backstory of Their Civil War and What the World Can Expect. Amherst:
Prometheus Books, 2016.
14
This chapter will review on seven literatures from some books and journals in
regard with the title and objectives of this research and will consist of:
1. Phillips, C. (2016). The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New
Middle East. Newhaven, United Kingdom: Yale University Press.
2. Erlich, R. W. (2016). Inside Syria: The back story of their civil war and what
the world can expect. New York, NY: Prometheus Books.
3. Charap, S. (2013). Russia, Syria and the Doctrine of Intervention. Survival,
55(1), 35-41. doi:10.1080/00396338.2013.767403
4. AVERRE, D., & DAVIES, L. (2015). Russia, humanitarian intervention and
the Responsibility to Protect: the case of Syria. International Affairs, 91(4), 813-834.
doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12343
5. ALLISON, R. (2013). Russia and Syria: explaining alignment with a regime in
crisis. International Affairs, 89(4), 795-823. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12046
Phillips, C. (2016). The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in the New Middle
East. Newhaven, United Kingdom: Yale University Press.
“[Syria] is a mirror of rival interests on an international scale that she deserves
special attention. Indeed, her internal affairs are almost meaningless unless related to
the wider context, first of her Arab neighbor and then other interested powers.
Patrick Seale, The Struggle for Syria, 1965”.76
The Syrian civil war is the greatest human fiasco of the twenty-first century.
Since strife softened out up 2011, more than 470,000 have been estimated executed
and 1.9 million injured. More than 4.8 million have fled the nation and 6.6 million
more are inside uprooted, the greater part pre-war populace of 21 million. A United
Nations report evaluated that before the finish of 2013 Syria had just relapsed 40 years
in its human improvement.
According to Christopher Phillips, most of the stories about Syria's brutal and
long-lasting civil war focused on domestic contests that began in 2011 and only later
attracted foreign countries into increased violence. The international dimension has
never been secondary but that the Syrian war, from the very beginning, was heavily
influenced by regional factors, especially the emptiness caused by the decline of US
power in the Middle East. This sparked a new regional order in which six external
76 Merip, “The Struggle for Syria” http://www.merip.org/mero/mero050114 accessed March 14 2018
15
protagonists - the United States, Russia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar - have
competed vigorously for influence, with Syria as the main battleground. Interesting in
a large number of original interviews, Phillips built a new narrative of the Syrian war.
Without releasing the brutal Bashar al-Assad regime, the author outlines the main
external factors that explain the acceleration and resilience of conflict, including the
Western strategy against ISIS. He concluded with some insight into Syria and the
region's future.
Therefore, Russian Federation uses its policy through United Nations Security
Council decision as an effort to intervene Syria conflict to compete with five external
protagonists which are the United States, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey and Qatar.
Erlich, R. W. (2016). Inside Syria: The back story of their civil war and what the
world can expect. New York, NY: Prometheus Books.
Based on firsthand reporting from Syria and throughout the Middle East, Inside
Syria unravels the complex dynamics underlying the Syrian Civil War. Through vivid,
on-the-ground accounts and interviews with rebel leaders, regime supporters, and
Syrian president Bashar al-Assad himself, veteran journalist Reese Erlich gives the
reader a better understanding of this momentous power struggle and why it matters.
Through his many contacts inside Syria, the author reveals who is supporting
Assad and why, describes the agendas of the rebel factions, and depicts in stark terms
the dire plight of many ordinary Syrian people caught in the cross fire. Erlich explains
how, after colonization by the British and the French and later becoming a focal point
of political intrigue by numerous international powers, the region became increasingly
volatile and dangerous. He also provides insights into both the past and the present
roles of the Kurds, the continuing influence of Iran, and the policies of American
administrations that seem interested only in protecting US regional interests, even at
the expense of innocent Syrian civilians.
Disturbing, compelling, and enlightening, this timely book--now with a new
epilogue with the latest information-- shows not only what is happening inside Syria
but why it is so important for the Middle East, the United States, and the world
including the importance of Syria for Russian Federation as Russia is included as one
of world strongest military, Russia has used Syria to showcase some of its advanced
weapons through helping Syria on its conflict. The weapons policy that Russia has
16
used to solve Syria conflict then led the disagreement of other United Nations member.
However, the policy keeps being implemented.
Charap, S. (2013). Russia, Syria and the Doctrine of Intervention. Survival, 55(1),
35-41. doi:10.1080/00396338.2013.767403
Since the beginning of the Syrian crisis, there have been intermittent hopes that
Moscow might play a constructive diplomatic role in resolving it. But the focus on
Russia has been deeply misleading. Russia, for reasons that have little to do with Syria
itself, was never going to be part of the solution to the crisis – at least on terms that the
West and the Syrian opposition could accept. Further, Russia’s centrality to
international diplomacy on this issue and its seeming obstinacy expose deep flaws in
post-Cold War Western doctrine on international intervention. Russia’s centrality
when it comes to Syria is more a function of those flaws than anything else.
As the latest round of failed talks with the Russians – this time between
UN/League of Arab States Envoy Lakhdar Brahimi and Russian Foreign Minister
Sergei Lavrov in late December 2012 – conclusively demonstrate, Russia will not sign
up for a diplomatic resolution to the crisis on Western or Arab terms. Senior Russian
officials have made that clear for months, but some in the international community act
as though they refuse to believe them.
This disbelief stems from a misunderstanding of the Russian position. The
predominant focus has been on the ties that bind Russia to Assad’s Syria, including
military, military-industrial and intelligence-sharing. Journalists diligently produce
stories on Russian arms sales to Syria and its naval facility at Tartus. A less noted, but
more significant factor has been Russian anxieties about the displacement by Sunni
Islamist governments of secular autocrats in Syria and other Arab countries since the
Arab Spring began.
Russia’s immediate neighborhood in the South Caucasus and Central Asia
features a number of countries where such a scenario cannot be excluded, and there
are over 20 million Russian Muslims, the majority of whom are Sunni and live in the
North Caucasus, where Russia has fought two civil wars and continues to battle what
is now called the Caucasus Emirate. Decision-makers in Moscow are quick to point
17
out that the emirate and its predecessors were directly supported by entities in some of
the Arab countries now leading the call for Assad’s departure.
According to Samuel Charap, these factors certainly play some role in
Moscow’s approach to Syria. But they do not explain Russian policy on international
action on the crisis. Indeed, the Kremlin has issued three UN Security Council vetoes,
bent over backwards to water down the Geneva Communiqué calling for a peaceful
transition of authority, and fastidiously avoided joining the call for ‘Assad to go’ not
because of its interests in Syria, its fear of extremist spillover, or because it ‘backs
Assad’. That allegation, frequently leveled in recent months, flies in the face of the
persistent Russian signaling that Moscow couldn’t care less about Assad’s fate. As
early as summer 2011, then-President Dmitri Medvedev warned that barring
immediate reforms, ‘a sad fate awaits him’.
AVERRE, D., & DAVIES, L. (2015). Russia, Humanitarian Intervention and the
Responsibility to Protect: the Case of Syria. International Affairs, 91(4), 813-834.
doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12343
Western analysis perceives Russian approaches to issues of humanitarian
intervention and the Responsibility to Protect (R2P) as running counter to western-
inspired international norms. This debate has surfaced with some figures over Russia's
policy in the Syria conflict where, in order to protect its strategic interests in Syria, an
obstructionist Moscow has been accused of ignoring humanitarian considerations and
allowing time for the Assad regime to crush the opposition by vetoing a resolution
threatening to impose sanctions. While Russian approaches are undoubtedly explained
by a desire to maximize its growing political influence and trade advantages to serve
its legitimate foreign policy interests, and while Moscow's attitudes to intervention and
R2P exhibit important differences from those of the major western liberal
democracies, its arguments are in fact framed within a largely rational argument rooted
in ‘traditional’ state-centred international law.
Derek Averre and Lance Davies highlight key arguments in the scholarly
literature on intervention and R2P before going on to examine the evolution of Russian
views on these issues. The analysis then focuses on the extent to which Moscow's
arguments impact on international legal debates on the Libya and Syria conflicts.
Therefore, Russian Federation approaches to intervention/R2P reflect fundamental
18
trends in its foreign policy thinking and its quest for legitimacy in a negotiated
international order. Finally, it attempts to raise some important questions regarding
Russia's role in the future direction of the intervention/R2P debates.
ALLISON, R. (2013). Russia and Syria: Explaining Alignment with a Regime in
Crisis. International Affairs, 89(4), 795-823. doi:10.1111/1468-2346.12046
According to Roy Allison, Russia has provided a diplomatic shield for
Damascus in the UN Security Council and has continued to supply it with modern
arms. Putin's resistance to any scenario of western-led intervention in Syria, on the
model of the Libya campaign, in itself does not explain Russian policy. For this we
need to analyze underlying Russian motives. The article argues that identity or
solidarity between the Soviet Union/Russia and Syria has exerted little real influence,
besides leaving some strategic nostalgia among Russian security policy-makers.
Russian material interests in Syria are also overstated, although Russia still hopes to
entrench itself in the regional politics of the Middle East.
Of more significance is the potential impact of the Syria crisis on the domestic
political order of the Russian state. First, the nexus between regional spillover from
Syria, Islamist networks and insurgency in the North Caucasus is a cause of concern—
although the risk of 'blowback' to Russia is exaggerated. Second, Moscow rejects calls
for the departure of Assad as another case of the western community imposing
standards of political legitimacy on a 'sovereign state' to enforce regime change, with
future implications for Russia or other authoritarian members of the Commonwealth
of Independent States.
Russia may try to enshrine its influence in the Middle East through a peace
process for Syria, but if Syria descends further into chaos western states may be able
to achieve no more in practice than emergency coordination with Russia.
19
I.8 Research Methodology
I.8.1 Research Method
Basically, human is always curious. This encourages human to ask questions
and also seek answers to these questions. One of them is by doing a research. The other
way is by asking someone or through a reading book. However, this seems not
effective realizing it is not always able to get answers or sometimes answers that we
get is not convincing. Therefore, research becomes very important nowadays.
To answer the research question that has been constructed, the writer uses the
descriptive and analytical method for this research. The purpose of a descriptive
method is to provide information as this research will describe the historical
background of the case, the conflict resolution mechanism in the case, and the
implementation of Russian Federation policy on United Nations Security Council
solution for ending Syria conflict (2015-2018).
To describe and analyze the case, this research uses qualitative method of
research, which emphasizes on the collection and analysis of primarily non-numerical
activities that included in the case study.
According to John W Cresswell:
“A qualitative study is defined as an inquiry process of understanding a
social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture, formed
with words, reporting detailed views of informants, and conducted in a natural
setting”.77
I.8.2 Research Instrument
This research collects and analyzes data that draws the condition based on the
real situation, which supported by the theories and concepts to make a clear research.
This research has more analysis of descriptions, reports, and explanations rather than
analyzing numbers, in which suitable with the qualitative approach. Even so, it is
possible to use figures from report to be put in this qualitative research as supportive
data. The primary and secondary data are combined to support the analysis of the
research.
77 Merriam, Sharan B., and Robin S. Grenier. Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and
Analysis. New York: Jossey-Bass, 2019.
20
Since this research is focusing on the implementation of Russian Federation
policy on United Nations Security Council solution for ending Syria conflict (2015-
2018), information and data from the United Nations Security Council official website
is collected. The process of collecting data is done through collecting the official data
from United Nations Security Council official website and by coming directly to United
Nations Jakarta office to ask one of the staffs to make sure if the data provided on the
United Nations Security Council website is official.
I.9 Definition of Terms
Neorealism
Neorealism is a theory of international relations that says power is the most
important factor in international relations.78
Veto Power
The power or right vested in one branch of a government to cancel or postpone
the decisions, enactments, etc., of another branch, especially the right of a president,
governor, or other chief executive to reject bills passed by the legislature.79
National Interest
National Interest is the interest of a nation as a whole held to be an independent
entity separate from the interests of subordinate areas or groups and also of other
nations or supranational groups.80
Foreign Policy
Foreign Policy is General objectives that guide the activities and relationships
of one state in its interactions with other states.81
78 Waltz, Kenneth N. Theory of International Politics. Long Grove: Waveland Press, 2010. 79 "The Veto : UN Security Council Working Methods : Security Council Report." June 2019 Monthly Forecast : Security Council Report. Last modified March 8, 2019. https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/un-security-
council-working-methods/the-veto.php. 80 Falkner, Gerda. EU Social Policy in the 1990s: Towards a Corporatist Policy Community, 211. London:
Routledge, 2003. 81 Britannica, “Foreign Policy” https://www.britannica.com/topic/foreign-policy accessed on March 14, 2018.
21
1.10 Thesis Structure
Chapter I - Introduction
This chapter introduces the principal aspects of the thesis, which includes the
information of the case, understanding of the research problem, and the purpose of the
research. As the overview of the whole thesis, this chapter is structured into several
parts: background of the study, problem of statement, research question, research
objective, literature review, theoretical framework, research methodology, and thesis
outline.
Chapter II – Russian Federation Interests in the United Nations Security
Council (UNSC)
This chapter describes the historical background of Russian Federation in
UNSC and also how Russian Federation implements its policy in UNSC. This chapter
provides chronologically details of information regarding to the activity of Russian
Federation in UNSC, from the beginning until now.
Chapter III – Russian Federation – Syria Relations
As two close related countries, Russian Federation and Syria surely have their
bilateral relations in many aspects such economic relations, political relations, cultural
relations and security relations. These relations between both Russian Federation and
Syria will be clearly explained in this chapter.
Chapter IV – Russian Federation Policy in the United Nations of Security
Council (UNSC) To Solve Syrian Conflict (2015 – 2018)
This chapter connects chapter I and chapter II deeper. This chapter is the
main core of the thesis, and the question stated in the chapter 1 will be answered in
this chapter.
Chapter V – Conclusion
This chapter will be the last chapter of thesis. Conclusion based on facts
elaborated by the writer will be written in this chapter.
22
CHAPTER II
RUSSIAN FEDERATION INTERESTS IN THE
UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC)
Russian Federation is one of United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
members. As Russian Federation is included as a member of United Nations
Security Council (UNSC), Russian Federation may at any time use its policy in the
United Nations Security Council (UNSC) to defend a country over their conflicts.
By this, some assume that the presence of Russian Federation has its national
interests in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC). This chapter discusses
the interests of Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
further. This chapter is important and can be used as a base to examine further about
Russian Federations efforts in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
decision to end Syria conflict from 2015-2018.
II.1. Russian Federation and The Creation of United Nations (UN)
The United Nations is an international organization founded in 1945.82 It
currently has 193 Member States.83 The mission and work of the United Nations are
guided by the purposes and principles contained in its founding Charter.84 According
to historical records, the United Nations (UN) was established on October 24, 1945,
pioneered by five countries: the United States, Britain, France, Russia and the People's
Republic of China.85 The establishment of the United Nations was motivated by an
idea to create peace among countries in the world after having experienced two major
82 United Nations, “United Nations History” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history/history-united-nations/
accessed on March 14, 2018 83 United Nations, “United Nations Member States” http://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/index.html
accessed on March 14, 2018 84 United Nations, “About United Nations” http://www.un.org/en/about-un/ accessed on March 14 2018 85 United Nations Foundation, ‘What we do – United Nations” Retrieved from United Nations Foundation:
http://www.unfoundation.org/what-we-do/issues/united-nations/the-un-security-council.html accessed on March
14, 2018
23
wars. World War I that lasted between 1914-1918, and World War II that occurred
between the years 1939-1945.
On August 14, 1941, the United States former President, Franklin Delano
Roosevelt, met British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill.86 The meeting that took
place on board the Augusta ship that sailed in the Atlantic Ocean is about world peace
and plans to avoid more victims due to war. In this meeting was born an agreement
called the Atlantic Charter.
Figure 2.1 August 1941- The Atlantic Charter (UN Photo)
source: United Nations Official Website
Contents of The Atlantic Charter:
1. Every nation is not justified for expansion of territory.
2. Every nation has the right to determine its own destiny.
3. Every nation shall have the right to participate in international trade.
4. Creating world peace so that every nation can live free from fear and poverty.87
The contents of the Atlantic Charter directly get a positive response from several
countries in the world. This was marked by a conference in Washington, USA on
January 1, 1942 attended by 26 countries that approved the contents of the Atlantic
Charter.88 Establishing an international organization was additionally created amid the
86 History, “World War II – Atlantic Charter”: https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/atlantic-charter accessed on March 14, 2018 87 Ibid 88 United Nations, “United Nations Atlantic Charter” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-
charter/1941-atlantic-charter/index.html accessed on March 14, 2018
24
Tehran meeting between the Soviet, US and UK pioneers in the fall of 1943.89 In the
course of the gathering, the three forces built up a typical vision on the best way to
guarantee universal security and enduring peace after the finish of the war. That
gathering from numerous points of view decided the eventual fate of the United Nations
(UN). In early August 1944, another conference was held in a building called
Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, USA.90 The conference was attended by
representatives from the United States, Soviet Union, Great Britain, and the People's
Republic of China.91
Figure 2.2 August 1944 – Dumbarton Oaks Conversations
Source: United Nations Official Website
Josef Stalin is the representative of Russia (formerly: Soviet Union) who
attended the conference held in early August 1944.92 Stalin was then the leader of the
Soviet Union known as the "Man of Steel". Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union
who, during his presidency, did not hesitate to slaughter the party officials and army
officers and began to impose a highly repressive communist regime on Soviet territory.
The first concrete step toward the creation of a general international organization was
89 CVCE, “The final communique of the Teheran Conference (1 December 1943)”
https://www.cvce.eu/en/collections/unit-content/-/unit/02bb76df-d066-4c08-a58a-d4686a3e68ff/ef30a4fa-5d3d-
450c-9f78-f6a06dd3e739/Resources#1b6f76f5-3e12-4d73-a205-f4df048fd50a_en&overlay accessed on March
14. 2018 90 DOAKS, “Dumbarton Oaks Conversation” https://www.doaks.org/research/library-archives/dumbarton-oaks-
archives/historical-records/75th-anniversary/blog/the-dumbarton-oaks-conversations-1944 accessed on March 14 2018 91 United Nations, “Dumbarton Oaks and Yalta” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-
charter/1944-1945-dumbarton-oaks-and-yalta/index.html accessed on March 14, 2018 92Ibid
25
taken in the late summer of 1944, when the Dumbarton Oaks Conversations took place.
The first phase of the conversations was between the representatives of the U.S.S.R.,
the United Kingdom and the United States from August 21 to September 28,93 and the
second phase between the representatives of China, the United Kingdom and the United
States from September 29 to October 7.94
The meeting at Dumbarton Oaks discussed the plan to establish a global
organization called the United Nations Organization (UNO) or the UN. As a
continuation of the meeting at Dumbarton Oaks, on October 24, 1945 the San Francisco
Conference was held.95 At the San Francisco Conference the UN Organization was
officially established, which was marked by the signing of the United Nations charter
by representatives from 50 countries.
Before the San Francisco Conference October 24, 1945 was held, Vyacheslav
Molotov, head of the Soviet Foreign Service spoke at the first plenary meeting on April
26, 1945, announced that
“our government sincerely and firmly supported the creation of a strong
international security organization and would fully cooperate in fulfilling this
great task with every government that was truly committed to this noble cause”.
The Soviet delegation took on active and constructive part in the following
discussions.96
Thus, the amendments and proposals put forward by the Soviet delegation in
the discussion of Chapter 1 "Objectives and Principles of the Charter" serves as a basis
for including in the Chapter the important new provisions; that the peaceful settlement
of international disputes must be carried out in accordance with the principles of justice
and international law; that friendly relations between nations must be developed on the
basis of respect for the principle of equality and people's self-determination; that
international cooperation must be achieved in resolving international economic, social,
cultural and humanitarian issues and in promoting and encouraging respect for human
rights and fundamental freedoms for all people without differences in race, sex,
93 Bernhardt, R. (1992). Encyclopedia of Public International Law. Vol. 1: Aalands Islands to Dumbarton Oaks
Conference (1944). Amsterdam: North-Holland. p. 10. 94 Maas, H. H., Brinkhorst, L. J., & Panhuys Vann, H. F. (1968). International orgnisation and integration. A
collection of the texts of documents relating to the United Nations, its related agencies and regional international organisations. Leiden, NLD: A.W Sijthoff. P.24. 95 United Nations, “San Francisco Conference” http://www.un.org/en/sections/history-united-nations-
charter/1945-san-francisco-conference/index.html accessed on March 14, 2018 96 France Diplomatie, “Russia and creations of United Nations”
https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/ONU_alexander_churilin.pdf accessed on March 14, 2018
26
languages or religion.97 These things show how Russian Federation (formerly: Soviet
Union) played important roles at the creation of United Nations (UN).
II.2. Russian Federation as a Permanent Member of United Nations
Security Council (UNSC)
United Nations is separated into several main organs which are the General
Assembly, the Security Council, the International Court of Justice and the UN
Secretariat.98 The General Assembly is the primary deliberative, policymaking and
delegate organ of the UN.99 Each of the 193 Member States of the UN are spoken to in
the General Assembly, making it the main UN body with general portrayal. Every year,
in September, the full UN enrollment meets in the General Assembly Hall in New York
for the yearly General Assembly session, and general verbal confrontation, which
numerous heads of state go to and address. Choices on vital inquiries, for example,
those on peace and security, confirmation of new individuals and budgetary issues,
require a 66% dominant part of the General Assembly. Choices on different inquiries
are by basic dominant part. The General Assembly, every year, chooses a General
Assembly President to serve a one-year term of office.100
The Security Council has essential obligation, under the UN Charter, for the
upkeep of universal peace and security. It has 15 Members (5 lasting and 10 non-
perpetual individuals).101 Every Member has one vote. Under the Charter, all Member
States are committed to consent to Council choices. The Security Council leads the
pack in deciding the presence of a risk to the peace or demonstration of animosity. It
calls upon the gatherings to a debate to settle it by quiet means and prescribes strategies
for change or terms of settlement. At times, the Security Council can turn to forcing
sanctions or even approve the utilization of power to keep up or reestablish universal
peace and security. The Security Council has a Presidency, which turns, and changes,
each month.
97 France Diplomatie, “Russia and creation of United Nations”
https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/ONU_alexander_churilin.pdf accessed on March 14, 2018 98 United Nations, “United Nations Main Organ” http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/main-organs/ accessed on March 14, 2018 99 Ibid 100Ibid 101 UNSC, “UNSC Members” http://www.un.org/en/sc/members/ accessed on March 14, 2018
27
The Economic and Social Council is the foremost body for coordination,
strategy survey, approach exchange and suggestions on financial, social and ecological
issues, and also usage of universally concurred advancement objectives. It fills in as the
focal component for exercises of the UN framework and its particular organizations in
the monetary, social and natural fields, administering backup and master bodies. It has
54 Members, chose by the General Assembly for covering three-year terms. It is the
United Nations' focal stage for reflection, face off regarding, and creative reasoning on
maintainable advancement.102
The Trusteeship Council was built up in 1945 by the UN Charter, under Chapter
XIII, to give universal supervision to 11 Trust Territories that had been put under the
organization of seven Member States103 and guarantee that sufficient advances were
taken to set up the Territories for self-government and autonomy. By 1994, all Trust
Territories had achieved self-government or autonomy. By a determination received on
25 May 1994, the Council changed its principles of strategy to drop the commitment to
meet yearly and consented to meet as event required - by its choice or the choice of its
President, or at the demand of a larger part of its individuals or the General Assembly
or the Security Council.104
The International Court of Justice is the chief legal organ of the United Nations.
Its seat is at the Peace Palace in the Hague (Netherlands). It is the just a single of the
six important organs of the UN not situated in New York (United States of America).
The Court's part is to settle, as per universal law, legitimate debate submitted to it by
States and to give warning sentiments on lawful inquiries alluded to it by approved
United Nations organs and particular offices.
The Secretariat includes the Secretary-General and a huge number of universal
United Nations staff individuals who do the everyday work of the United Nations as
ordered by the General Assembly and the Organization's other main organs. The
Secretary-General is boss regulatory officer of the Organization, delegated by the
General Assembly on the suggestion of the Security Council for a five-year,
inexhaustible term.
102 United Nations, ‘United Nations Main Organs” http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/main-organs/ accessed on March 14, 2018 103 Ibid 104 United Nations, ‘United Nations Trusteeship Council” http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/trusteeship-
council/ http://www.un.org/en/sections/about-un/trusteeship-council/ accessed on March 14, 2018
28
UN staff individuals are selected globally and locally, and work in obligation
stations and on peacekeeping missions all around the globe however serving the reason
for peace in a fierce world is an unsafe occupation. Since the establishing of the UN,
several overcome men and ladies have given their lives in its administration.
As mentioned on the previous page, each of five permanent members of United
Nations Security Council (UNSC) given right to veto, as Russian Federation is included
as one of United Nations Security Council (UNSC) member, Russia has been using its
veto for many times. The first veto used by Russian Federation in the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC) was on February 16, 1946 upon “Letter from the Heads of
the Lebanese and Syrian delegations to the Secretary-General dated 4 February 1946.105
The letter was in regard to the withdrawal of French and British troops from their
territories”.106 At that time, Russian Federation’s name was Soviet Union. Since then,
Russian Federations keeps using its veto right in the United Nations Security Council
until now. The latest veto used by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security
Council (UNSC) was on April 10, 2018 upon Syria conflict: The Situation in the Middle
East (Use of chemical weapons in the Syrian Civil War.107
II.3. Russian Federation Interests in The United Nations Security
Council (UNSC)
Russia is country that prioritizes respect for the principle of sovereignty in
international affairs, maintaining a geostrategic balance and international security,
cultivating a favorable international image and status as a responsible member of the
international community, and promoting its economic and political interests. It
prioritizes dialogue over force to solve international conflicts.
Russia's specific connection to its membership in the UNSC originates from the
direction of progress in Russia's place in the world, which has been unique in relation
to that of China in the course of the most recent two decades. Where China is a step by
step rising force, Russia acquired its P5 situate from the Former Soviet Union (FSU),
when it was acquainted with be dealt with as the superpower restricting
105 CQPress, “Russia and United Nations” http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1961032900 accessed on March 14, 2018 106 United Nations General Assembly, “United Nations General Assembly”
//www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/PV.23. accessed on March 14, 2018 107 United Nations Security Council, “UNSC Meeting Records 2018”
http://www.un.org/en/sc/meetings/records/2018.shtml accessed on March 14, 2018
29
the US. Despite the fact that President Yel'tsin and other Russian leaders expected that
this unmistakable quality would proceed with, they were frustrated by the decrease in
Russia's status in the world, despite the fact that this was additionally incompletely
caused by the crumple of the Russian economy. Russia turned into a disregarded power.
One of the prime concerns of President Putin has been to restore Russia’s
prestige and clout. Being a Permanent Member of the UNSC is a key element in that
self-image. According to Orlov: ‘For Russia today no world order is acceptable unless
it can influence the taking of strategic decisions or be a member of the board of
management (direktorskii sovet).108
Despite the fact that Russia's ability to impact the entire scope of worldwide
issues is currently decreased by correlation with the Soviet time, Russian monetary
resurgence does in any event furnish them with more prominent ability to have any kind
of effect in chosen parts of the world. What's more, the present need is to thicken
Russia's relations with Asian states, particularly China. Thus, cooperation with China
in the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) contributes both to the image and the
substance of Russia as a global power.
Another factor in the motivation behind Russian foreign policy today speaks to
a change contrasted and the before Putin administration. At that point the worry was to
show that Russia had beaten the injuries and shortcomings of the 1990s, i.e. that Russia
was back. In particular it demonstrated that Russia was back responsible for its own
advancement, the ace in its own home. For Putin’s Russia, ‘real sovereignty’ and
‘sovereign democracy’, with the emphasis upon the ‘sovereign’, became defining
objectives of foreign policy. In foreign policy terms this has led to a tendency to
confront the US, although relations with Europe have been more cooperative. It implied
that Russia took a lead in restricting the US and UK intrusion of Iraq. This
confrontational tendency towards the West moved toward becoming more articulated
after the episode of the just 'shading' insurgencies in Ukraine, Georgia and Central Asia,
where Putin trusted that Western conspiracy added up to an inversion of past ascension
by the US to participate with Russia.
108 Orlov, D.(2006) Politicheskaia doktrina suverennoi demokratii’, in Suverennaia demokratiia: ot idei k
doktrine, Evropa, Moscow. p.6.
30
However, Russian Federation is not the only one who has interests in United
Nations Security Council (UNSC). Together with China, Russian Federation has two
commons interests in United Nations Security Council (UNSC). Both between China
and Russia wish to avoid being isolated at the United Nations (UN). They have a
characteristic motivating force to endeavor to organize their situations at any rate since
it gives them consolation and likely help. It likewise implies that they are hesitant to
force vetoes individually. This applies particularly with regard to issues concerning the
Middle East.
When Russia voted for sanctions against Iran, China did the same. When Russia
abstained in Libya, China did the same. When Russia was opposing on Syria, China did
the same.’52 Chinese diplomats claimed that they were pressured by Russia into going
along with a veto on Syria.109 China has much greater commercial interests in Iran than
does Russia – China is the largest buyer of Iranian crude oil whilst Iran is China’s third-
largest supplier of oil, China is Iran’s second largest supplier of military equipment
including missile technology, China is also involved in infrastructure projects in Iran,
so that overall in 2011 trade with Iran was just under one tenth of its trade with the
US.54 Yet China up to now has deferred to Russian diplomatic leadership. The same
was true of Libya, though not in Syria, where Russia has more significant military
ties.110
If this continues, then Russia is likely to take the lead in further diplomatic
maneuverings over Iran. The second concern that both Russia and China share in the
UNSC is to avoid being taken for granted by the other Permanent Members.111
Russian foreign policy-makers in the early 1990s felt very keenly the
diminished regard that other states, and allegedly especially the US, paid them as
compared with the time when they were the world’s second superpower and the Chinese
leadership’s self-imposed low profile after the Tiananmen Square massacres
encouraged Western leaders to snub them. Gradually, as both governments have
recovered self-confidence, they wish to make sure that that does not happen again.
109 European Parliament, “The position of Russia and China in UNSC” Retrieved from European Parliament:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/433800/EXPO-
SEDE_NT%282013%29433800_EN.pdf. Accessed on March 14, 2018 110 Ibid 111 Ibid
31
Occasional brandishing of the veto, especially jointly, ensures that they are not taken
for granted.112
112 European Parliament, “The position of Russia and China in UNSC” Retrieved from European Parliament:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/note/join/2013/433800/EXPO-
SEDE_NT%282013%29433800_EN.pdf. Accessed on March 14, 2018
32
CHAPTER III
RUSSIAN FEDERATION – SYRIA RELATIONS
This chapter discusses about relations between Russian Federation and
Syria which have been lasted since a long time ago including economic, politic and
security relations. However, relations built between Russian Federation and Syria
will not be separated with Russian Federation national interests towards Syria and
this chapter provides all those information.
III.1. The Beginning of Russian Federation – Syria Bilateral Relations
Russian Federation – Syria long established relations have actually been
established since Russia was still in the form of Soviet Union and Syria had not yet
become a State recognized by the UN. Russia laid the Byzantyne Army in Syria in the
10th and 11th centuries, and after the agreement of Carlovitz with the Ottoman Empire
in 1699 more Russian merchants visited Syria on the way to Palestine including the
Orthodox Christian community.113 This made the Orthodox empire expand its influence
and built a consular post in Aleppo, Latkia, Beirut and Saida in 1893.114 Its influence
continued to extend to Syria and the Orthodox empire also built about 70 school
buildings to advance education in Syria in 1905.115
This is the beginning of inter-Russian relations with Syria. After the Second
World War the Soviet Union broke apart and Russia began to fix the conditions that
exist in the country in order to compete in the international world again. Russia then
reformulated all of its foreign policy to regain its former glory before the breakup of
the Soviet Union. This can be seen from the security documents seen from the policies
of President Vladimir Putin who said that he wanted to restore Russian influence by
issuing the National Security Concept in 2000.116 The contents of the document
113 Kreutz, A. (2007). Russia in the Middle East: Friend or foe? London: Praeger. p. 12. 114 Ibid 115 The Atlantic, “Understanding Syria From Pre Civil War to Post Assad”
https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/12/understanding-syria-from-pre-civil-war-to-post-assad/281989/ accessed on March 16, 2018 116 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation The Russian Federation, “National Security Concept
of The Russian Federation” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/official_documents/-
/asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/589768 accessed on March 16, 2018
33
explained that Russia has returned to the international political arena and seeks to
restore the past it has.
The Middle East is a country with a very strategic geopolitics. The
widespread conflicts in the Middle East today, has become an attraction for the
West and other foreign countries and a goal to seize its national interests in the
Middle East. Conflict in the Middle East is the most prevalent conflict in recent
decades. One of the conflicts in the Middle East is Arab Spring which also occurs
in several countries in the Middle East starting from Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, Yemen
and the last of Syria. Conflict in these countries is a rebellion which is due to
dissatisfaction with local government that is considered to be a ditto, an absolute
monarchy, and a violation of human rights to its own people.
With the conflict in the Middle East is to attract intervention from many
countries including the West, led by the United States, Russia and China. Under its
foreign policy, the United States wants Syria to overthrow Bashar Al-Assad. In
addition, there is another case with Russia and China that support the Assad regime.
The Russian presence has actually existed in Syria even before World War
II. According to Arab sources and journals in the Middle Ages, Russia laid
"ByzantyneArmy" in Syria in the 10th and 11th centuries, and after the agreement of
Carlovitz with the Ottoman Empire in 1699 more and more Russian migrants visited
Syria on their way to Palestine with various aims there, including within the
Orthodox Christian community.117 This made the Orthodox Empire expand its
influence to create a consular post operating in Aleppo, Latkia, Beirut, and Saida in
1893.118 Its influence continued to extend to Syria, where they also built seventy-
four schools to advance education in Syria in 1905.119
This became a curtain that opened the closeness between Russia and Syria
which would eventually become closer. The fall of the Soviet regime in 1991
became a great momentum for countries in the world, especially the United States
to expand to the countries of the former Soviet Union alliance. The rivalry between
Warsaw Pact and North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) finally ended after
the Warsaw Pact was dissolved. It is the use of NATO to give its influence to the
117 Kreutz, A. (2007). Russia in the Middle East: Friend or foe? London: Praeger. p. 12. 118 Ibid 119 The Atlantic, accessed on March 16, 2018
https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/12/understanding-syria-from-pre-civil-war-to-post-
assad/281989/ accessed on March 16, 2018
34
closest countries of the Soviet Union in Eastern Europe and including the Soviet
Union's partners in the Middle East.120
The breakup of the Soviet Union made many parts of the territory form
small new states, but generally still had the dominant region of Russia. Russia
started to fix the conditions that exist in the country to be active and dominate again
in international politics. Based on the fallout experienced by the Soviet Union in
1991, Russia re-enacted all forms of foreign policy.121 Russia's desire to return to
the glory of its past and it was stipulated in several documents security. This is
reflected in the policy issued by President Vladimir Putin who wants to restore
Russian influence by issuing the National Security Concept in 2000.122 The
document explains that Russia has returned to the international political arena and
is seeking to restore its past celebrations.123
Russia views the Middle East as a crucial area for it to achieve national
interest.124 This prompted Russia to re-reflect on its relation which had been
interrupted during the previous administration. In the region, Russia can restart its
ambition to become an influential country considering the Middle East region is a
Shatterbelt area. Shatterbelt refers to a geographical region with two conditions, in
which there is local conflict with or between countries of the region, and there is
the involvement of several major power actors from outside the region.125
The Middle East is also a very valuable area for influential countries such
as the United States and Russia.126 This is exacerbated with the occurrence of the
Arab Spring phenomenon which became one of the issues of interest in the
international world.127 Arab Spring is a term often used to describe forms of
rebellion that occur in Arab countries in the Middle East such as demonstrations,
protests, and armed conflicts.128 The rebellion was due to dissatisfaction with the
120 Krieger, Joel, and Margaret E. Crahan. The Oxford Companion to Politics of the World, 23. Oxford ; New
York: Oxford University Press, 2001. 121 Foreign Policy, “Everything you know about the collapse of the soviet union is wrong”
http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/06/20/everything-you-think-you-know-about-the-collapse-of-the-soviet-union-is-
wrong/ accessed on March 16 2018 122 Legvold, Robert. Russian Foreign Policy in the Twenty-first Century and the Shadow of the Past, 310. New
York: Columbia University Press, 2007. 123 Ibid 124 Ibid 125 International Encyclopedia of Human Geography: A 12-Volume Set, 227. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2009. 126 Nizameddin, Talal. Russia and the Middle East: Towards a New Foreign Policy, 24. C. HURST & CO.
PUBLISHERS, 1999. 127 Ibid 128 Manhire, Toby. The Arab Spring: Rebellion, Revolution, and a New World Order. Guardian Books, 2012.
35
local government that was considered dictatorial, monarchy-absolute, and
committed human rights violations to its own people.
On the other hand, Syria is currently experiencing a crisis led by the
opposition movement against the government which is considered as a modern
aristocracy where people are no longer fulfilled aspirations.129 The Syrian
government is seen as part of a dictatorial regime that oppresses the people and
instead makes its people suffer. Thus, this has led to protests to bring down
government in the form of street demonstrations, media limitations, and military
means, followed by opposition to achieve their desires.
The process of declining the regime of Bashar Al-Assad which has been
started since the early 2000s was judged by the Syrian people to have sacrificed
hundreds of lives both from civilians and from the government itself.130 Moreover,
the emergence of a new issue that claims the use of harmful chemical weapons used
by the Syrian government to fight the opposition that resulted in innocent civilian
casualties and the victims of many people.
The internal conflict has provoked intervention from many parties including
the West and also its opposition.131 The Western side, led by the United States,
based on its history and foreign policy on the Arabian Peninsula wants a democratic
Syria by overthrowing Assad's regime.132 However, with opposition parties Russia
and China are also playing politics in accordance with their interests where if the
Assad regime can survive, then it will be a loss for the West.133 With so much
interference going on, the complexity of the current crisis in Syria is the result of
the conversion of many interests.
Russia emerged and actually offered assistance to face international
pressure and interference in the settlement of the domestic crisis in Syria. Thus,
Russia firmly rejects any form of sanctions that could incriminate Syria in this
regard, including economic and political sanctions.134 The UN Security Council
129 Hetou, Ghaidaa. The Syrian Conflict: The Role of Russia, Iran and the US in a Global Crisis. Oxfordshire:
Taylor & Francis, 2018. 130 Ibid
36
agreed to apply Chapter 7 Article 41 of UN Charter, then the path of military
intervention would be open to Syria.135
However, along with Russia, China also agreed to free Syria from the path
of the Security Council military intervention.136 Thus, three times the veto was
dropped for Syria. With the rejection of UN Security Council Resolution for the
Syrian Crisis, then it means the United States cannot take military action and must
change its strategy by non-military means in Syria.137 Thus, the United States began
to provide financial aid to the opposition as a form of support to bring down the
Assad regime.138 Russia sees its involvement in Syria as an attempt to protect its
investments, as the economic and military ties between Russia and Syria have been
going on since the Cold War to this day. Each of all relations between Russian
Federation and Syria will be discussed on the next sub-chapters.
III.2. Russian Federation – Syria Economic Relations
Economy is a national interest used to improve the economy of a State.139
Economic interests are the interests of a State to improve the economy of the country
by fostering realization or cooperation with other countries.140 The way in which a State
is used to improve its economy with national interest is by importing and obtaining
natural resources from other countries, usually the natural wealth they take is food, oil,
and natural gas.141 In World War I oil was a very important need for war and other
industrial activities so that countries with abundant oil became ruling at the time.142
To Russia, Syria has a strategic value both militarily and politically as well as
economically.143 Syria is Russia's largest arms market in the Middle East.144 Almost all
Syrian military equipment is made in Russia. The Soviet Union (before disbanding to
135Nation “UN Chapter 7 allows ‘use of force” https://nation.com.pk/07-Jun-2012/un-chapter-7-allows-use-of-
force accessed on march 16 2018
37
Russia) was the first country to recognize Syria's independence in 1946.145 The
Syrian-Russia relations grew stronger after President Hafez Assad, the father of the
current President of Syria, held power in Damascus in 1970.146
After Soviet military advisors were expelled from Egypt in 1972, the Soviet
Union increasingly relied on Syria ruled by the socialist Baath party to strengthen its
influence in the Middle East.147 Soviet-style military equipment flowed more and more
into Syria at that time. The Soviet Union is also a guarantee for Syrian political support
on the international stage.
The Russian-Syrian strategic relationship is illustrated when Russia in 2005
abolished 75 percent of Syrian debt to Russia.148 The vast majority of Syrian debt to
Russia comes from the purchase of Russian-made weapons by Syria. Syrian debt to
Russia at that time reached 13 billion US dollars. Although Russia was forced to wipe
out most of Syria's debt to Moscow, the export of Russian military equipment to Syria
actually rose between 7 and 10 percent since then.149
In the midst of incessant anti-regime demonstrations of President Assad in
various cities in Syria, in 2012, Russia sent 60 tons of weapons, complete with spare
parts.150 In the same year, Russia and Syria last month reached an agreement to supply
Syria with 130 Yak-130 fighter jets with a contract value of 550 million US dollars and
other military equipment business contracts worth 700 million US dollars so that the
current Russian-Syria trade balance it can reach a value of nearly two billion US
dollars.151
145 The Hindu, “International Syria Timeline” http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/syria-timeline-
19201960-from-french-mandate-to-merger-with-egypt/article3609575.ece accessed on March 16, 2018 146 Huffington Post, Moscow’s Historical Relationship with Damascus: Why it Matters Now”
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/carlo-caro/moscows-historical-relati_b_9065430.html accessed on march 16,
2018 147 New York Times, “Sadat's Ouster of Russians Called Cool and Deliberate”
https://www.nytimes.com/1972/07/22/archives/sadats-ouster-of-russians-called-cool-and-deliberate-sadats-
move.html accessed on March 16, 2018 148 New York Times, “Russia and Syria bonds are old and deep”
https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/19/world/middleeast/for-russia-and-syria-bonds-are-old-and-deep.html
accessed on March 16, 2018 149 Huffington Post, Moscow’s Historical Relationship with Damascus: Why it Matters Now”
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/carlo-caro/moscows-historical-relati_b_9065430.html accessed on march 16, 2018 150 Business Insider, “A Russian Ship Just Delivered 35 Tons Of Arms To Syria”
http://www.businessinsider.com/russia-syria-arms-2012-1/?IR=T accessed on March 16 2018 151 Reuters, “Russia in deal to deliver Syria fighter jets: report” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-russia-
jets-idUSTRE80M1AP20120123 accessed on march 16, 2018
38
Economic cooperation between Russia and Syria is not only in the field of
weapons trading. Russia and Syria also cooperate in the fields of oil, gas and mineral
resources. This is proved by the meeting between representatives of Syria and Russia
has been held in Moscow on Monday, February 5, 2018.152 The meeting was held to
discuss cooperation between the two countries in the field of Oil, Gas, and mineral
resources.
Syria's Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Ali Ghanem stated that
previous cooperation between Damascus and Moscow governments in the same field
has been fruitful.153 He stressed the importance of a sustained meeting between the two
sides so that an agreed agreement could be immediately undertaken. Meanwhile, the
Russian company's envoy stressed the need to continue cooperation with the Syrian
government in the energy sector, including geology, exploration, rehabilitation and
development of oil, gas, and phosphate mining.
III.3. Russian Federation – Syria Security Corporations
The strength or weakness of a State in view of the security and defense of the
State itself, therefore a State shall make every effort to defend the sovereignty of its
State, its territorial integrity, and the salvation of the whole nation from threats and
disturbances to the unity of the nation and the State. Then the national interest other
than the economy that is often sought by the States is security and defense. These
security and defense can be achieved by increasing military bases, technology and
quality of the armed forces. If the security and defense of the State can be achieved then
the State can create a Balance of Power.
Since Soviet times, Russia has a port of military bases in the region Tartus, at
the base of the military, is a Russian aircraft carrier used for military training and
military defense of Russia in the Middle East. The port is also used by Russia to supply
arms to Syria and to military training for the Syrian army.154 Russia also already has a
permanent air capture in Syria, precisely at Hmeymin, Latakia Province. By this far,
the air base is used to launch an offensive against Syrian anti-government rebel forces.
Russia seems to want to inherit Soviet-style facilities in the Mediterranean.155
152 SANA, “Syrian-Russian talks on cooperation in fields of oil, gas, and mineral resources” https://sana.sy/en/?p=126408 accessed on march 16 2018 153 Syrian Arab News Agency, "Minister of Petroleum and Mineral Resources Ali Ghanem."
https://sana.sy/en/?tag=minister-of-petroleum-and-mineral-resources-ali-ghanem. Accessed June 16, 2019. 154Rubin, Barry. The Truth about Syria, 55. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2007. 155 Ibid
39
Syria security does really matter to Russia. Russian Leaders see Syria security
is important because if Syria is controlled by rebels who are opponents of the
government of Bashar al-Assad and are troops backed by coalition forces led by United
States, then everything that is in Russia will be abolished because the coalition forces
led by the United States is true.
If Syria falls in the hands of rebels or terrorists, then oil exploration agreement
and also military procurement in Tartus which is the only Russian military base in the
Middle East region will be abolished and destroyed by rebel forces, so it can weaken
strength and also Russia. Therefore, Russia has been trying to protect the security of
Syria very well.
III.4. Russian Federation Interests in Syria
We all know that Russia is included as one of super power countries in the
world. Its military strength makes Russia itself is able to be one of super power
countries. As a super power country, Russia is quite confident to defend and protect
Syria. Despite of having bilateral relations with Syria in economic & politics fields,
there are several national interests of Russia which can be achieved by having close
relations with Syria. As explained above, Russia and Syria have very strong
economic relations which place Russia as the largest weapons exporter of Syria. This
can be said as one of Russian Federation interests among Syria. Based on SIPRI,
Russian arms exports grew during the past five-year period.156
Figure 3.1 The 10 Largest Arms Exporters, 2012-2016. Source: SIPRI
156 SIPRI, “State major arms transfer graphics” https://www.sipri.org/commentary/blog/2017/state-major-arms-
transfers-8-graphics accessed on March 16 2018
40
Figure above shows the top 10 largest arms exporters from 2012-2016 which
there is Russia as one of the arms exporters.157 This obviously will improve the
income of Russia, therefore it can be seen as one of Russian Federation interests
among Syria. Another interest of Russia towards Syria is the protection towards a
port of military bases in the Tartus region.
In this study, it is seen that there are only two elements of national interest
maintained and abandoned by Russia from Syria. These national interests include
economic interests and military interests. Based on the above explanations, it can be
seen if the spread of influence of power is a step that can be used by a State to achieve
its national interests. With Russia's arms supply agreement to Syria, it will benefit
Russia in terms of the economy, with Russia supporting Iraq and Iran's Syrian allies
to channel the Syrian (Mediterranean) gas pipeline, and maintaining links with
Syrian allies is an attempt by Russia to keeping its influence in the Syrian region so
that its national interest can be achieved.
157 SIPRI, “State major arms transfer graphics” https://www.sipri.org/commentary/blog/2017/state-major-arms-
transfers-8-graphics accessed on March 16 2018
41
CHAPTER IV
RUSSIAN FEDERATION POLICY IN THE
UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL (UNSC):
SOLVING SYRIA CONFLICT (2015-2018)
IV.1. The Beginning of Syria Conflict
The conflict in Syria originated from a protest against the arrest of several
students in the small town of Daraa. In March 2011, 15 students aged between 9 and
15 wrote anti-government slogans on the city walls saying “The people want the
regime down".158 These children may be inspired by the turbulence in Tunisia that led
to President Zainal Abidin bin Ali descended on January 14, 2011, and the Egyptian
upheaval that resulted in the fall of President Hosni Mubarak on February 1, 2011.159
Seeing the action of 15 students, Syrian police led by Gen. Atef Najib, President Bashir
al Assad's cousin arrested and exposed his children, this child. As a result, there was a
wave of protests demanding the release of these children. The army's reaction to the
protests was excessive, they tackled the protesters and left four dead. The reaction did
not alleviate the protests, in contrast, widespread protests from Deraa to the outskirts
of Latakia and Banyas on the Mediterranean Coast or the Mediterranean Sea, Homs,
Ar Rasta and Hama in Western Syria, and Deir es Zor in East Syria.
These protests and demonstrations later developed into a devastating civil war.
This war not only uses conventional weapons as they are used in war, but also uses
chemical weapons. There is a view that the current war of Syria is a war between the
Shi'i schools represented by Bashar al-Assad and his Sunni-inspired opponents. This
view is built on the facts that occurred in Syria: there are two major forces that are
fighting, namely Saudi Arabia that follows Sunni and Iran follows Shi'a.
Another fact is that the Assad government is supported by Iran and the
Hizbullah movement, Iran is a Shia state and the Hizbollah is a Shiite movement based
158 Dailymail, “The boy anti Assad graffiti changed world” http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-
4312502/The-boy-anti-Assad-graffiti-changed-world.html accessed on March 16 2018 159 The Guardian, “Tunisian President flees country protests”
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/14/tunisian-president-flees-country-protests
42
in Lebanon. Instead the opponents of Assad get support from countries with Sunni
schools such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Afghanistan.
Referring to the map of the conflict in Syria, the interesting question that needs
to be asked is whether the conflict in Syria can then be regarded as a conflict based on
theological differences. A conflict occurs not caused by a single cause. Conflict is
always born by complex causes and overwhelmed by many factors and interests. The
issue of religion is usually one of the trigger factors among the factors that were born
as the cause of the conflict.
On the basis of this view, it can be understood later, if the Syrian conflict
analysts claim that the conflict is not a conflict of theological differences, between
Sunni versus Shiite. In an interview with the US network Fox News on Wednesday,
September 18, 2013, Bashar al-Assad even called the conflict in Syria not a "civil war"
but has been attacked by tens of thousands of foreign jihad fighters allied to al-
Qaeda.160 If it is not a religious conflict and neither is your conflict, then what causes
the birth of the conflict in Syria, who are the parties involved and plays a key role in
the conflict and what impact it will have upon the people of Syria and the international
world.
Therefore, to find out the source of the Syrian conflict, chronology of the
conflict needs to be known, because in the conflict it is true that the knowledge stored
is what caused the birth of the conflict in Syria. The Syrian conflict can be traced to
protests by a group of students as they write anti-government slogans on the city walls.
The slogans read, "The people want the regime down." Syrian government police
arrested the students and then imprisoned them for a month.161 During the period of
detention, the students were subjected to torture, known after the students were
released. Knowing the torture perpetrated by the police, on March 11, 2011, the
community then conducted a demonstration held in West-Daraa City protesting the
torture committed by the police.162 Security forces attempted to break up the
demonstrations, but the demonstrators did not budge until security forces opened fire
on the demonstrators.
160 FoxNews, “Assad says one year to destroy chemical arms”
FoxNews:http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/09/19/assad-says-one-year-1-bn-to-destroy-chemical-arms.html 161 The Guardian, “Daraa Protests Syria” https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/23/daraa-
protests-syria accessed on March 16 2018 162 Ibid
43
On March 23, 2011, demonstrations again struck Daraa town, security forces
again opened fire to disperse the demonstrators, in this case 20 demonstrators
reportedly killed.163 Following the incident, President Bashar al-Assad announced that
the government is considering implementing political reforms, including removing
restrictions on political parties and abolishing the Syrian emergency law that has been
imposed for 48 years.164 But the announcement was ignored by Syrian opposition
figures.
On March 25, 2011, after Friday prayers, the protests again surfaced in cities all
over the country.165 Security forces again attempted to disperse the rallies, but the
protests continued to run even intensively. Protests and demonstrations carried out by
the Syrian opposition gained resistance from pro-government Syrian people, the
resistance was demonstrated by a massive demonstration in Damascus City. On 29
March 2011 the Syrian government announced the resignation of the cabinet, this was
done to meet the demands of reforms echoed by the demonstrators.166 One day after,
the announcement, President Assad appeared for the first time in public since the riots
hit Syria, and delivered a speech before the legislature to quell protests of protesters
and claim that the protests were due to foreign conspiracies. But He also admitted that
some of the demonstrators' concerns are noteworthy. Assad rejected the opposition's
call for an accelerated reform and said the government would continue its plan to
introduce reforms gradually. After the speech, Syrian government media announced
that Assad had set up a commission to study the possibility of revocation of emergency
law.
Demonstrations have occurred sporadically across the country, the Syrian
government continues to link unrest to foreign conspiracies and sectarian tensions.
The government made several concessions aimed at conservative Syrian
Muslims and Kurdish minorities. On April 6, 2011, the Syrian government attempted
to answer the conservative Muslim unrest by shutting down the only Syrian casino and
canceling the 2010 law banning female teachers wearing a niqab, a face-covering
163 Vosizneias, “Daara Syria update 15 dead in new clashes in Southern Syria”
https://www.vosizneias.com/79371/2011/03/23/daraa-syria-update-15-dead-in-new-clashes-in-southern-syria-
city/ accessed on March 16 2018 164 Ibid 165 The Guardian, “Syria protest spreads troops” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/25/syria-protest-
spreads-troops accessed on March 16 2018 166Aljazeera, “Syrian cabinet resigns amid unrest”
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/03/201132975114399138.html accessed on March 16 2018
44
veil.167 The government also announced that Noruz, a New Year festival Celebrated
by the Kurds as a national holiday.
However, protests continued, spreading to other cities, resulting in increased
use of force by Syrian security forces. On April 8, 2011, security forces opened fire
on demonstrators in several Syrian cities, killing at least 35 people.168 Following a
report that the death toll has reached more than 200 people. There was international
condemnation of the Syrian government. A number of human rights organizations and
heads of state called for a halt to violence.
Security forces continued to use violence against protesters across the country,
Assad appointed a new cabinet and pledged to institutionalize political reforms and
repeal Syrian emergency law. On 19 April 2011, the cabinet lifted the emergency law
and dissolved the Syria State Security Supreme Court.169 Special courts are used to
prosecute anti-government parties. But the Syrian government is also taking steps to
defend its power by trying to quell protests. The Syrian government passed a law
requiring people to get permission from the government before a demonstration.
Syria's newly appointed interior minister urged the Syrian people not to demonstrate
by stating that the government will continue to regard demonstration as a national
threat.
Immediately after the emergency law, the Syrian government increased the use
of violence against demonstrators. On April 22, 2011, security forces opened fire on
demonstrators gathered after Friday prayers, killing about 75 people, amid
international criticism triggered by murder, the Syrian government launched a new
strategy to silence public protests by deploying large numbers of troops equipped with
tanks and armored vehicles to the cities of Daraa, Baniyas, Homs, and three locations
that serve as the center of anti-government.170 In some areas of the country, the
government imposed blackouts on access to communications, shutting down
167Reuters, “UK – Syria Assad Niqab” https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-assad-niqab/syria-lifts-niqab-ban-
shuts-casino-in-nod-to-sunnis-idUKTRE7353SH20110406 accessed on March 16 2018 168 HRW, “Syria security forces barring protesters medical care” https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/04/12/syria-
security-forces-barring-protesters-medical-care accessed on March 16 2018 169 Global Security, “Syria War 2011” https://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/syria-2011.htm
accessed on March 16 2018 170Washington Post, “Syria protests: 75 protesters reported dead”
https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/blogpost/post/syria-good-friday-protests-begin-expected-to-be-largest-
protests-yet/2011/04/22/AFfJBQOE_blog.html?utm_term=.718af273b194 accessed on march 16 2018
45
telephone and internet services. In Daraa, security forces cut off supplies of water and
electricity.
Along with the continuing demonstrations in Syria, the government stepped up
resistance against the protesters with military force. In early May 2014, anti-
government protests have reached Damascus.171 The protests that took place in the
center of Damascus were dealt with by the violence of Syrian government forces also
setting up security barricades in some Damascus suburbs attempts to limit the
movement of protesters.
Following the incident. The European Union (EU) imposed sanctions in the
form of travel bans and asset freezes to senior Syrian officials deemed responsible for
handling demonstrations. In addition, the EU is also imposing an arms embargo for
Syria. Along with the ongoing violence. Syria is also increasingly isolated from its
regional allies. In May 2011, Recep Tayyip Edogan, the Turkish Prime Minister,
condemned the use of violence against civilians.172 A few weeks later, Turkey gave
support to the demonstrators by holding a conference for Syrian opposition members.
On June 6 2011, Syrian news agencies reported carrying 120 Syrian troops ambushed
and killed by a group of armed men in the northern city of Jisr al-Shugur.173
Local people doubted the truth of the news by stating that Syrian troops were
killed by government forces for refusing to fire on demonstrators. Responding to the
incident the Syrian military launched a severe attack causing thousands of people to
flee and cross the Turkish border.174
Assad's regime continued to use violence against protesters in July and August,
as well as launching military strikes against a number of Cities including Hammah and
Latakia. The bloodshed continues to reap international condemnation calling on Assad
to resign from his post as President. In early November 2011, Syrian officials approved
an Arab League initiative calling on the Syrian government to stop violence against
171 Telegraph, “Hundreds across Syria protest against Assad for the first time in years” https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/12183779/Hundreds-across-Syria-protest-
against-Assad-for-the-first-time-in-years.html accessed on march 16 2018 172 Republic of Turkey Ministry Foreign Affairs, Press Statement by H.E. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, The Prime
Minister of the Republic of Turkey on Libya, 3 May 2011 http://www.mfa.gov.tr/press-statement-by-h_e_-
recep-tayyip-erdogan_-the-prime-minister-of-the-republic-of-turkey-on-libya_-3-may-2011.en.mfa accessed on
march 16 2018 173 Washington Post, “Syria says protesters killed 120 soldiers” https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/syria-
claims-security-forces-killed-by-protesters/2011/06/06/AGJuYNKH_story.html?noredirect=on accessed on
march 16 2018 174
46
demonstrators withdraw tanks and armored vehicles from the cities, and release
political prisoners.175 Some see the approval of the Syrian government as a tactic to
gain time.
One day later, violence resumed in the city of Homs. Under international
pressure, the Syrian government in December allowed the visit of the Arab League
delegation to monitor the implementation process of the strategy. Despite the ongoing
violence, the assessment provided by the monitoring team tended to be positive,
drawing criticism from human rights groups and the Syrian opposition. In mid-January
2012, the credibility of delegates who have resigned claimed that Syrian government
forces had provided false reports of video footage being engineered.176
After some Arab countries withdraw their team members from positions as Arab
League observers officially suspended the continuity of the monitoring mission on
January 28 on grounds of violence. After the failure of the monitoring mission of the
Arab League violence continues to increase. In early February 2012, Syrian troops
launched a Homs attack by bombarding opposition-held territory for several weeks.177
That same month, the Arab League and the UN jointly appointed Kofi Annan, the
former Secretary General of the United Nations, as a peace envoy to Syria. Annan's
efforts to stop violence as faced by the Arab League in 2011 were thwarted by the
reluctance of the Syrian regime to comply with the agreed agreements. The ceasefire
voiced by the UN has reduced the number of violence in mid-April. But the ceasefire
lasted only a few days before a conflict between government troops and the opposition
recurred.
The United Nations suspended its monitoring operation in June for security
reasons. Due to the increasing number of violence that occurred during the summer of
2012, Annan resigned in August and was replaced by Algerian diplomat, Lakhdar
Brahimi.178
175BBC, “Syria 'to accept' Arab League monitoring mission” http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-
15791532 accessed on march 16 2018 176The Guardian, “Syrians support Assad western propaganda”
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/jan/17/syrians-support-assad-western-propaganda accessed
on March 16 2018 177BBC, “Homs: Syrian revolution's fallen 'capital'” Retrieved from BBC: http://www.bbc.com/news/world-
middle-east-15625642 accessed on march 16 2018 178 Al Jazzera, “Algerian diplomat tipped as UN envoy to Syria”
https://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2012/08/20128107480677998.html accessed on march 16 2018
47
In early 2012, international observers and members of the opposition assumed
that the Syrian National Council based in Istanbul was still too weak to be able to
represent the Syrian opposition group. In November 2012, the Syrian opposition leader
announced the formation of a new coalition called the National Coalition for the Syrian
Revolution and the Military Power of the Syrian National Coalition Opposition.
Within a month the coalition received recognition from various countries as the
legitimate representative of the people of Syria. In the next month, some countries
recognize the Syrian National Coalition as a party that can effectively represent
opposition groups.
By the end of 2012, the military situation seems to be approaching a dead end.
The rebel fighters control the northern region of Syria but face difficulties in providing
equipment, weapons, and organizational aspects. Meanwhile, government troops are
also getting weaker due to a number of apparatuses who turned to the opposition.
Fighting continues every day in the contested areas, leading to a growing civilian
victimization. With the lack of development going on in Syria, allied countries with
Syrian and rebel sides alike have stepped up their support which has led to an increased
chance of a civil war. Turkey, Saudi Arabia and Qatar's efforts to fund and arm the
rebels are increasingly seen at the end 2012 and early 2013, while the Syrian
government continues to receive weapons from Iran and the Lebanese militant group
Hezbollah. Late in 2012, Hezbollah also began sending its own fighters into Syrian
territory to fight the rebels.179
A new round that allows the use of international military action in the Syrian
region is strengthening after alleged use of chemical weapons in the suburbs of
Damascus by the Assad regime that killed hundreds of people on August 21, 2013.
Syrian opposition groups claimed that pro Assad forces had carried out the
attack. Syrian officials denied the use of chemical weapons and insisted that if
chemical weapons were used in the offensive the blame was on the rebel army. The
UN envoy found evidence of chemical weapons at several locations in Syria. The
United States, Britain and France condemned the use of chemical weapons by the
Assad regime and planned to take military action. Assad also declared against what he
called Western aggression.
179 VOX, “Syrian Refugees War – Iran Hezbollah” https://www.vox.com/cards/syrian-refugees-war-assad/iran-
hezbollah accessed on March 16 2018
48
The likelihood of a military intervention in Syria begins to fade at the end of
August. Most Americans and Britons oppose military action plans. British efforts to
carry out a Syrian military offensive were thwarted by the parliament on 29 August.
Voting held at the American Congress was also postponed, on 10 September.
Meanwhile, the diplomatic path was intensified by various parties that resulted in an
agreement between Russia, Syria and the United States on September 14 to place all
chemical weapons owned by Syria under international control.
There are diverse perspectives on issues that are the main source of the Syrian
conflict. First, the social, economic and political problems in the country faced by
Syria. These problems include high unemployment, high inflation, limited
opportunities for social mobility, restrictions on political freedom, and repressive
security forces and Second, the demands of some Syrians to reform and regenerate the
regime of Bashar al-Assad. Since 1963, the Syrian government was dominated by the
Baath Party, then the family of al-Assad, Hafidz al-Assad who ruled from 1970 until
his death in 2000, and was succeeded by his son, Bashar al-Assad and ruled from 2000
to now.180 For forty years under the rule of the Assad clan (Hafez al-Assad and his son
Bashar al-Assad) Syria's economic and social development is far from satisfactory.
Syria belongs to a middle-income developing country. The economy has been
sustained mainly by oil and agriculture, since 2004 Syria has been subjected to
economic sanctions by the United States that prohibits or restricts import-export to
Syria.181
The Assad clan has been in power for too long so there is reasonable political
saturation. In March 2011, along with a wave of uprisings in Arab countries, such as
Egypt and Tunisia, demo action took place in Syria. The protesters demanded reform,
the withdrawal of President Bashar al-Assad, the opening of freedom of political
parties, freedom of speech, and economic improvement. Demonstration was
responded by the government of Syria has given some concepts and meet the demands
of the people. As already mentioned, on April 21, the government has formally
announced the lifting of an emergency law that has been in place since 1963 on the
180 Biography, “Bashar Al Assad biography” https://www.biography.com/dictator/bashar-al-assad accessed on
march 16 2018 181 U.S Department of State, “Syria Sanctions” https://www.state.gov/e/eb/tfs/spi/syria/ accessed on march 16
2018
49
grounds that the country is in a state of emergency as it is faced with threats from Israel
and militant groups.
The emergency law is considered a violation of human rights because it gives
the Government the flexibility to ban political meetings and arrest people suspected of
endangering the country's stability. But all the negotiating efforts by Assad were
ignored by the opposition because their main demands were Assad's resignation, as
happened in Egypt, Tunisia and Libya. Yet the view that the factors causing the Syrian
conflict are the demands for the replacement of the Bashar al-Asaad regime as a result
of the Arab spring rejected by humanitarian activist MER-C Joserizal Journalist.
According to him, if demands for regime change are a contributing factor to the
conflict and war in Syria why the same is not the case in Qatar and Saudi Arabia, the
two countries are no more democratic than Syria but why the Arab Spring demands
democratization actually happened in Syria after previously occurred in Tunisia,
Egypt, and Libya.
In Joserizal's view, democratic demands in Syria are the triggers of conflict and
warfare, not the main factor causing conflict and war. Jose's view is true, especially
when it is associated with actors involved in the conflict. Initially, the face-to-face
conflict in Syria was between Bashar al Asaad's regime and the opposition, but in its
development the conflict widened its escalation due to the inclusion of jihad fighters
such as al-Qaeda to Syria. In Jose's view there are two factors to the cause of the war
in Syria unfinished until now.
These two factors are first, Syria is a militarily powerful state and intelligence.
Both Syria always show resistance to Israel. Such Syrian conditions make countries
like Israel, the United States, NATO, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey lend their
support to the struggling opposition of Assad. Conflicts and wars in Syria are thus
more attributed to the interests of the countries surrounding Syria, namely Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, and Israel. Third, another factor that is often referred to as the cause of the
conflict in Syria is the dominance of the Shi'a Alawiyah minority over Syrian
politics.182 The dominance, in addition to giving birth to discrimination against Sunni
schools and restrictions on the movement of the Ikhawanul Muslimin group, also gave
birth to the elite Shiites of Alawiyah over the various sectors of the economy in Syria.
182 Kerr, Michael, and Craig Larkin. The Alawis of Syria: War, Faith and Politics in the Levant, 215. New York:
Oxford University Press, 2015.
50
This factor is also often referred to as conflicts and wars in Syria as conflicts
and religious interfaith warfare in Islam. Syria is led by Bashar al-Asaad who
bernizhab Shi'ah Alawiyah, while Asaad's opposition comes from Sunni Islam school.
Assad's regime is underpinned by Iran and Hezbollah with Shi'a schools, while
Asaad's opponents are backed by Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Turkey, al-Qaeda, Jabhat al-
Nusro in the Sunni sect. The difference of religious schools as the cause of the Syrian
conflict is also rejected by Dina Y Sulaeman, according to the madhhab factor in the
Syrian conflict is the trigger of the conflict is not the main cause. The reason is because
the conflict in Syria involves many actors, not just opposition to Sunni Assad
opposition, but also involving leaders of countries such as America, France and
Britain.
The involvement of the various parties in the conflict in Syria made the conflict
that occurred since March 11, 2011 was never seen to subside. Victims recorded since
the conflict until April 2013 has reached 92,900-100,000 people.183 Quoting
Hinnebusch, Dina Y. Sulaeman also stated that Assad's regime is not a regime built on
the religious ideology and teachings of Shi'i Alawy as its base.184
Assad's regime is a "populist authoritarian regime". Assad's government faces
external threats (Israeli) and internal instability so choose to be authoritarian for the
sake of state stability. But at the same time, Assad seeks to build the country by seeking
the support of middle and lower class society. Assad is very concerned with the
importance of support arising from the hearts of the people, not the compliance that
arises from fear of the regime. His government policy is very populist by providing
free health care and free schools to university.
Assad's regime not only contained Alawy's people, even Assad actually refused
to become Alawy's leader by raising people outside Alawy into prominent figures in
government and military. Figures outside Alawy are seen in the composition of the
military leadership such as 43% Sunni and 37% Alawy, while the composition of
ministers 58% Sunni and 20% Alawy, his side filled by Druze, Ismaili, and
Christian.185
183 The Guardian, “2013 death toll of Syrian conflict” https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/13/death-
toll-syrian-conflict-93000 accessed on March 16 2018 184 The Global Review, “Syria and the future of the world” http://theglobal-
review.com/lama/content_detail.php?lang=en&id=12407&type=4#.WvM51dR94rg accessed on mach 16 2018 185Research Gate, “Radikalisme dan idelogisasi pada tajuk berita syiah bukan islam dan syiah alirans esat pada
situs Arrahmah.com
51
The source of the problem of the Syrian conflict is very complex, there are
domestic problems such as social, economic, and political, there are business interests
of other countries' gas in Syria, and there is also the problem of sectarian sectarian
anthropology. All these problems are intertwined and complicated to decipher which
of these problems are dominant as the main cause of the prolonged conflict. If
simplified the source of the Syrian conflict can be divided into two, first, come from
within the country, namely social, economic and political problems in the form of high
unemployment, high inflation, limited social mobility, rampant corruption, lack of
political freedom, repressive security forces.
Second, comes from abroad, in the form of political and economic interests.
Turkey for example ambitious to become a major player in the Middle East therefore
the country is interfering in the Syrian conflict. Qatar and Saudi Arabia fear Iran is
helping Syria, Israel is also concerned about the fall of Assad's government because
Syria has allied itself with Iran, Hamas and Hezbollah in opposing Israel. Syria is even
a very hard country against Israel. While the Western countries have an interest in
natural gas in Syria. The Syrian conflict can be said to be a long-lasted conflict as it
continues to this day.
IV.2. Actors Involved in Syria Conflict
There are many actors who play important roles in the Syrian conflict in three
groups; first, President Bashar al-Assad and his supporters; second, the Syrian
opposition, and third, the Jihadist group. Saudi Arabia, Iran, Turkey, the United States
and Russia also play important roles in the Syrian conflict. Each of them has different
goals. President Assad seeks to defend his state and government, while the opposition
seeks to seize Assad's power, while the jihadists, seeks to seize power and the state of
Syria by declaring the Caliphate, the Islamic State of Iraq and Sham (ISIS), while the
other countries mention also have different visions.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320008946_Radikalisme_dan_Ideologisasi_pada_Tajuk_Berita_Syiah
_Bukan_Islam_dan_Syiah_Aliran_Sesat_pada_Situs_Arrahmahcom accessed on March 16, 2018
52
1. President Bashar al-Assad and his Supporters
President Bashar al-Assad began to assume the post of Syrian President in 2000,
replacing his father.186 At the beginning of his reign, he positioned himself as a
reformer but sharp criticism slid when people did not feel any significant change.
Strong protests against the Assad regime emerged in March 2011 that led to civil war
to date.187 The Assad regime is supported by the Alawi, Druze and Ismaili minorities,
many Christians support Assad because of his secular policy. Iran, Russia and China
are the countries that support Assad's regime, in addition to being supported by the
country; Assad's regime also gained support from Lebanon's Hizbullah group. The
Lebanese Hezbollah leader declared that his Shi'ite militant group would not remain
silent when his alliance groups in Damascus were attacked. Shaykh Hassan Nasrallah
even claimed that Hezbollah members were fighting in Syria against extremist Islamic
groups endangering Lebanon, and vowed that his group would not allow Syrian
militants to take over territories bordering Lebanon. Syria along with Iran, has been a
key supporter of Hezbollah. It is believed that thousands of rockets belonging to the
group are from Syria.
2. Syrian opposition
There are two opposition groups opposing and rebelling the Assad regime: First,
Syrian rebel groups include Free Syrian Army (FSA), Syrian National Council (SNC)
and Syrian National Council for Opposition and Revolutionary Forces (SNCORF) the
American initiative in Doha, Qatar The coalition consists of 60 members from 22
former SNC members, representatives from each of Syria's major cities, and a number
of Syrian rebel leaders residing abroad. The United States and a number of other
countries have recognized the coalition as a representative of the Syrian community.
(Canada has not yet decided).
The elected President of SNCORF is Moaz alKhatib of the Muslim
Brotherhood, while Prime Minister Ghassan Hitto, a Syrian businessman of Kurdish
descent, has for the past 30 years been the US. However SNCORF then broke and al-
186 New York Times, “Transition in Syria Leader” https://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/11/world/transition-in-
syria-syria-s-leader-assad-dies-clouding-mideast-prospects.html accessed on March 16, 2018 187BBC, “Syria conflict: from peaceful protest to civil war” http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-
21797661 accessed on march 16, 2018
53
Khatib and some members of SNCORF resigned. In July 2013, veteran rebel Ahmad
Jarba was named Coalition president in July 2013.188 Jarba is a majority ethnic member
from Eastern Syria. Jarba is believed to have close ties with Saudi Arabia. Second, the
Opposition Group of nonviolence, anti-sectarianism, and foreign anti-intervention;
they are members of a coalition called National Coordination Body for Democratic
Change.
3. Jihadists & ISIS Groups
The jihadist group is a group affiliated with al-Qaeda. At first this group helped
the Syrian opposition in the rebellion against the Assad regime, but in its development
they no longer assisted the opposition but had its own agenda to form the caliphate.
Among these jihadist groups are Jabha al-Nusrah, Ahrar al-Sham kataeb, Liwa 'al-
Tauhid, Ahrar Souria, Halab alShahba, al-Harakah al-Fajr al-Islamiyah, Dar al-
Ummah, Liwa Jaish Muhammad, Liwa' alNasr, Liwa 'Dar al-Islam and others; The
Jihadist group claimed responsibility in a number of suicide bombings targeted against
the Syrian government during the civil war in the country.189
In December 2012, the United States declared jihadist group Jabhat alNusra a
terrorist group.190 It is intended to prevent the involvement of extremists in the Syrian
opposition group. The leader of Al-Nusra expressed his allegiance to the Al-Qaeda
group in the spring of 2013.191 But the group has refused to join other Al-Qaeda
groups, the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS), which has expanded its operations
into Syria. (Al-Qaeda halts its relationship with ISIS in February 2014) The groups
have engaged in warfare between each other, including the FSA, which indicates a
split in the opposition movement.
It is estimated to reach 4.1 million people. According to UNOCHA (United
Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), it adds to the burden of
international aid organizations who must spend 12.9 billion USD to help 52 million
people vulnerable to conflict in 17 crisis sites around the world. Almost half of the
grants are needed to address the impact of the Syrian conflict. In November 2013, the
188 Carneige, “Ahmad al-Jarba” http://carnegie-mec.org/diwan/53176?lang=en accessed on march 16 2018 189 American Foreign Policy Council. The World Almanac of Islamism 2017, 237. Lanham: Rowman &
Littlefield, 2017. 190 Economist, “Syria's jihadists” https://www.economist.com/blogs/pomegranate/2012/12/jabhat-al-nusra
accessed on march 16 2018 191 BBC, “Syria crisis: Al-Nusra pledges allegiance to al-Qaeda” http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-
22095099 accessed on march 16 2018
54
Oxford Research Group reported that at least 11,000 Syrian children have been killed
by the conflict.192 The information was obtained through UN data and four groups of
human rights defenders in Syria. Another source said the number of casualties had
touched 100,000. Since September 2013, UNHCR (United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees) has set at least 2 million Syrians as refugees in four of
its neighbors Jordan, Iraq, Lebanon and Turkey.193
Hundreds of thousands of others live outside the region without access to
international aid. The impact of the Syrian conflict has reached an alarming stage, not
only for Syrian residents who have been forced to flee, but has also raised its own
problems in neighboring countries. A total of 21 refugee camps have been established
in the Turkish region under the authority of Prime Ministry Disaster & Emergency
Management Presidency. In early 2014, ISIS began to emerge.194 ISIS is the most
powerful and feared armed group. The Sunni group is backed by former military expert
Saddam Hussein's elite troops from Iraq. Its members come from various European
countries. Most young people, militant, radical, and have expertise in the field of
military and information technology. ISIS now controls large areas in Syria and Iraq.
4. Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia is a supporter of the Sunni insurgent group in Syria. Saudi Arabia
is keen to overthrow the Assad regime and dampen its hegemony of support, namely
Iran. They also fight against IS so as not to get stronger. Riyadh has an interest so that
Syria does not collapse, which will drag Lebanon and Iraq and the whole region to a
chaotic situation. Saudi Arabia is also a part of ISSG (International Syria Support
Group).195
In September 2013, Saudi Arabia together with Australia, Canada, France, Italy,
Japan, Republic of Korea, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the
192 Fox News “11000 children killed in Syrian war” http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/11/25/report-claims-
11000-children-killed-in-syrian-war.html accessed on March 16 2018 193 UNHCR, “Million Syrians Refugees” http://www.unhcr.org/news/press/2013/9/522484fc9/unhcr-million-
syrians-refugees.html accessed on March 16 2018 194 PBS, “The secret history of ISIS” https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/the-secret-history-of-
isis/transcript/ accessed on March 16, 2018 195 United Nations, “United Nations correspondents statement – International Syria support”
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement-
international-syria-support accessed on March 16, 2018
55
United States of America made the following statement on the margins of the Group of
20 Nations Leader’s Meeting in Saint Petersburg, Russia:
“We commit to supporting longer term international efforts, including
through the United Nations, to address the enduring security challenge posed
by Syria’s chemical weapons stockpiles. Signatories have also called for the UN
fact finding mission to present its results as soon as possible, and for the
Security Council to act accordingly”.196
On November 14 2015, Saudi Arabia together with other members of ISSG held
a meeting in Vienna concerning the agreement to support and work to implement a
nationwide ceasefire in Syria to come into effect as soon as the representatives of the
Syrian government and the opposition have begun initial steps towards the transition
under UN auspices on the basis of the Geneva Communique.197
The five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council pledged to support a
UNSC resolution to empower a UN-endorsed ceasefire monitoring mission in those
parts of the country where monitors would not come under threat of attacks from
terrorists, and to support a political transition process in accordance with the Geneva
Communique.
5. Iran
As a protective nation of Shiites, Iran supports Hezbollah militia in Lebanon
fighting to defend Al Assad's regime. Iran also sent troops and advisors to Damascus.
At first the presence of Iran was not considered. But the development of the situation
led to other big players now beginning to embrace the government in Tehran for the
Syrian crisis solution.
Iran joined the Geneva peace talks in November 2015 after the US dropped its
longstanding opposition to Iranian involvement. Iran is also a member of ISSG
(International Syria Support Group).198 In January 23-24 2017, Iran together with
196 Saudi Embassy, “Joint Statement Syria 2013” https://www.saudiembassy.net/press-release/joint-statement-
syria accessed on March 16, 2018 197United Nations, “ISSG Statement” https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2015-11-14/note-correspondents-statement-international-syria-support accessed on March 12, 2018 198 United Nations, “United Nations correspondents statement – International Syria support”
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement-
international-syria-support accessed on March 16 2018
56
Russia and Turkey held a Syria Talks in Astana, Kazakhstan.199 The talks is
summarized in their joint statement:
“The delegations of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and
the Republic of Turkey, in line with the Joint Statement of their Foreign Ministers
made in Moscow, on December 20, 2016 and the UN Security Council resolution
2336; Support launching the talks between the Government of the Syrian Arab
Republic and the armed opposition groups in Astana on January 23-24, 2017;
Appreciate the participation in and facilitation of the above-mentioned talks by the
UN Secretary-General Special Envoy on Syria; Reaffirm their commitment to the
sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic
as a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, non-sectarian and democratic State, as confirmed
by the UN Security Council”.200
6. Turkey
From the start of the Syrian war, Turkey has been one of the main backers of
the Syrian opposition. Turkey has fought alongside non-Kurdish factions in the Syrian
opposition, including the Free Syrian Army (FSA).201 Ankara is afraid of the creation
of a Kurdistan state in Syria. Therefore by all means this will be prevented. Turkey
also "trains" Syrian rebels with US assistance. President Recep Tayyip Erdogan was
also at odds with Assad. In addition the Kurds in Iraq are also getting stronger because
of Iranian support. This is what makes Turkey mobilize its military to the border or
through it.
Turkey has been heavily involved in the Geneva talks and has co-
sponsored the Astana negotiations. It has staunchly opposed Kurdish factions
attending peace talks. The same as Saudi Arabia and Iran, Turkey is also a member
of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).202
199 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation.(n.d.). Retrieved from Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA, TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL
MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-
/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 accessed on march 16 2018 200 Ibid 201 Ahval News, “Turkish backed fsa declares start operation against Kurdish”
https://ahvalnews.com/fsa/turkish-backed-fsa-declares-start-operation-against-kurdish-ypg-syria accessed on March 16 2018 202 United Nations, “United Nations correspondents statement – International Syria support”
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement-
international-syria-support accessed on March 16 2018
57
Relations between Russia and Turkey were shattered in November 2015 when
a Turkish F-16 fighter shot down a Russian SU-24 bomber carrying out missions over
Syria, leading to the deaths of two Russian servicemen. This condition however
triggered their joint plans toward Syria as in 2016, Turkey together with the Russian
Federation Turkey and Russia agreed on a proposal for a general ceasefire in Syria.203
In 2017, Turkey together with Iran and Russia held a Syria Talks in Astana,
Kazakhstan resulting joint statement:
“The delegations of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian
Federation and the Republic of Turkey, in line with the Joint Statement of their
Foreign Ministers made in Moscow, on December 20, 2016 and the UN Security
Council resolution 2336; Support launching the talks between the Government
of the Syrian Arab Republic and the armed opposition groups in Astana on
January 23-24, 2017; Appreciate the participation in and facilitation of the
above-mentioned talks by the UN Secretary-General Special Envoy on Syria;
Reaffirm their commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity and
territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as a multi-ethnic, multi-
religious, non-sectarian and democratic State, as confirmed by the UN Security
Council”.204
In 2018, another International Syria meeting held in Astana Kazakhstan
participated by Turkey, Iran and Russian Federation.205 The meeting resulting joint
statement as follows:
The Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and the Republic of
Turkey as guarantors of the Astana format:
1. Reaffirmed their strong commitment to the sovereignty, independence, unity
and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic and to the purposes and
principles of the UN Charter.
2. Highlighted that these principles should be universally respected and that
any action that might violate them and undermine achievements of the Astana
format should be avoided.
3. Rejected all attempts to create new realities on the ground under the pretext
of combating terrorism and expressed their determination to stand against
separatist agendas aimed at undermining the sovereignty and territorial
integrity of Syria as well as the national security of neighboring countries.
4. Discussed the current situation on the ground in Syria, took stock of the
recent developments following their last meeting in Sochi on 30-31 July 2018
203 The Guardian “Turkey and Syria agree terms – Syria casefire”
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/28/turkey-russia-agree-terms-syria-ceasefire accessed on March
16 2018 204 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation.(n.d.). Retrieved from Ministry of Foreign Affairs of
The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA, TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL
MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-
/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 accessed on march 16 2018 205 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Kazakhstan, “Joint statement by Iran Russia and Turkey on
International Meeting on Syria in Astana 2018” Republic of Kazakhstan: http://mfa.gov.kz/en/content-
view/joint-statement-by-iran-russia-and-turkey-on-the-international-meeting-on-syria-in-astana-28-29-
november-2018 accessed on March 16 2018
58
and underscored their determination to strengthen their trilateral coordination
in light of their agreements
5. Examined in details the situation in the Idlib de-escalation area and
reaffirmed their determination to fully implement the Memorandum on
Stabilization of the Situation in the Idlib De-escalation Area of 17 September
2018. In this regard they expressed their concern with the ongoing violations of
the ceasefire regime, and declared that, as guarantors of the ceasefire regime,
they would step up their efforts
to ensure observance with it, including by enhancing work of the Joint Iranian-
Russian-Turkish Coordination Center. They stressed the importance of a lasting
ceasefire while underlining the necessity to continue effective fight against
terrorism. They also emphasized that under no circumstances the creation of
the above-mentioned de-escalation area should undermine the sovereignty,
independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic.
6. Reaffirmed their determination to continue cooperation in order to ultimately
eliminate DAESH/ISIL, Nusra Front and all other individuals, groups,
undertakings and entities associated with Al-Qaeda or DAESH/ISIL as
designated by the UN Security Council. They called upon all armed opposition
groups in Syria to completely and immediately dissociate from the above-
mentioned terrorist groups.206
7. Strongly condemned any use of chemical weapons in Syria and demanded
that any reports in this regard should be investigated promptly and
professionally in full compliance with the Convention on the Prohibition of the
Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on
Their Destruction and by the OPCW as the main international competent
authority to establish use of chemical weapons.
8. Underlined their firm conviction that there could be no military solution to
the Syrian conflict and that the conflict could be resolved only through the
Syrian-led and Syrian-owned, UN-facilitated political process in line with the
UN Security Council resolution 2254.
9. Reaffirmed their determination to step up joint efforts to launch the
Constitutional Committee in Geneva, that would enjoy support of the Syrian
parties, in accordance with the decisions of the Syrian National Dialogue
Congress in Sochi and decided to intensify their consultations on all the levels
to finalize its establishment at the soonest possible time.
10. Welcomed the successful development of the "pilot project" within the
framework of the Working Group on the release of detainees/abductees and
handover of the bodies as well as the identification of missing persons. The
release of the detainees on 24 November 2018 constituted a step forward in
implementing confidence-building measures between Syrian parties to
contribute to the viability of the political process and normalization of the
situation on the ground. In this regard they reiterated their commitment to
further advance the efforts of the Working group.
11. Emphasized the need to continue all efforts to help all Syrians restore
normal and peaceful life as well as alleviate their sufferings. In this regard, they
called upon the international community, particularly the United Nations and
206 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Kazakhstan, “Joint statement by Iran Russia and Turkey on
International Meeting on Syria in Astana 2018” Republic of Kazakhstan: http://mfa.gov.kz/en/content-
view/joint-statement-by-iran-russia-and-turkey-on-the-international-meeting-on-syria-in-astana-28-29-
november-2018 accessed on March 16 2018
59
its humanitarian agencies, to increase their assistance to Syria by providing
additional humanitarian aid, restoring humanitarian infrastructure assets,
including water and power supply facilities, schools and hospitals.
12. Highlighted the need to create conditions for the safe and voluntary return
of refugees and internally displaced persons (IDPs) to their original places of
residence in Syria. They reaffirmed their readiness to continue interaction with
all relevant parties, including the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and other specialized international
agencies, in particular in the context of rendering assistance to preparing and
convening the International conference on Syrian refugees and internally
displaced persons (IDPs).
13. Expressed their appreciation to Mr.Staffan de Mistura, the UN Secretary-
General Special Envoy on Syria, for his efforts to seek peaceful solution for the
Syrian crisis and for his constructive interaction and cooperation with the
Astana format during his mission.
14. Expressed their sincere gratitude to the President of the Republic of
Kazakhstan, His Excellency Nursultan Nazarbayev and the Kazakh authorities
for hosting in Astana the 11th International Meeting on Syria.
15. Decided to hold the next International Meeting on Syria in Astana in early
February 2019.
7. United States
Washington's involvement in the region began in 2003 with the overthrow of
Iraqi ruler Saddam Hussein.207 The power vacuum triggered the collapse of Iraq and
the destabilization of security down to Syria. This condition also creates an Islamic
State (IS) capable of controlling large areas in Iraq and Syria. The US also financed
"moderate" rebel training with $ 500 million, partly crossed into Al-Qaeda.208
The involvement began further and stronger in 2015 as United States started to
be a member of ISSG (International Syria Support Group).209 In 2015, United States a
agreed to Russian Federation on rules on Syrian sky.210
Washington had given weapons and military training to moderate rebel factions
fighting against government forces loyal to President Bashar Assad, but the US ended
207 The Guardian “Syria could be next, warns Washington”
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/apr/13/syria.iraq1 accessed on march 16 2018 208 The Guardian, “Obama seeking $500 million training moderate Syrian rebels”
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/26/obama-seeking-500m-training-moderate-syrian-rebels
accessed on March 16 2018 209 United Nations, “Correspondents Statement – International Syria support”
https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/note-correspondents/2016-05-17/note-correspondents-statement-international-syria-support accessed on March 16 2018 210 NY Times, “US and Russia agree to regulate all flights over Syria”
https://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/21/world/middleeast/us-and-russia-agree-to-regulate-all-flights-over-
syria.html on March 16 2018
60
military aid in 2017 and later cut some $230 million (€198 million) in reconstruction
aid.211 The US has provided air support and weapons to the Syrian Democratic Forces
(SDF), an alliance of Kurdish and Arab forces fighting against "Islamic State" (IS)
militants in northern Syria. Several hundred US special forces were deployed alongside
the SDF.212
The US also has been leading an international coalition of nearly 60 countries,
including Germany, targeting IS and other extremist groups with airstrikes since late
2014.213.His own advisers later walked back that statement leaving US allies unclear
what the country's exact policy would be. The US had remained steadfast in a
commitment to trying to destroy IS in Syria and Iraq. However, its intentions on other
issues have become unclear.214 In 2017, Trump told reporters that the US has "very little
to do with Syria other than killing IS".215 But up to that point it had been deeply involved
in brokering a ceasefire between government and opposition forces. The Trump
administration has also given conflicting signals as to whether the US would oppose a
peace deal keeping Assad in power. The US also seeks to block Iran and the Lebanese
Shiite militia Hezbollah from establishing a permanent presence in Syria that could
threaten Israel.
Washington has supported UN peace talks held in Geneva since 2012 between
representatives from the Assad government and the Syrian opposition. But those talks
have so far failed to reach a breakthrough. Both sides have disagreed about whether
Assad's departure should be a precondition for any final settlement.216
In 2017, President Trump and President Putin met at the APEC conference in
Da Nang, Vietnam, confirmed their determination to defeat ISIS in Syria.217 They
expressed their satisfaction with successful U.S.-Russia enhanced de-confliction efforts
between U.S. and Russian military professionals that have dramatically accelerated
ISIS’s losses on the battlefield in recent months. The Presidents agreed to maintain open
211 CBC, “Syria aid US Cuts” https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/syria-aid-us-cuts-1.4789383 accessed on March
16, 2018 212 DW, “What do the US Russia Turkey and Iran want” https://www.dw.com/en/syria-conflict-what-do-the-us-
russia-turkey-and-iran-want/a-41211604 accessed on March 16, 2018 213 Ibid 214 Mattair, Thomas R. Global Security Watch--Iran: A Reference Handbook, 144. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO,
2008. 215 Ibid 216 DW, “What do the US Russia Turkey and Iran want” https://www.dw.com/en/syria-conflict-what-do-the-us-
russia-turkey-and-iran-want/a-41211604 accessed on March 16, 2018 217 U.S Department of State, “APEC Conference – Trump and Putin meeting”
https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/11/275459.htm accessed on march 16, 2018
61
military channels of communication between military professionals to help ensure the
safety of both U.S. and Russian forces and de-confliction of partnered forces engaged
in the fight against ISIS. They confirmed these efforts will be continued until the final
defeat of ISIS is achieved.218 The US has largely avoided direct conflict with pro-
regime forces, but in 2017 US President Donald Trump ordered airstrikes on a Syrian
airbase in response to a government chemical weapons attack against civilians.
However, Trumped surprised allies in December 2018 when He announced the
unilateral withdrawal of US troops in Syria, saying: "We have defeated ISIS in Syria".219
Despite many countries opposed Trump’s policy to withdraw U.S forces from Syria.
The policy went anyway.
On December 7, 2018, the Turkish-U.S. High-Level Working Group on Syria
met for the third time, in Ankara.220 This meeting resulting their joint statement:
“Both sides reaffirmed their resolve to fight terrorism in all its forms
and manifestations originating from within Syria and beyond. They committed
to accelerated and concrete progress on the Manbij Roadmap by the end of the
year. They agreed to continue to work on joint planning with regard to other
areas as mentioned in the Manbij Roadmap. Turkey and the United States share
a commitment to address effectively the security concerns of both countries
consistent with their obligations to one another as Allies, and look forward to
continued progress on issues of mutual interest regarding the ongoing crisis in
Syria. For this purpose, both sides agreed to increase the frequency of Working
Group meetings on Syria. They decided to convene the next High-Level
Working Group on Syria meeting in Washington, D.C. no later than February
2019”.221
8. Russian Federation
Moscow has long backed the Assad regime. It has provided government troops
with air support and weapons and given it diplomatic backing at the UN and in
international peace talks.222 Russia also has troops on the ground. Moscow is known as
a regime supporter in Damascus. In the late 2015, Russia decided to launch an air raid
218 U.S Department of State, “APEC Conference – Trump and Putin meeting”
https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/11/275459.htm accessed on march 16, 2018 219 Ibid 220 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Turkey, “No: 330, 7 December 2018, Turkey-U.S. Joint Statement
on Syria” http://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-330_-turkiye-ve-abd-tarafindan-yapilan-suriye-konulu-ortak-
aciklama_en.en.mfa on march 16, 2018 221 Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Turkey, “No: 330, 7 December 2018, Turkey-U.S. Joint Statement
on Syria” http://www.mfa.gov.tr/no_-330_-turkiye-ve-abd-tarafindan-yapilan-suriye-konulu-ortak-
aciklama_en.en.mfa on march 16, 2018 222 Erlich, Reese. Inside Syria: The Backstory of Their Civil War and What the World Can Expect. Amherst:
Prometheus Books, 2016.
62
on IS.223 This military operation sparked criticism among NATO. The US and Turkey
claim Russian air strikes aimed at anti-Assad rebel groups. The incident of shooting
Russian jets by the Turkish military has warmed the situation.
The statement showing Syria as Russian Federation priority can be seen on Russian
Federation policy – article IV No.93:
IV. Regional Foreign Policy Priorities of the Russian Federation
93. Russia stands for a political settlement in the Syrian Arab Republic
and the possibility for the people of Syria to determine their future based on the
Geneva communiqué of June 30, 2012, statements by the International Syria
Support Group and relevant UN Security Council resolutions. Russia supports
the unity, independence and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic as
a secular, democratic and pluralistic State with all ethnic and religious groups
living in peace and security and enjoying equal rights and opportunities.
Moscow wants to keep Assad — its closest ally in the Middle East — in power
and secure its military influence in the region.224 It has an important military airbase in
the western province of Latakia and a naval base in the Syrian port city of Tartus.
Russian leaders support a peace deal with broad consensus among Syria's moderate
factions that would allow Assad to remain in power. It has also hinted it may support
limited autonomy for opposition forces in certain regions within Syria.
While supporting the Geneva negotiations, Moscow has also sponsored talks
between the Syrian government and the opposition in Astana, Kazakhstan that began in
January 2017. Iran and Turkey are also parties to the talks came up with their joint
statement:
“The delegations of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Russian Federation and
the Republic of Turkey, in line with the Joint Statement of their Foreign Ministers
made in Moscow, on December 20, 2016 and the UN Security Council resolution
2336; Support launching the talks between the Government of the Syrian Arab
Republic and the armed opposition groups in Astana on January 23-24, 2017;
Appreciate the participation in and facilitation of the above-mentioned talks by the
UN Secretary-General Special Envoy on Syria; Reaffirm their commitment to the
sovereignty, independence, unity and territorial integrity of the Syrian Arab Republic
223Telegraph, “Russia launches airstrikes in Syria”
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/11903681/Russia-launches-airstrikes-in-Syria-as-it-happened-on-Wednesday-30-September.html accessed on March 16, 2018 224 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA,
TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017”
http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 on march 16
2018
63
as a multi-ethnic, multi-religious, non-sectarian and democratic State, as confirmed
by the UN Security Council”.225
The Astana process strives to create "de-confliction zones" that can reduce
violence and pave the way for political talks. At the same year, together with United
States declared their joint statement to fight against ISIS.226
In 2018, the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue held in Sochi, January 30,
2018.227 The congress resulting principles which one of is “respect of and full
commitment to the sovereignty, independence, territorial integrity and unity of the
[Syrian Arab Republic/ state of Syria] as a land and a people”.228
IV.3. United Nations Security Council in Solving Syria Conflict
The authority of the Security Council in achieving its primary objectives,
particularly in the maintenance of international peace and security, is conducted in two
ways: peaceful dispute resolution (Chapter VI of the Charter) and the settlement of
disputes in the form of acts against the threat of peace, peace breaches and aggression
(Chapter VII Charter).229 In essence, the Security Council's authority is a logical
consequence of the Security Council's primary responsibility. Chapter VI The charter
governing the settlement of disputes peacefully, authorizes the Security Council to
make recommendations for dispute resolution procedures and conditions.230
The task of the Security Council in the United Nations is classified as an executive
task, but the task is mainly limited to the areas of peace, security and weapons
management. In dealing with inter-state disputes, the Security Council should seek
peaceful settlement. In the event that the business is unsuccessful and arises threats and
225 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “JOINT STATEMENT BY IRAN, RUSSIA, TURKEY ON THE INTERNATIONAL MEETING ON SYRIA IN ASTANA, JANUARY 23-24th, 2017”
http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/2610777 on march 16
2018 226 U.S Department of State “Joint Statement by the President of the United States and the President of the
Russian Federation”https://www.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2017/11/275459.htm on march 16 2018 227 Ministry of Foreign Affairs of The Russian Federation, “Final statement of the Congress of the Syrian
national dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018” http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/news/-
/asset_publisher/cKNonkJE02Bw/content/id/3046246 on march 16 2018 228 Ibid 229 United Nations, "Pacific Settlement of Disputes (Chapter VI of UN Charter)."
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/pacific-settlement-disputes-chapter-vi-un-charter. Accessed
June 16, 2019. 230 Ibid
64
violations for peace and aggression, the Security Council is authorized to make
recommendations and to establish the necessary actions.
Under the Charter of the United Nations, the functions and authorities of the
Security Council are as follows:
1. To maintain international peace and security in accordance with the principles
of the purposes of the United Nations.
2. To investigate any dispute or situation that may cause international conflict.
3. To recommend the method of resolving the conflict or its terms of settlement.
4. To formulate a plan for the establishment of a system in arranging arms.
5. To determine whether there is a threat to peace or an act of aggression and to
recommend what action to take.
6. To call members to impose economic sanctions or other measures that do not
involve the use of force to prevent or stop aggression.
7. To take military action against the aggressor.
8. To recommend acceptance of new members.
9. To carry out the UN trust function in the "strategic area".
10. To recommend to the General Assembly regarding the appointment of the
Secretary-General and together with the Assembly, to elect an International
Court of Justice.231
As explained before, the Syrian uprising began with a public demonstration on
26 January 2011, a demonstration of which was grounded by the frustration of the
Syrian people against the authoritarian and arbitrary regime of Bashar al-Assad
against his subjects.232 The protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar
al-Assad, the overthrow of his government and the end of almost five decades of the
reign of the Ba Party "and replacing the Islamic system which is in the shade of the
Khilafah. Baath Party itself is a party that carries the ideology Baath "isme, which
containing Arab Nationalism and Socialism values, or can be said also the ideology
of" typical "Arab socialism.233
231 United Nations, “United Nations Security Council Functions and Powers”
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/functions-and-powers accessed on March 20 2018 232 BBC, “Syria conflict: from peaceful protest to civil war” https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-
21797661 on march 20 2018 233 Bidwell. Dictionary Of Modern Arab History, 327. London: Routledge, 2012.
65
This ideology was introduced by a Christian Syrian intellectual, Michel Aflaq,
at a time when European colonialism still grabbed the Middle East after the decline
of the Ottoman Ottoman state in 1924.234
The Syrian government deployed Syrian troops to quell the uprising, and some
besieged towns. A chemical weapons watchdog group (OPCW) reported Wednesday,
September 10, 2014 that Syrian troops had systematically and resolved to use chlorine
as a weapon in the ongoing civil war in the country.235 The Hague Chemical Banning
Organization says its team found evidence on the ground that soldiers are using toxic
gas in villages in northern Syria. A full review by the Associated Press found 13
people killed in the attack and dozens more injured. Chlorine is not on the list of
chemicals that Syria must disclose as part of a chemical disarmament deal in 2013.236
The chemical weapons watchdog organization based its report on testimony from
victims, doctors, first aid workers and witnesses, and health documents.
In accordance with the provisions on the prohibition of the use of chemical
weapons, the Security Council held an attempt to ban the use of chemical weapons
agreed by the world. Based on the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) which was
the incarnation of the Conference on Disarmament in Geneva on 3 September 1992,
The CWC has the task of verifying strict member states' compliance with the use of
chemical weapons.237 The CWC was held in Paris on 13 January 1993 and the treaty
entered into force on 29 April 1997.238 The CWC was the result of the first
disarmament treaty authorized for the elimination of all categories of weapons of
mass destruction under international control.
In order to smooth and campaign the CWC to all countries in the world,
especially conflict-prone countries, the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical
Weapons (OPCW) is established, with the responsibility to prepare the CWC
procedures to run well and should. The 189-member organization representing about
234 Prio, “Nationalism Under Pressure: Islamic State, Iraq and Kurdistan”
https://www.prio.org/Publications/Publication/?x=7566 accessed on march 20 2018 235 BBC, “Syria crisis: Chlorine gas used in attacks, says OPCW”
http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-29146039 accessed on march 20 2018 236 Reuters, “Syria chemical weapons wild card – chlorine gas” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-crisis-
chlorine/syrias-chemical-weapons-wild-card-chlorine-gas-idUSBREA3L11I20140422 accessed on March 20
2018 237 United Nations, “United Nations disarmament chemical” https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/ accessed on March 20 2018 238 OPCW, “Chemical weapons convention – genesis and historical development” https://www.opcw.org/chemical-weapons-convention/genesis-and-historical-development/ accessed on March
20 2018
66
98% of the world's population is based in The Hague-Netherlands.239 The mission of
OPCW is to implement the provisions of the CWC in order to destroy chemical
weapons and protect member states from possible attacks on the use of chemical
weapons. The OPCW team began doing work after a breakthrough resolution from
the UN Security Council in September requested that Syria's chemical weapons
inventory be destroyed.
The resolution came after a chemical attack on the outskirts of the capital
Damascus on 21 August 2013 that killed hundreds of people, and followed the threat
of attacks from the United States against the regime of Bashar al-Assad.240 The
resolution passed by the UNSC has two demands. First, Syria must surrender all
chemical weapons reserves. Second, international chemical weapons experts are
given free access to make sure it is done. The deadline for chemical weapons
surrender is mid-2014.241
The UN Security Council also formed a group called United Nations
Supervision Mission in Syria (UNSMIS). The mission was established in 2012 as a
result of Security Council Resolutions in response to the conflict taking place in
Syria.242 The mission was led by Maj. Gen. Robert Mood of Norway until July 20,
2012 followed by Lt. Gen. Babacar Gaye of Senegal.243 The mission consists of 300
unarmed military monitors and 100 civilian staff.244 The mission was to monitor the
implementation of the ceasefire in April 2012.245
The operation was postponed on June 16, 2012 on the grounds of increased
violence. On July 20, 2012, the Security Council extended this mission with a final
30 day period.246 According to United Nations Security Council Resolution No.2059,
the Council shall only consider the extension of time in accordance with the report of
the Secretary-General and the Council confirming the cessation of heavy weapon use
239 United Nations, “United Nations disarmament – chemical” https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/chemical/ accessed on March 20, 2018 240 United Nations.(n.d). Retrieved from United Nations: https://www.un.org/press/en/2013/sc11135.doc.htm 241 The Guardian, “Syria misses chemical weapons deadline”
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/05/syria-misses-chemical-weapons-deadline accessed on March
20, 2018 242 United Nations Peacekeeping “UNSMIS background”
https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unsmis/background.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018 243 Ibid 244 Ibid 245 Ibid 246 United Nations Peacekeeping, “UNSMIS mandate”
https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unsmis/mandate.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018
67
and the decline of sufficient levels of violence by all parties to enable UNSMIS to
exercise its mandate.247
Those are not the only things done by United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) in solving Syria conflict. The other way done by United Nations Security
Council (UNSC) is by creating draft resolutions related to Syria conflict.
IV.4. Russian Federation Policy in the United Nations
Security Council (UNSC): Solving Syria Conflict (2015 -2018)
Efforts done by United Nations Security Council cannot be separated with
each member state. As we all know, Russian Federation is included as one of United
Nations Security Council permanent member states. Russia has been using its efforts
to solve Syria conflict. Through this chapter, efforts done by Russian Federation in
the United Nations Security Council Decision to solve Syria Conflict (2015-2018)
will be explained.
IV.4.1 Russian Federation and Its Veto Power on United Nations Security
Council (UNSC): SolvingSyria Conflict (2015 – 2018)
The veto is a privilege owned by the 5 largest permanent members of the UN
Security Council, commonly called "the big five". The five countries are the US,
Britain, France, China and Russia (in lieu of the Soviet Union). The privilege is the
right to refuse or cancel a UN Security Council decision. Although the term veto itself
is not contained in the UN Charter, the five permanent members of the UN Security
Council have what is called a "veto". Thus, if one of the permanent members of the
UN Security Council uses its veto to reject a decision that other members have agreed
upon, then the decision cannot be implemented.
The existence of this veto is very closely related to the position and authority
of the UN Security Council. These functions and powers include:
a) Authority to elect the Chair of the General Assembly in which the
General Assembly has a very important meaning in the survival of
the United Nations;
247 United Nations Peacekeeping, “UNSMIS mandate”
https://peacekeeping.un.org/mission/past/unsmis/mandate.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018
68
b) The authority to recommend a state to enter as a new member of the
United Nations;
c) Authority to recommend a country to withdraw from UN
membership;
d) Authority to amend the UN Charter;
e) Authority to elect judges to be sitting in the International Court of
Justice.248
The veto possessed by the major powers was initially discussed regularly
when formulating the UN Charter, both at Dumbarton Oaks and at Yalta, and in San
Francisco.249 That to the five countries deemed to be very responsible for the
settlement of World War II would be a permanent member of the UNSC and to be
granted a veto, it is a reward of their responsibility for international peace and security
(primary responsibilities). By law the power possessed by the permanent members of
the UNSC is a privilege given to them. But legally they have no obligations or
responsibilities that are different from other UN member states.250 The Charter only
determines that the primary responsibilities for international peace and security are
with the UNSC and not the permanent members of the Security Council.
At the discussion at Dumbarton Oaks, there was a difference in the
formulation of the article on the veto. The US wants to have rules that limit the use
of veto, for example in the matter of order. Likewise, the voice of the country which
is the party to the dispute discussed in the Security Council shall have no voting rights,
also for the permanent members of the UN Security Council, the country cannot
exercise its veto rights. The Soviet Union rejected US opinion and wanted a full veto
without restrictions.
In Yalta, the talk of the veto continued, the discussion focused on the
permanent members of UNSC. The permanent members of UNSC who have veto
rights are required to abstain from voting taken for dispute settlement in which they
are the parties to the dispute. The Soviet Union was fervently struggling to exercise
its veto rights in all cases without regard to the ideal concept in law that no one can
248 United Nations, “United Nations Functions and Powers”
https://www.un.org/securitycouncil/content/functions-and-powers accessed on March 20, 2018 249 Ibid 250 United Nations, United Nations Charter” http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/
accessed on March 20, 2018
69
be a judge in his own case. Finally the USSR accepted US suggestions that permanent
members of UNSC should abstain if there is a vote to be taken about a dispute in
which they are a party to a dispute.
In Article 27 paragraph 1 of the Charter of the United Nations, it is said that
each member of UNSC has one vote.251 If the provisions of Article 27 paragraph 1
are related to Article 27, paragraph 3, then there will be a distinction between the
permanent members of UNSC and UNSC unqualified members.252 This difference
lies in non-procedural and procedural issues.
In a non-procedural matter it was determined that the decision should be
decided by at least 9 votes, including the unanimous vote of the five permanent
members of UNSC.253 As for the procedural problem it is determined that the decision
will be taken at least 9 votes of UNSC members (not necessarily by unanimous
permanent members of UNSC).254
This provision shows how much the role and influence of permanent
members of UNSC in the decision-making process, because for important issues
concerning international peace and security (non-procedural) there should be their
unanimous approval (without veto). The power of veto which was originally intended
as a tool for UNSC to have sufficient strength, in practice has deviated from the
original intention.
It turned out that the use of veto by the five permanent members of UNSC,
especially the US has been used with no limit. Thus, it further emphasizes that the
conception of veto puts the five member states of UNSC have a higher position and /
or sovereignty than other UN member states. But precisely the concept is contrary to
the principle of the sovereign equality.
251 United Nations, United Nations Charter” http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-charter-full-text/ accessed on March 20, 2018 252 United Nations Legal.(n.d). Retrieved from United Nations Legal: http://legal.un.org/repertory/art27.shtml 253 United Nations Security Council, “UNSC meetings-votings”
nhttp://www.un.org/en/sc/meetings/voting.shtml accessed on March 20, 2018 254 Ibid
70
Figure 4.1 Number of resolutions vetoed by each of the five permanent members of
the Security Council between 1946 and 2018
Source: Wikipedia
Figure 4.1 shows how Russian Federation has been using its veto right often
compared to the other members. According to United Nations Security Council, in
2015, there was no veto used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict. However,
in 2015, Russia began building a military air base in Khmeimim, Latakia in August
2015 as an effort to end Syria conflict.255 Combat operations began on September 30,
2015, and the presence of Russia guaranteed Assad's victory.256 Different with 2015,
there have been 9 vetoes used by Russian Federation from 2016-2018 to end Syria
war.
Table 4.1 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2016 (Source: UNSC)
255 RT, “Russian airbase in Syria: RT checks out everyday life at Latakia airfield”
https://www.rt.com/news/317528-latakia-russian-khmeimim-airbase/ accessed on march 20 2018 256 Reuters, “Russia begins Syria air strikes in its biggest Mideast intervention in decades”
https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-russia/russia-begins-syria-air-strikes-in-its-biggest-mideast-
intervention-in-decades-idUSKCN0RU0MG20150930 accessed on march 20 2018
Meetings conducted by the Security Council in 2016 (in reverse chronological order)
Meeting Record
Date Press Release
Topic Security Council Outcome / Vote
S/PV.7785 8 October SC/12545 The situation in the Middle
East
Draft resolutionS/2016/846 vetoed by
Russian Federation 11-2-2
Draft resolutionS/2016/847 not adopted
4-9-2
S/PV.7825 5 December
SC/12609 The situation in the Middle
East
Draft resolutionS/2016/1026 vetoed by China and Russian Federation
11-3-1
71
1. 8 October 2016, 2.30 P.M at UNSC 7785th Meeting, New York
Russia vetoed a UN resolution aimed at stopping the bombing of
Aleppo on Saturday, prolonging the division and paralysis of the Security
Council in the face of the Syria’s humanitarian disaster.257 The Russian
ambassador to the UN, Vitaly Churkin, was presiding over the UN Security
Council, cast the veto against a Franco-Spanish resolution that had demanded
an end to all aerial bombardment and over flights of Aleppo by Russian and
Syrian regime aircraft. The resolution also called for a resumed ceasefire and
the delivery of humanitarian supplies to besieged population.258
China abstained, further isolating Russia on the issue, along with
Angola. Venezuela was the only other country to vote with Russia against the
resolution. A Russian counter-resolution, which omitted mention of aerial
bombardment, was voted down with nine votes against and four in favor.259
“Instead of investing energy in peace and diplomacy, Russia has
supported, facilitated and cooperated with the Syrian regime in order to
retake and destroy areas standing against Al-Assad, literally killing off
those who want a moderate, peaceful and pluralistic future, free from
both the barbarism of Al-Assad and the horrors inflicted by Da’esh and
other terrorists in Syria. And it is Syrian civilians who continue to bear
the brunt of that cruelty and Russia’s complicity”.260 Said Vitaly
Churkin during the meeting.
2. 5 December 2016, 2.25 P.M at UNSC 7825th Meeting, New York
On 5 December 2016, Russian Federation together with China vetoed
UN Security Council resolution draft calling for a seven-day shutdown in the
Syrian city of Aleppo.261 Russia assumed that a ceasefire would only create a
group of terrorists to re-group. Therefore Russia vetoed the draft resolution
proposed by the United Nations Security Council (UNSC).
257 The Guardian, “Russia vetoes UN Resolution – Syria – bombing Aleppo”
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/oct/08/russia-vetoes-un-resolution-syria-bombing-aleppo accessed on
March 20 2018 258 Ibid 259 Ibid 260 Independent, British Diplomat speech on United Nations condemning Russia support Syria civil war”
https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/british-diplomat-speech-united-nations-condemning-
russia-support-syria-civil-war-a7353671.html accessed on March 20 2018 261 United Nations, “UN Press” https://www.un.org/press/en/2016/sc12609.doc.htm accessed on march 20 2018
72
Table 4.2 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2017
Source: United Nations Official Website
1. 28 February 2017, 11.30 A.M at UNSC 7893rd Meeting, New York
The United Nations accused Syrian President Bashar al-Assad of using
chemical weapons in a civil war that has been in place since 2011. The draft
resolution prepared by Britain, France and the United States was brought to
trial on Tuesday, February 28, 2017, gaining support from nine countries.
Meetings conducted by the Security Council in 2017 (in reverse chronological order)
Meeting Record
Date Press Release
Topic Security Council Outcome / Vote
S/PV.7893 28 February
SC/12737 The situation
in the Middle East
Draft resolutionS/2017/172 vetoed by China and Russian Federation
9-3-3
S/PV.7922 12 April SC/12791 The situation
in the Middle East
Draft resolutionS/2017/315 vetoed by
Russian Federation 10-2-3
S/PV.8073 24 October SC/13040 The situation
in the Middle East
Draft resolutionS/2017/884 vetoed by
Russian Federation 11-2-2
S/PV.8105 16 November
SC/13072 The situation
in the Middle East
Draft resolutionS/2017/962 vetoed by
Russian Federation 11-2-2
Draft resolutionS/2017/968 not adopted
4-7-4
S/PV.8107 17 November
SC/13076 The situation
in the Middle East
Draft resolutionS/2017/970 vetoed by
Russian Federation 12-2-1
73
While Russia, China and Bolivia refused. The other three members of the
Security Council, Kazahkstan, Ethiopia and Egypt abstain.262
Syria survived the UN Security Council sanctions after the decision of
the world institution backed by Western powers was vetoed by Russia and
China. Russian President, Vladimir Putin warned that the imposition of
sanctions on Syria during the peace talks in Geneva took place was
inappropriate and would undermine efforts to end a six-year war.263 Therefore,
a veto was used again by Russian Federation in order to end Syria conflict
2. 12 April 2017, 3 P.M at UNSC 7922nd Meeting, New York
On 12 April 2017, Russia vetoed the UN Security Council resolution
on the establishment of an investigation into the use of chemical weapons in
Syria.264 The veto has thwarted the adoption of a UN Security Council
resolution to investigate the use of chemical weapons in the Douma district of
Syria to identify the perpetrators. Russia's deputy ambassador to the UN
Vladimir Safronkov, said one of the reasons his side vetoed the resolution was
that the resolution had blamed one side, in this case the Syrian government,
even before the investigation began. He added, “accepting this resolution is
tantamount to justifying US air strikes against the Shayrat air base in northern
Syria.”265 Where, Washington claims the base is where aircraft carrying
chemical weapons to attack Idlib take off.
3. 4 October 2017, 10 A.M at UNSC 8073rd Meeting, New York
Russia vetoed a UN Security Council effort to renew its mandate to
continue an investigation into who was responsible for the use of chemical
weapons during the Syrian civil war. China voted abstained in voting on
262 United Nations, “Security Council Fails to Adopt Resolution Condemning Chemical Weapons Use in Syria,
Following Veto by Russian Federation” 263 Ibid 264 Ibid
https://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sc12791.doc.htm accessed on march 20, 2018 265 United Nations, “United Nations Press 2017” https://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sc12791.doc.htm Accessed
on March 20, 2018
74
Tuesday, while Bolivia joined Russia in a vote by not voting. Eleven countries
voted in favor of the proposal. Russia complained that the resolution presented
to the UN Security Council to extend the OPCW’s mandate had been brought
forward in haste before its report had been provided to the UN Security
Council.266 Russia pointed out that this was obviously inappropriate and
appeared intended to led authority to the report before it was published.267
Russia assumed that there was actually no need to bring forward a resolution
to extend the OPCW’s mandate in that way, and that the more correct time to
bring such a resolution forward was after the report had been submitted to the
UN Security Council for its consideration.268
4. 16 November 2017, 3 P.M at UNSC 8105th Meeting, New York
Russia again vetoed UN Security Council resolutions seeking a fresh
investigation into the use of chemical weapons in Syria.269 The decision made
Russia and the United States fight each other argument whereas hours later
White House Spokesman Sarah Sanders said President Donald Trump believed
he could work with President Vladimir Putin on the issue of Syria. Russia's UN
ambassador, Vassily Nebenzia said the US-made draft resolution was
unbalanced, thus, Russian Federation rejected the draft resolution through its
veto right.
5. 17 November 2017, 6.15 P.M at UNSC 8107th Meeting, New York
As the previous day Russian Federation vetoed UN draft resolution
concerning investigation into the use of chemical weapons in Syria, on 17
November 2017, Russian Federation used its veto right again to reject UN
Security Council draft proposed by the United States to extend the mandate of
inquiry into the use of chemical weapons in the war in Syria.270 As reported by
266 The Duran, “Russian outmarts Nikki Haley in UNSC Debate” http://theduran.com/russia-nebenzia-outmanoeuvres-nikki-haley-un-security-council-khan-sheikhoun/ accessed
on march 20 2018 267 Ibid 268 Ibid 269 UNSC Research, "Security Council - Quick Links."Last modified June 1158.
https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick. 270 United Nations, “Security Council Fails for Fourth Time to Renew Mandate of Joint Mechanism
Investigating Chemical Weapons Attacks in Syria”
75
Reuters, with this veto, Russia again thwarted UN efforts to extend the mission
work that has revealed the use of Sarin gas by the Syrian military. Russia itself
has filed a counter-resolution, but countered the board for not getting support.
Nebenzia said that he was very disappointed and those who voted against the
Russian design. The Russians said that the panel’s investigation was
“nonsense,” and that renewal of its mandate would require improved methods
of establishing culpability for chemical weapons attacks.271
Table 4.3 Vetoes used by Russian Federation to end Syria Conflict in 2018
Source: United Nations Official Website
1. 26 February 2018, 3 P.M at UNSC 8190th Meeting, New York
In 2017, Russia used its veto power to thwart the draft UN Security
Council resolution, which would pressure Iran for failing to prevent its
https://www.un.org/press/en/2017/sc13076.doc.htm accessed on march 20 2018 271 New York Times, “Syria chemical weapons – United Nations” https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/17/world/middleeast/syria-chemical-weapons-united-nations-jim.html
accessed on March 20 2018
Meetings conducted by the Security Council in 2018 (in reverse chronological order)
Meeting Record
Date Press Release
Topic Security Council Outcome / Vote
S/PV.8190 26 February
SC/13225 The situation
in the Middle East
Draft resolutionS/2018/156 vetoed by Russian Federation
11-2-2 S/RES/2402 (2018)
15-0-0
S/PV.8228 10 April SC/13288 The situation
in the Middle East
Draft resolutionS/2018/321 vetoed by Russian Federation
12-2-1 S/2018/175 not adopted
7-6-2
76
weapons from falling into the hands of Houthi rebels in Yemen.272 The
resolution was submitted by the British and strongly supported by the United
States. In a UNSC ballot session held on Monday, February 26, 2018, the draft
resolution was approved by 11 countries from 15 UNSC member states, but
was thwarted by Russia exercising its veto rights.273 As for China and
Kazakhstan chose abstain and Bolivia refused. Nebenzia also warned that
targeting Iran could lead to dangerous destabilization consequences in the
Middle East, with rising tensions between Shiites and Sunnis. Russia has long
maintained a very good relationship with Iran. Russia and Iran also provide
military support for the regime of Syrian President Bashar al-Assad in the fight
against the rebels in Syria.274
2. 10 April 2018, 3 P.M at UNSC 8228th Meeting, New York
On 10 April, 2018, Russia used its veto on the United States' proposed
resolution framework in the United Nations Security Council, which contained
calls for an investigation into alleged use of chemical weapons in Douma,
Syria.275 Twelve of the 15 members of the UNSC support the resolution
framework, including France, Britain, African countries, Kazakhstan and
Kuwait. Bolivia opposes the resolution framework, while China abstains.276
The US battle with Russia at the United Nations comes amid threats of
Western military action in Syria. This is related to US President Donald Trump
who claims to consider military action in Syria. US Ambassador to the United
Nations Nikki Haley also called for similar things, and insist his country will
act with or without UNSC support. The resolution frame requires nine UNSC
support members and without veto from five permanent members - Britain,
272 UNSC Research, "Security Council - Quick Links."Last modified June 1158.
https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick. 273 New York Times, “Iran – Yemen security council”
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/26/world/middleeast/iran-yemen-security-council.html accessed on March
20 2018 274 King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies. Tenuous Allies: Iran and Russia’s Brittle Syrian
Collaboration, 9. King Faisal Center for Research and Islamic Studies (KFCRIS), 2016. 275Reuters, “Russia vetoes US bid to form new Syria chemical weapons” https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-un-vote/russia-vetoes-u-s-bid-to-form-new-syria-
chemical-weapons-inquiry-idUSKBN1HH37O accessed on March 20 2018 276 Ibid
77
China, France, Russia and the United States. Russian Ambassador to the UN,
Vassily Nebenzia assumed that the United States deliberately designed this
resolution as an excuse to launch military action in Syria. Thus, Russian
Federation vetoed the resolution framework proposed by the United States.
Those are vetoes used by Russian Federation in order to end Syria
conflict from 2015 until 2018. This shows how Russian Federation has been
doing many efforts through its policy in the United Nations Security Council
to end Syria conflict (2015-2018).
IV.5. Syria Conflict Progression
The conflict of Syria is still happening as in recent times, news of Syria and the
atrocities of the war that he experienced re-emerged.277 Such headlines seem to oscillate
from periodic absence and existence, inserting tragedies among other not-so-distant
narratives. However, for those within the frame of events, our action is only a
responsive action that does not root out the problem from its roots - the human ego that
is sealed within the artificial boundaries of the state, power, and ideology.
The authority of the Security Council in achieving its primary objectives,
particularly in the maintenance of international peace and security, is conducted in two
ways: peaceful dispute resolution (Chapter VI of the Charter) and the settlement of
disputes in the form of acts against the threat of peace, peace breaches and aggression
(Chapter VII Charter). In essence, the Security Council's authority is a logical
consequence of the Security Council's primary responsibility.278
Chapter VI The charter governing the settlement of disputes peacefully,
authorizes the Security Council to make recommendations for dispute resolution
procedures and conditions.279 State media said, dozens of unidentified casualties. The
Syrian military said facilities in the province of Hama and Aleppo were attacked,
without mentioning any casualties. However, a UK-based monitoring group said 26
pro-government fighters were killed, most of them Iranians on Monday, April 30,
2018.280
277 Human Rights Watch, "World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria." Last modified January 23, 2019.
https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/syria. 278 United Nations, "Chapter VI." https://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-vi/index.html. Accessed
March 12, 2018 279 Ibid 280 New York Times, “Strikes – Syrian Iran Israel”
78
The person behind the attack is still unknown. The West and Israel have
previously bombed the sites in Syria. Earlier this month, the United States, Britain and
France bombed three facilities they said were linked to the Syrian government's
chemical weapons program.281
Meanwhile, Israel is suspected of having attacked an air base in Homs province
reportedly serving as Iran's unmanned drone command center and containing Iran's
advanced air defense system. Seven Iranian soldiers were among the 14 military
personnel killed in the attack.282
Israel has repeatedly pledged to stop its arch-rival Iran from strengthening its
military presence in Syria, Iran's closest ally. Syrian military sources quoted by the
official Sana news agency said that the locations targeted on Sunday night were hit with
new aggression.
The source added that the strike came after the terrorist organization suffered a
defeat in the capital's rural Damascus, a clear reference to retake the recent Eastern
Ghouta region of the rebel group.
The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (SOHR), a UK-based monitoring
group, said the attack appears to have targeted weapons depots for surface-to-surface
missiles at the 47th Brigade military base near the town of Salhab, in western Hama
province.283
Figure 4.2 Large Explosion of Missile Attack in Syria 30 April, 2018
Source: New York Times
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/30/world/middleeast/strikes-syria-iran-israel.html accessed on March 20
2018 281 The Guardian, “US UK and France launch attack on Assad regime”
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/14/syria-air-strikes-us-uk-and-france-launch-attack-on-assad-
regime accessed on March 20 2018 282 Times of Israel, “Syria blames Israel for missle attack” https://www.timesofisrael.com/syria-blames-israel-
for-missile-attack-idf-wont-comment/ accessed on March 20 2018 283 Haaretz, “Explosions reported in Assad army base, North of Homs – Syria”
https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/syria/explosions-reported-in-assad-army-base-north-of-homs-syria-
1.6035801 accessed on March 20 2018
79
Figure 4.2 shows the missile attack in Syria on 30 April, 2018. This thing shows
how Syria conflict is a never ending conflict because although it has been lasted since
2011, the conflict is still happening. Around 20,000 people were killed in Syria in 2018,
the eighth year of its ongoing civil war between the government of President Bashar
Assad and rebel and jihadi fighters, the Syrian Observatory on Human Rights reported
on Monday. Some 6,500 civilians were among the total killed, the group added.284
284 Haaretz, “Explosions reported in Assad army base, North of Homs – Syria”
https://www.haaretz.com/middle-east-news/syria/explosions-reported-in-assad-army-base-north-of-homs-syria-
1.6035801 accessed on March 20 2018
80
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
Based on the research done by the researcher, Russian Federation has been using
nine vetoes in United Nations Security Council (UNSC) decisions to end Syria conflict.
Nine vetoes used by Russian Federation in United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
decision lasted from 2015 to 2018.285 Those nine vetoes cannot be separated from pros
and contras. Some agree to what Russia has done, and some do not. The pro ones agree
that through its vetoes, Russian Federation has been helping Syria to protect its defense.
On the opposite side, some assume that what Russian Federation has done will only
make the situation in Syria worse as the Syrian war itself has killed at least 340.000
people since it firstly happened in 2011.286
That number includes 100,000 more civilians. The total number of deaths
continues to rise, while the diplomatic keys of international force holders are continuing
to stop the brutal conflict Meanwhile, more than 119,000 pro-government forces have
been killed, including 62,000 Syrian troops, tens of thousands of loyalist militia
members, and 1,556 fighters from the Lebanese Hizbullah movement.287 Another
59,000 fighters came from rebel groups, and US-backed Syrian Democratic forces were
also killed. The jihad group also suffered the biggest blow, with more than 62,200
people dead, or an increase of 4,000 since the last data in July 2017. The war in Syria
has also destroyed most of the country's infrastructure and caused millions of people to
flee.288
It resulted 3 (three) major crisis in Syria and to all citizens. These have certainly
caused the impacts of civil society:
First, security crisis where security is a situation where there is no threat to burden
or affect the life of people in a region. Security is one of the main factors of a person
living or living in an area. The Syrian conflict that continues to this day has caused a
285 United Nations Security Council, "Security Council - Quick Links." https://research.un.org/en/docs/sc/quick. Accessed March 12, 2018 286 Arab News, "Syria War Has Killed More Than 340,000." Last modified November 27, 2017.
http://www.arabnews.com/node/1199981/middle-east. 287 Ibid 288 Ibid
81
threat to public security. These violent conflicts have produced millions of lives. Many
civil society homes have been victimized by the heavy weapons used by both the
opposition and the government, with the intention of seizing and controlling the
territory in Syria. Moreover, every day is not certain when and where bomb attacks or
sudden shots are always waged. This is certainly a concern for civil society because at
any time they can be victims of the armed conflict. In addition, this conflict became
increasingly out of control and increasingly violent when in 2013 chemical weapons
attacks were used in March and August in one of the areas in Aleppo and Damascus.
This event has resulted in many deaths and paintings, mostly children. The bravery of
the use of chemical weapons shows that all means will be taken and used by the party
to be able to control the territory, although it has been banned by the international world.
Thus, it has threatened the security of Syrian civilian life.
Second, the economic crisis, beginning the longstanding Syrian conflict from
2011 to the present, has continued to escalate from year to year. The subsequent impact
of the long-standing conflict on civil society is the economic impact, which is the most
important aspect of living the daily life. The conflict has used a variety of heavy
weapons that add to the destruction of Syria itself which will hamper the daily activities
of civil society. The heavy weapons usage through air strikes to the use of chemical
weapons has adorned the conflict in this country of thousands of Damascus. Attacks
that use these weapons have significantly destroyed various public infrastructures of
state and private assets including health, education, energy, water, agriculture,
transportation, homes and various other infrastructures. Reports from the World Bank's
Needs and Damage Assistance Agency state that the damage was created in six
provincial capitals in Syria, namely Alepo, Dera, Hama, Homs, Idlib and Latakia where
the total damage to the six capitals was estimated at $ 3.7 to 4 , 5 billion in December
2014. GDP is estimated to have contracted per year by about 19% by 2015.289
Public finance has deteriorated since the onset of the conflict. The fiscal deficit
increased sharply by an average of 12% of GDP over the period 2011 to 2014. Total
income fell to below 7% of GDP during 2014 to 2015 due to robust oil revenues and
tax revenues.290 Especially since the beginning of the conflict until year after year,
289 The World Bank, “Documents & Reports - All Documents”
http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/530541512657033401/pdf/121943-WP-P161647-PUBLIC-Syria-
Damage-Assessment.pdf. Accessed June 16, 2019. 290 Ibid
82
various parts of Syria are controlled by various parties involved, namely government,
government opposition, and ISIS. Much of the territory controlled by these various
parties is a region rich in petroleum and other industrial sectors, including the six
provincial capitals. The consequences of the conflict also hinder and block production
and distribution channels of aid, water, gas and electricity supply cuts. This causes
civilians cannot perform their daily activities. By the end of 2014, according to SCPR
(Syrian Center for Policy Research) about 82% of Syrians are in poverty, while 2.96
million people have lost their jobs because of the prolonged conflict and unemployment
has reached 58%.291
Third, the humanitarian crisis from 2011 to the present has created a humanitarian
crisis. This was originally demonstrated by the statements of seven humanitarian
organizations on January 22, 2014, Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch and
Oxfam, that the crisis in Syria is the greatest humanitarian crisis of the present that
cannot be described in a world of beads. The statement was presented at the World
Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, to coincide with the Syrian peace conference
in Montreux, another city in Syria. During the course of the conflict there have been
many civilian victims, both dead, wounded and displaced. In addition, these large-scale
conflicts have led to the largest wave of refugees after World War II.
From the explanation in chapter III, it can be seen how Russia Federation has
been maintaining its good relations with Syria because of several national interests of
Russian Federation itself. It can be seen that efforts of Russian Federation policy in the
United Nations Security Council (UNSC) decision have been done in order to protect
its national interests. As in 2018, the conflict of Syria is getting worse, it can be
concluded that efforts of Russian Federation policy in the United Nations Security
Council (UNSC) (2015-2108) are not enough to solve Syria conflict.
Russian Federation may have been succeed in protecting its national interests
toward Syria. However, as the conflict is getting worse by year, it can be assumed that
draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation in the United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) decisions did not 100% solve the conflict since the conflict is still happening.
It also has been analyzed in chapter 4 that Iran, Turkey, United States and Saudi Arabia
are also involved in ending Syria conflict. Despite of United States inconsistency
explained in chapter 4, together with Iran, Turkey, Saudi Arabia and other ISSG
291 Syrian Center for Policy Research (SCPR). https://www.scpr-syria.org/. Accessed June 16, 2019.
83
members, Russia implemented its policy in United Nations Security Council (UNSC)
to end Syria conflict (2015 – 2018).
84
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94
APPENDIX
2016 draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation concerning Syria conflict in UNSC:
95
2017 draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation concerning Syria conflict in UNSC:
96
97
2018 draft resolutions vetoed by Russian Federation concerning Syria conflict in UNSC:
98
UN Resolutions 2236 (2016):
99
UN Resolutions 2254 (2015):
100
UN Resolutions 2268 (2016):
101
Joint Statement by Iran, Russia and Turkey on the International Meeting on Syria in Astana
28-29 November 2018:
102
Joint Statement by Iran, Russia, Turkey on The International Meeting on Syria in Astana,
January 23-24th 2017:
103
Joint Statement by United States and Russian Federation in 2017:
Final Statement of the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018:
104
Final Statement of the Congress of the Syrian national dialogue, Sochi, January 30, 2018
105
Joint Statement of Saudi Arabia on Syria in 2013:
106
Joint Statement on Syria – 7 December 2018
107
Russia Foreign Policy related to Syria:
