Sacred Architecture Issue 5 2001

SA C R E DARC H I T E C T U R ESpring 2001

Journal of the Institute for Sacred Architecture

OPEROSAM DECORAMQUERECONSTRUCTIONEM

Disregarding the warnings and legislation of the Holy See, many people have made unwarranted changes in places of worship under thepretext of carrying out the reform of the liturgy and have thus caused the disfigurement or loss of priceless works of art. Opera Artis

Prominently located on one the most spacious piazze in Rome is the ancient church of Santa Maria in Trastevere. This three-aisledbasilica, constructed with columns from the Roman baths of Caracalla, is said to be one of the first churches in the Eternal City dedicatedto the Virgin. It is a poignant example of how the art of different epochs can work together to produce a masterpiece of sacred art andarchitecture. One of the many patrons who endowed Santa Maria with their beneficence was Pope Gregory IV (827 - 884), who raisedthe presbytery, constructed a crypt for relics and built a new ciborium over the altar. This substantial opera artis, work of art, can be seenas in harmony with the original basilica as well as giving it a stronger identity. A document of the period refers to Pope Gregorys inter-ventions as operosam decoramque reconstructionem, a refined and elaborate decorative restoration. Later popes, cardinals and laymen com-missioned further elaborate restorations by adding mosaics, coffering, cosmatesque floors, a narthex and side chapels so that todaySanta Maria is a work of art produced by the Universal Church down through the ages.

Tradition, as Chesterton has written , is the democracy of the dead, and those asleep in Christ continue to inspire us through count-less beautiful churches in Europe and the New World. It is a characteristic of modern cultures, however, that tradition is often seen asposing a barrier to progress, and this is perhaps nowhere more evident than in our treatment of historic churches and cathedrals over thepast forty years. In a time when some of our early twentieth-century public works such as Grand Central Station in New York have beenelegantly restored, we seem to be witnessing an unbridled Modernist jihad to substantially renovate traditional churches. This is rathershocking within an institution known for its unwavering defense of and embodiment of tradition.

The typical agenda of the liturgical renovators is well known: bring a freestanding altar into the nave, diminish the definition of thesanctuary, replace the high altar with a priests chair, move the tabernacle into a less prominent location, have fan-shaped seating, andremove any non-liturgical art. The reasons given for these unfortunate and even violent interventions range from encouraging activeparticipation to making the church less distracting from the liturgy, as well as pleas to the spirit of Vatican II. What is to explain the ani-mus felt toward beautiful Gothic and Classical structures by liturgists and pastors? They seem to be suffering from a type of Oedipalcomplex.

Up until a few years ago, I would have said that Catholics were finally catching up with the secular realm in our embrace of historicpreservation. Yet the number of renovations of historic cathedrals presently going on leads me to believe that we are being revisited bythe ghost of Cranmer. And just as in sixteenth-century England it was the lay faithful who fought to preserve their religious heritage byillegally hiding crucifixes and saving statuary from decapitation, so it is today. According to the 1971 letter from the Vatican, Opera Artis,It grieves the faithful to see that more than ever before there is so much unlawful transferal of ownership of the historical and artisticheritage of the Church , as well as theft, confiscation, and destruction. The lay Catholic preservationists point out correctly that none ofthe aspects of the typical agenda are mandated by Church law and that in many cases the renovation process has caused strife and divi-sion among the body of Christ. This division is scandalous and ironic given that one of the stated goals of most renovations is to have aworship space which fosters community.

With the potential disfigurement or loss of priceless works of art in the words of Opera Artis, would it not be appropriate for theVatican to call for a moratorium on all renovations of historic churches? Perhaps a cease fire is the more applicable term. Yet I believethat if we study the history of Catholic architecture we can glean some principles for a refined and elaborate restoration of our churchesand cathedrals. First, architects and patrons must regain a certain humility towards sacred works of the past. They should acknowledgethat our sacred buildings are gifts from previous generations. Humility recognizes the quality of churches in all different styles, whetherthey are our personal favorites or not. Second, any renovations need to respect the existing architecture of the church. Each building hasqualities of spatial configuration, orientation, and architectural language which must be respected and maintained. When we proposemoving an altar into the middle of the nave or against the side wall we are fighting against the architectural characteristics of a longitudi-nal church and creating confusion among the faithful. Third, all new works should be in aesthetic harmony with the existing architec-tural language , so that after a renovation is complete it is difficult to tell what is new. This does not necessarily require that everythingmust be in the same style, history shows that many of our preeminent churches have been constructed in a variety of styles over time yetcan work together to produce harmony. Fourth, whatever is replaced or added needs to be of a similar or higher quality to that which al-ready exists, both in its design and materials. Fifth, it is crucial that we cultivate an appreciation for the sensus fidei, respecting the faith-ful in their attachment to particular works of sacred art and elements of architecture. For a pastor to decide not to use an ornate pulpit ora marble altar rail is one thing, but to remove these elements means taking away the option for people in the future. Replacing a belovedicon of the Madonna with something deemed more tasteful may not serve the devotion of the faithful.

The Catholic Church, as great promoter of the living tradition, should once again become a leader in the movement to preserve ourhistoric structures. Why? Because Catholicism understands that the Faith is handed down to us by the Church , and likewise the archi-tecture we have been given is a material symbol of that faith, a physical witness of the devotion of our forbears. Perhaps it is time toform a National Trust for the Preservation of Sacred Art and Architecture which could assist bishops in gauging the significance of dioc-esan art and recommend appropriate ways to restore or renovate the house of God. Churches in Europe often fall under such a govern-mental review board, but in the United States there is no protection for the interiors of churches. Such an organization should be formedwith the American bishops and could make use of the experience of the Holy See in this regard as well as that of the international preser-vation movement. May we regain our senses, preserve the Churchs rich patrimony and in humility continue to add our own works ofart to that patrimony.

Duncan StroikNotre Dame, Indiana

On the cover: The Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem presides at a Holy Saturday service in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre,Jerusalem. (Photo: Biddle, The Church of the Holy Sepulchre, 2000)

Sacred Architecture Spring 2001 3

J o u r n a l o f t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r S a c r e d A r c h i t e c t u r eThe Institute for Sacred Architecture is a non-profit organization made up of architects, clergy, educators and others interested in the discussion of significantissues related to contempory Catholic architecture. SACRED ARCHITECTURE is published bi-annually for $9.95. 2001 The Institute for Sacred Architecture.Address manuscripts and letters to the Editor.EDITOR: ADVISORY BOARD: PRODUCTION:Duncan Stroik John Burgee, FAIA John BergsmaP.O. Box 556 Most Rev. Charles J. Chaput, O.F.M., Cap. Thomas DietzNotre Dame IN 46556 Rev. Cassian Folsom, O.S.B. David S. Heitvoice: (219) 271-0522 fax: (219) 271-0522 Ralph McInernyemail: [email protected] Thomas Gordon Smith, AIA

Spring 2001SACRED ARCHITECTUREVol. 4, No. 1

Issue 5

C O N T E N T S

E D I T O R I A L2 Operosam Decoramque Reconstructionem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Duncan Stroik

N E W S4 New Cathedral for the Diocese of Oakland New Cathedral in Houston Holy Sepulchre in Danger

of Collapse Basilica of the National Shrine of the Assumption Being Restored John Paul II GivesRoman Church to Constantinople Growing Congregations Spur Church Construction Boom

F E A T U R E10 The Church Building and Participation in the Paschal Mystery:

Assessing the NCCB Document Built of Living Stones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Timothy V. Vaverek

A R T I C L E S16 Christology at the National Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bruce Harbert19 Faith-Based Land Use Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . James M. Thunder20 The Church in the City of the Third Millenium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Christiano Rosponi22 A Vast, Immeasurable Sanctuary: Iconography For Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . David T. Mayernik

B O O K S25 The Spirit of the Liturgy by Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reviewed by Dino Marcantonio27 Hawksmoors London Churches: Architecture and Theology

by Pierre De La Ruffiniere Du Prey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reviewed by Robert Woodbury28 Heaven in Stone and Glass: Experiencing the Spirituality of the Great Cathedrals

by Robert Barron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reviewed by Randall Smith29 The Church of the Holy Sepulchre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reviewed by David S. Heit

After Heaven: Spirituality in America Since the 1950sby Robert Wuthnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . reviewed by Bryan Clark Green

C O M M E N T A R Y30 Neo-Gothic Architecture Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ethan Anthony

4 Spring 2001 Sacred Architecture

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SACRED ARCHITECTURE NEWSThe ninth Study Congress on Liturgi-

cal Art held in Rome focused on theChurch as steward of works of art. BishopCarlo Chenis, secretary of the PontificalCommission for the Cultural Goods of theChurch, advised that Catholics must avoid a certain tendency that is creepingup to construct multipurpose places ofworship, he said. There cannot be some-thing that is right for all. Bishop Chenisfurther cautioned against efficient prag-matism that often leaves one dissatisfiedwith church designs. The congress, in fact,called for an end to superficiality and hasti-ness in design which have resulted inminimalist options in new constructionsand restoration work.

Switzerland is about to inaugurate an

exhibition of Marc Chagalls works, call-ing attention once again to this Russian-French artists profound relation to Jesus,although Chagall never embraced Chris-tianity. The exhibition, to be held inLuganos Museum of Modern Art fromMarch 8 to July 1, highlights Chagalls reli-giousness. Chagall was born into a Jewishfamily in Vitebsk, Byelorussia, in 1887. Theartist died in Saint-Paul de Vence, France,in 1985. Chagalls work is not a criticism ofChristianity, Franz Mayer, the famous artcritic explained in the 1960s. On the con-trary, Chagall once said that since 1908 the year of one of Russias worst pogroms Jesus became for him a Jewish martyr, ason of his people, in whose life and suffer-ings he shared.

A Shrine of Martyrs designed to

hold 20,000 people and boasting a cupolaonly a few meters lower than St. Peters Ba-silica is scheduled to be built inGuadalajara, Mexico. The first stone for thebuilding will be laid at an October 25 cer-emony. The new building is expected tocost between $50 million and $60 millionand be complete by the start of 2004. Thearchitectural design includes a large cu-pola, which is 5 or 6 meters lower than St.Peters in Rome. An auditorium will bebuilt on the ground floor with a capacityfor 20,000. The second floor will have anumber of auditoriums for different pil-grim groups.

A brochure of proposals for a new

double monastery in LaCrosse, Wisconsinis available. The project, sponsored by theInstitute of St. Joseph in LaCrosse, hastwelve designs by architecture students atthe University of Notre Dame School of Ar-chitecture. For information call 219/631-6137 or email [email protected]

A new Cathedral is planned for theDiocese of Oakland. European architectSantiago Calatrava is designing a new ca-thedral for the Diocese of Oakland, Califor-nia. Calatrava says the seventy-five mil-lion dollar structures shapea luminous,glass-sheathed shell atop an ellipticalplanis like hands joined in prayer. Fin-gers of steel will meet to form a soaring180-foot canopy glazed with bright stainedglass that will fade as it rises toward theskylit top. The roof will be openable, andthe eye-shaped plan of the building, ori-ented on a North/South, East/West axis,provides many entrances into the lumi-nous, 420- foot wide space for people to en-ter in groups or alone. Inside, in the spiritof Chinese, Buddhist or Hindu societieswho choose orthogonal centers for temples,the congregation will sit encircling the altarand cathedra in the middle of the 34,000-square-foot space. The intention is that li-turgical performances be placed center-stage. At night, the cathedral itself will bea central beacon, while an auditoriumnearby will be for myriad celebrations. Itsgardens will symbolize earth, air, fire andwater - all gods within many pantheons.My ambition is to give Oaklands cathe-dral a universal character independent ofthe Catholic Church, says Calatrava. Plu-ralism is universality, he explains.Calatravas bold projects are popular in Eu-rope and gaining attention in the U.S. Inaddition to the Oakland Cathedral, he isalso commissioned to design the Cathedralof St. John the Divine in Manhattan, andfive bridges in Dallas.

Science is stunned by Virgin of

Guadalupes eyes. Last January in Rome,results of research into the famed imagewere discussed by engineer Jos Aste

Tonsmann of the Mexican Center ofGuadalupan Studies during a conference atthe Pontifical Athenaeum ReginaApostolorum. Though the dimensions aremicroscopic, the iris and the pupils of theimages eyes have imprinted on them ahighly detailed picture of at least 13people, Tonsmann said. Tonsmann says hebelieves the reflection transmitted by theeyes of the Virgin of Guadalupe is the sceneon Dec. 9, 1531, during which Juan Diegoshowed his tilma, with the image, toBishop Juan de Zumrraga and otherspresent in the room. Tonsmann pointed outthat Richard Kuhn, a Nobel Prize winner inchemistry, has found that the image did nothave natural, animal or mineral colorings.Given that there were no synthetic color-ings in 1531, the image is inexplicable.

Before his death at age 93, Count

Balthazar Klossowski de Rola, betterknown to the world as the artist Balthus,talked about the profoundly spiritual sideof his work. Painting and praying are thesame thing, Balthus told French Catholicweekly newspaper La Vie. I have neverthought of painting in any way other thanas a religious activity, Balthus stressed.Balthus died this past February in Switzer-land. He was a brother of writer PierreKlossowski, and was born in Paris in 1908to a family of Polish origin. It was poetRainer Maria Rilke who encouragedBalthus to dedicate himself to painting.

A kinetic cathedral for Oakland bySantiago Calatrava

Interior of proposed Cathedral of Christthe Light, Oakland, California

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Construction on Houstons first Ro-man Catholic cathedral is expected to becompleted by fall 2004. It will retain thename of the current 90-year-old SacredHeart Co-Cathedral, which will be demol-ished to make way for parking and a plaza.Long ago we outgrew Sacred Heart Co-Cathedral, which seats less than 800people, Bishop Joseph A. Fiorenza of theDiocese of Galveston-Houston said. Thisnew cathedral seats 2,100 people.Fiorenza said the cathedral will accommo-date large liturgical celebrations such as or-dinations as well as ecumenical and civicevents. The $50 million cathedral will haveexterior walls of imported limestone andmarble, architect Scott Ziegler said, andwill have balconies at the entrance and inthe transepts. The upper level seating areaswill be connected by galleries or walkways.A fellowship hall and 200-seat chapel willbe below the main sanctuary. Windowsaround the gold-leaf dome, which will rise11 stories above the sanctuary, will allownatural light into the worship center,Ziegler said. Sacred Heart was a parishchurch until the Diocese of Galveston wasredesignated the Diocese of Galveston-Houston in 1959. The church was thennamed co-cathedral with St. Marys Co-Ca-thedral in Galveston. Fiorenza said the dio-cese planned a 1,500-seat cathedral when itlaunched a $70 million funding campaigntwo years ago for the new edifice and otherdiocesan needs. But he was encouraged toconstruct a larger facility by the 1.3 million-member diocese who pledged $102 millionduring the year-long campaign.

Controversy has erupted in Lodi, Italy,

over plans to build a mosque on munici-pal land. The Northern League, a party ofnationalist tendency, staged a protest at thesite where the mosque is to be constructed.

Durer exhibit focuses on suffering

Jesus. Durers Passions, which openedSept. 9, 2000 at the Busch-Reisinger Mu-seum of Harvard University, brings to-gether for the first time images from six ofAlbrecht Durers (1471-1528) versions ofJesus passion. Stand-alone images of apained Jesus supplement four multiframeseries based on the Bibles account of thearrest, trial, crucifixion and resurrection.The intended effect, according to Curatorof Prints Marjorie B. Cohn, was to exposethe viewer to Durers personal identifica-tion with a Jesus who suffered.

In commemoration of a thousand years

of continuous praise of God in the monas-tery of St. Xenophontos on Mount Athos,Greece, a commemorative volume entitledIcons has been released. The volume isavailable in English and Greek, and pre-sents a scholarly presentation to the publicof the unknown treasures of Mount Athos.

It includes photos of all the monasterysicons as well as an account of its history.The 302-page hard cover album contains142 full-color illustrations. The monographcan be obtained by contacting the HolyMonastery of St. Xenophontos, Mt. Athos,630 87 Daphne, Greece. Tel: 30-377-23249,Fax: 30-377-23631.

The Holy Sepulchre is in danger of col-

lapsing. So says Oxford archaeologistMartin Biddle in his book The Tomb ofChrist. The three religious communities towhich this place is entrusted Greek,Latin and Armenian have not agreed yeton how the construction must be restored,because each one of them belongs to a dif-ferent religious tradition, which involves adifferent architectural style, Biddle said inan interview with Zenit. However, with-out a doubt, the edifice is in very poor con-dition and needs restoring. If there weretremors, the edifice would collapse. Whenasked if the Sepulchre really was the tombof Christ, Biddle said, Personally, and Ispeak as a scholar more than as a believer, Iwould say that I am almost 100 percentsure that this is Jesus tomb.

The relics of the Cross of Christ are

real, says German researcher MichaelHesemann. Hesemann has spent years re-searching and analyzing the INRI in-scription kept in the Roman Basilica of theHoly Cross in Jerusalem. Claimed to be thesign attached to Christs cross at the resur-rection, half of the inscription was lost inthe sixth century. What remains, however,can be dated with certainty to the first cen-tury, according to Hesemann. Radio-car-bon dating, paleographic analysis, and his-torical sources all attest to a first-century,Palestinian origin.

On October 27, 2000 John Paul II reiter-

ated his call for an internationally guar-anteed status for the holy places in Jerusa-lem. The Vatican has spoken about this sta-tus for years, a formula that in no way,however, proposes the internationaliza-tion of the city of Jerusalem.

More than 200 churches and templeshave been torn down or blown up inWenzhou, China. A further 239 smallplaces of worship, many of them linked tothe underground Catholic Church, havebeen forced to close, according to BritainsThe Telegraph newspaper. Chinas govern-ment has stepped up persecution of Chris-tians, particularly Catholics loyal to Rome,since last October, when the Pope canon-ized 120 Chinese Catholic martyrs of theBoxer Rebellion.

Belief in consumer brands has re-

placed religious faith as the thing thatgives purpose to peoples lives, accordingto a British ad agency. Brands are the newreligion. People turn to them for meaning,the British ad agency Young & Rubicam de-clared, according to a recent report in TheFinancial Times. The agency supportedtheir claim by pointing to examples of fa-natical loyalty to brands such as Disney,Harley-Davidson, and Ikea. Responding tothe assertions, an Anglican Church spokes-man pointed out that the Christian faithhad one of the oldest and most recognizedbranding devices in the world, the cross.

On January 6, 2001 John Paul II ended

the most anticipated event of his pontifi-cate when he closed the Holy Door of St.Peters Basilica, thus concluding the GreatJubilee of the Year 2000. The closing cer-emony was very simple and moving. Af-terwards, the Pontiff clarified that, whiletoday we close the Holy Door, a symbol ofChrist, the Heart of Jesus remains moreopen than ever. He continues to say to ahumanity in need of hope and meaning,Come to me, all you who labor and areheavy laden, and I will give you rest.

The Vatican has requested Archbishop

Rembert G. Weakland to suspend renova-tion of the Milwaukee cathedral. Theplans are to be reviewed after complaintsthat changes planned for the cathedralwould violate church liturgical norms. Theplanned changes to the cathedrals interiorinclude moving the altar forward, havingseating on three sides of it and constructinga separate chapel for the Blessed Sacra-ment. A Vatican official would not discusswhether or not any particular part of therenovation appeared problematic to thecongregation. The Holy See became in-volved after a canon lawyer for opponentsof the cathedral renovation wrote to theVatican asking for intervention. Arch-bishop Weakland said he was totally con-fused by the Vatican congregations inter-vention. I am absolutely convinced that Ihave followed the liturgical norms in therenovation plans, he said.

New Cathedral for Houston, Texas

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Despite protests by the congregation,plans proceed to remake St. FrancisXavier Church in Petoskey, Michigan. The100-year old gothic church is a historiclandmark and attraction for local tourists.A thirty-member restoration committeeheaded by pastor Fr. James Suchocki hasbeen meeting for some time now in an ef-fort to remake the interior of the church ac-cording to the demands of Vatican II.Meetings were initially open, but when pa-rishioners voiced protest over proposedchanges, they became private. Now thecommittee only communicates via pressreleases. A majority of parishioners op-pose the renovations, and have launched avociferous counter-campaign includinglawn signs and the withholding of dona-tions to the parish. However, BishopPatrick Cooney of the diocese of Gaylord,MI, announced that the remaking of thechurchs interior would proceed withfunds from the diocese. Opposed parishio-ners are attempting an appeal to theVatican.

Parishioners Stop Plan To Renovate

Guelph Church. Parishioners of Guelphshistoric Church of Our Lady Immaculaterallied to stop a drastic plan to alter theawe-inspiring interior of their magnificentchurch. On Saturday, March 13, pastorMonsignor John Newstead informed pa-rishioners that, after consultation withBishop Anthony Tonnos of Hamilton, therenovation planproposed by Fr. RichardVosko of Albany, NYwould not go for-ward because of overwhelming oppositionby parishioners.

The Basilica of the National Shrine of

the Assumption of the Blessed VirginMary in Baltimore is being restored tofaithfully reflect the design of 19th-centuryarchitect Benjamin Henry Latrobe. Priorityis being given to the restoration of thedomes skylights, which were removed inthe 1940s. Their removal darkened the in-

terior of the basilica con-siderably. The centralfocus is the dome. Itsymbolizes sky, heaven.That was Latrobes vi-sion of it, said a Basilicaspokesman. Whenyoure inside you wontsee anything that looksmodern. It will look justas it did, as it was in-tended to look.

What criteria should

be used in choosing andrendering liturgical mu-sic? John Paul II an-swered the questionwhen he received 200members of the Pontifi-

cal Institute of Sacred Music in January.The criteria that should inspire everycomposition and rendition of songs and sa-cred music is that of beauty, which inspiresprayer, the Holy Father responded.When singing and music are signs of thepresence of the action of the Holy Spirit, ina certain sense, they favor communionwith the Trinity. In particular, John Paul IIreminded the musicians that the SecondVatican Council singled out Gregorianchant, sacred polyphony, and the organ asprivileged environments and instrumentsfor liturgical music compositions.

Pope gives a Roman Church to

Constantinople. In a message toBartholomew I on the feast of St. Andrew,the Holy Father said that he has given theold church of St. Theodore on Romes Pa-latine Hill to the Ecumenical Patriarchateof Constantinople. John Paul said he in-tends that the church be dedicated to theworship and pastoral activities of theGreek Orthodox community of the city.

Easy Street Caf in

downtown Toledo is re-turning the gates of achurch communion railingto nearby Sacred HeartCatholic Church. Thegates were installed at ei-ther end of the bar by thebuildings former owner,who got the gates out of adumpster after a fire dam-aged the church in 1975. Aparish spokesman said thechurch also is trying totrack down other pieces ofits building that have beenmissing since the 1975 firein hopes of creating a newaltar and pulpit from thematerials.

Black Catholics are making a dreamcome true in the Diocese of Buffalo, NY.The Dioceses first new church in 35 yearsopened March 11. The building is the fruitof the efforts of the majority African-American congregation, who worked forten years to have their own church. St.Martin de Porres parish was created in1993 by merging other congregations in theseverely blighted inner-city of Buffalo.Pastor Fr. Roderick Brown says the churchbrings new life to the community. This isnot only an affirmation of this church com-munity, but of the city of Buffalo as well.

Romes Basilica of the Year 2000

never made it in time for the Jubilee. Af-ter a highly publicized architectural designcompetition and much fanfare, construc-tion on American architect Richard Meiersplans began in 1998 with the intention ofopening the church for the Jubilee. How-ever, massive construction setbacks duelargely to the basilicas outlandish 27-meter(90 feet) tall concrete sails have broughtconstruction to a stand-still. When geologi-cal instability was discovered at the site,highly complex foundations with springsand pulleys had to be designed for thesesails. Then the site was discovered to besubject to occasional high winds, which theconcave concrete structures catch quitewell, as their nickname implies. After moreredesigning and the construction of customon-site machinery to lower the segments ofthe sails in place, their concrete surfacewas discovered to be degrading due to cor-rosive chemical reaction with their zinc-coated interior piping. This problem hasseemingly been resolved at this point, butthere remain problematic issues with theglass panes that are intended to fill thespace between these three concentrically-inset wind-catchers.

Church of St. Francis Xavier, Petoskey, Michigan

Construction continues on the Basilica of the Year2000after the Jubilee has ended.

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Russia will have an Orthodox Churchin Rome. On January 17, 2001, Russian For-eign Minister Igor Sergheevich Ivanov un-veiled a plaque announcing the churchsconstruction. Lamberto Dini, Italian For-eign Minister, attended the ceremony,which was held in the Russian Embassy.

On February 10, 2001, hundreds of pro-

testers gathered outside of the SacredHeart Cathedral in Rochester, New York toprotest plans for its massive renovation. Agiant 120-foot banner with more than 3,000signatures from throughout the diocese,showed graphic disapproval for any plansof dismantling the cathedrals beautiful in-terior. The diocese already has hired theRev. Richard Vosko to direct the redesign ofthe church. Voskos other renovationsacross the country all look basically thesame, stripped bare, with no statuary. saidBarbara Fredericks, who attends Mass dailyat Sacred Heart.

There is much disagreement over what

a Catholic Church should look like. Thatwas one of the conclusions of a gatheringon Jan 26-28 of various Catholic leaders atHoly Cross College in Worcester, Mass. Thegathering, sponsored by the Catholic Com-mon Ground Initiative, included bishops,theologians, architects, and liturgists. By allaccounts there was good dialogue, makingclear the lack of current consensus inAmerican Catholicism on the principles ofchurch design.

The Washington National Cathedral is

now one of the few Gothic-style cathedralsin the world to have both heat and air con-ditioning. The air handlerslarge fans thatbring in air from the outside and recycle airfrom the interiorwere installed in the1970s. But only last year did the Cathe-dralwhich hosts state weddings and fu-nerals and other national events-receiveenough money to complete the air condi-tioning system.

The Circular Letter The Inventory and

Catalogue of the Cultural Heritage of theChurch: A Necessary and Urgent Taskwas released last March by the PontificalCommission for the Cultural Heritage ofthe Church. The letter urges that diocesanbishops take into account contextualconservation because enhancement mustbe intended in its entirety especially in re-gards to sacred buildings where most of theart-historical patrimony of the Church iskept. In addition, one cannot underesti-mate the need to maintain unaltered asmuch as possible the tie between the build-ings and the works of art contained thereinin order to guarantee a complete and globalfruition.

Success of Jesus Exhibit Astonisheseven the Gallery Director. The most vis-ited show in Britain last year, and thefourth most popular in the world, was aNational Gallery exhibition of 70 portraitsof Jesus, Seeing Salvation: The Image ofChrist, according the British newspaperThe Telegraph. Neil MacGregor, NationalGallery director, told the Telegraph onThursday: I am astonished. The showbeat out many heavily-hyped modernistexhibitions featuring sexual, violent, orscatological themes. A similar pictureemerges in other countries, with no exhibi-tion of a living artist featured in the top 10places. Seeing Salvation boasted paint-ings of Christ through the ages byMantegna, Titian, Bellini and Dali and wasthe only major cultural extravaganza inthe millennium year to focus on celebrat-ing Christianity, the newspaper said.

The Irish church needs a system to

preserve its artifacts, says Fr. TomasOCaoimh, a member of the Irishgovernments Heritage Council and theVaticans Pontifical Commission for theCultural Goods of the Church. We haveno real system in place, says Fr.OCaoimh, In some cases valuable churchartifacts are ending up in junk shops orused as ornaments in pubs or hotels.

Knowing the legacy of past Christian

generations helps later generations to re-main faithful to the Church, John Paul IIsaid in a message on the occasion of the75th anniversary of the Institute of Chris-tian Archaeology. Among other things, theHoly Father said, I wish to recall howmuch my saintly predecessor Damasus,whose liturgical memorial is celebrated to-day, recommended to the faithful, exhort-ing them to venerate places that preservedrelics. To know the legacy of past Christiangenerations enables succeeding genera-tions to remain faithful to the depositumreceived, so that at all times and in allplaces the one Gospel will resound, whichsaves and gives life.

The Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh

announced the sale of St. NicholasChurch on the North Side to the Pennsyl-vania Department of Transportation.Bishop Donald Wuerl said that afterlengthy consideration and a survey of par-ish members, hed agreed to sell the ornatechurch building, with its elegant marblealtar, stained glass windows and carvedwooden pews, to PennDOT, which willknock down the building so the highwaycan be widened and made safer.

In a decision that could threaten his-toric buildings throughout the state, a di-vided California Supreme Court ruled on

December 21, 2000 that religious groupsdesiring to demolish churches and otherproperty can be exempt from local land-mark preservation laws. The decision is ablow to San Francisco and scores of citiesand counties throughout the state that haverelied on historic preservation ordinancesto protect buildings that have been part ofthe communitys heritage and culture.However, a spokesman for the San Fran-cisco Archdiocese said there are no plans todemolish any of its buildings.

Happy undoing of a modernistmakeover. Students at the College of NotreDame of Maryland will once again worshipin a beautiful Romanesque chapel featur-ing high vaulted ceilings, round arches andfinely crafted ornamentation, includingstained glass windows made in Germany.Last year an alumna donated over a mil-lion dollars to remove the 1960s renova-tions that were obscuring the chapelsoriginal beauty. In recent months, contrac-tors peeled away all the alterations, includ-ing a flat ceiling and metal air ducts thatobscured the vaulted spaces above, woodpaneling that covered plaster walls, andcarpeting that smothered the handsomepine floor. Its particularly fitting that thissacred space should be unearthed and re-stored at Notre Dame, writes EdwardGuntz of the Baltimore Sun. Studentsshouldnt have to worship in a setting thatlooks like someones club basement.

Theresa Hall Chapel at the College ofNotre Dame after renovation in the 1960s(top) and in the 1950s before renovation

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Exempting churches from zoning lawsmay be a mistake, says columnist Marci A.Hamilton of the New York Times. Hamiltonnoted that innocent-sounding legislationwas poised to pass the U.S. Congresswhich would make it quite difficult for lo-cal governments to enforce zoning lawsagainst religious communities. While ingeneral houses of worship make goodneighbors, Hamilton points out that manymodern churches are more like malls thanchapels, with expansive parking lots, con-stant activity, and huge structures. It maybe good for the health of communities toplace some limits on where such facilitiesare built.

Growing congregations spur church

construction boom. The swelling member-ship of religious congregations acrossAmerica is fueling a multi-million dollarconstruction boom of new and expandedchurches. Last year, religious institutionsspent $7.96 billion on construction projects,according to the U.S. Census Bureau, a$500 million increase from 1999.

Mueller-Kaiser Plating Company of St.

Louis celebrates its 90th anniversary thisyear. Originally founded in 1911 at the re-quest of St. Louis John Cardinal Glennonfor plating, restoration, and maintenance ofchurch metalware, the firm has distin-guished itself by the restoration of manypriceless artifacts, including the silver-giltchalice of Fr. Jacques Marquette (used atthe 1999 Papal Visit) and the altarwarefrom the historic Russian Orthodox Cathe-dral in Sitka, Alaska, which dates from thelate 1700s.

Marking the twenti-eth centenary of theBirth of Christ, the Em-erald Isle, whose historyis steeped in Christianityand grace, held a pho-tography exhibit on sa-cred architecture. TheRoyal Institute of Archi-tects in Ireland with itscolleagues The Royal So-ciety of Ulster Architectspresented this exhibit ofchurch buildings, por-traying the story of how the inhabitantslived on this island over the past two thou-sand years. From the famous stone orato-ries situated in the west in the SkellingMichael to the circular form of St. Aengusat Burt, Co. Donegal, this exhibit displaysthe ever changing spiritual needs of theChristian church. Sponsored by the Na-tional Millennium Office (Ireland) and theHeritage Lottery Fund (UK), the show washeld in Dublin this spring.

Pope John Paul II donated $100,000 for

an Orthodox Cathedral in Bucharest,Catholic New World reported recently. InNovember, Romanian Orthodox Church fi-nancial officer Bishop V. Grifoni explainedthat the Church has raised forty percent ofthe funds necessary for construction, in-cluding the gift from the Holy Father. Con-struction should now be under way.

The Catholic Church in Siberia conse-

crated its new cathedral this past Septem-ber on the feast of the Nativity of theBlessed Virgin Mary. The Catholic Churchwas only reestablished in this territory in1990, after the fall of Communism. WhenBishop Jerzy Mazur arrived in his vast ad-ministration of Eastern Siberia, erected bythe Holy Father in May 1999, there was noofficially consecrated cathedral, and the ex-isting churches were not sufficient to servethe faithful. Construction of the new cathe-dral began in June, 1999. The cornerstonewas laid on September 5, 1999, by Arch-bishop John Bukovski, Apostolic Nuncio tothe Russian Federation.

Theosophy and the occult helped

shape the Bauhaus movement and archi-tectural modernism in the first part of thetwentieth century, says Susan Hendersonof Syracuse University in a recent articlefor Architronic. The Theosophical Societywas started in 1875 in New York by a groupof American intellectuals meeting in thehome of Russian migre and spiritual me-dium Madame H.P. Blavatsky. The groupwas influenced by freemasonry and occultpractices, and sought to combine modernscientific knowledge with supposed eso-teric doctrines from Egypt and the ancientEast. Despite the apparent desacralized

nature of much of the work of architects ofthe early modern period, the influence ofthe theosophical movement on them is sur-prisingly pervasive, according toHenderson.

Relic Diplomacy has been warming

Catholic-Orthodox relations, says Catholicjournalist Sabrina Ferrisi. Giving relics andicons to the Orthodox to improve relationswith the East is an increasingly popularstrategy under Pope Paul VI and Pope JohnPaul II. Late last fall Pope John Paul II gavea relic of St. Gregory to the Armenian Ap-ostolic Church, which went far in promot-ing cooperation between the two Churches.In 1964, Pope Paul VI returned the head ofSt. Andrew to Patras, Greece, where theapostle was crucified. Catholic and Ortho-dox bishops agree that the veneration ofthe relics of the saints is an important areaof common ground which can serve tobring the Churches closer together.

CONFERENCES

Building the Church for 2010: Continu-ity and Renewal in Catholic Liturgical Ar-chitecture will be held at Mundelein Semi-nary in Illinois October 25-27, 2001. As theCatholic Church enters a new century, amovement is rapidly emerging to recoverthe riches of tradition as the basis for ongo-ing renewal of Catholic liturgical art andarchitecture. For information contact theLiturgical Institute at 847/837-4542 orwww.usml.edu/liturgicalinstitute.

Cathedrals for a New Century: Church

Architecture at the Beginning of the ThirdMillenium. The School of Architecture andthe Program of Liturgical Studies at theUniversity of Notre Dame are pleased toannounce an interdisciplinary symposiumon sacred architecture scheduled for Octo-ber 21-23, 2001 at the University of NotreDame. For information contact MichaelDriscoll at [email protected] or219/631-7152.

The Frate Sole Foundation awarded the2000 edition of the International Prize for

Sacred Architecture to architect AlvaroSiza for his parish church of Marco de

Canevezes, Porto, Portugal.

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The stone oratories of Skellig Michael, Ireland


Buildingthe Church

for 2010

the liturgical instituteuniversity of saint mary of the lake/mundelein seminary

presents

Continuity and Renewal in

Catholic Liturgical Architecture

A conference on Catholic liturgical architecture for pastors, architects,diocesan liturgical commissions, parish building committees, artists, diocesanliturgy directors, craftspeople and liturgical furnishers with the inauguration

of the Church for 2010 project.

mundelein, illinois october 25-27, 2001the liturgical institute 1000 east maple avenue, mundelein, illinois 60060phone (847) 837-4542 fax (847) 837-4545 www.usml.edu/liturgicalinstitute

Keynote ROBERT BARRON, author of best-seller Heaven in Stone and Glass, BeyondBeige Catholicism: Liturgical Architecture in a New Century PAGE COWLEY, Yes,It Can Be Done Today: Crafts, Costs, Contracts BRIAN HUGHES, Built of LivingStones: Continuity and Renewal JAIME LARA, Temples of God: UnderstandingHispanic Tradition for Tomorrows Churches JAMES MCCRERY, Church for 2010Project DENIS R. MCNAMARA, What Makes a Church Look Like a Church?

DUNCAN STROIK, The New Classical Church Architecture Movement JOHNYIANNIAS, Light From the East: Renewing Catholic Iconography

Also RONALD J. LEWINSKI, M. FRANCIS MANNION, VIRGINIA RAGUIN

PROGR A M:


F E A T U R E

THE CHURCH BUILDING AND PARTICIPATION IN THEPASCHAL MYSTERY:

Assessing the NCCB Document Built of Living StonesTimothy V. Vaverek

In November 2000 the Na-tional Conference of CatholicBishops (NCCB) approved anew statement on art and archi-tecture entitled Built of LivingStones (BLS). The document isintended to build on and re-place Environment and Art inCatholic Worship (EACW, the1978 statement of the BishopsCommittee on the Liturgy) inorder to address the needs ofthe next generation of churchbuilding and renovation.1 Inpart, the NCCB is attempting toresolve the extraordinary con-troversy which has surroundedEACW for twenty years. Thisconflict arose because EACWpresented principles and sug-gestions that had never beenadvocated by the Church andwhose authenticity were ques-tionable. To make mattersworse, there was a systematiceffort by some liturgical anddesign experts to foster the im-pression that the vision ofEACW was binding for Catho-lic church art and architecturein the United States. Ulti-mately, it became clear thatEACW expressed only theopinion of the Bishops Com-mittee on the Liturgy, not thelegislative intent or architec-tural vision of the American bishops, andthat the time had come for the NCCB to ad-dress the issue.

If past mistakes are to be avoided andthe controversy put to rest, it is imperativethat those using BLS accurately assess theauthority of its theological, liturgical, andcanonical statements. Any misunderstand-ing or misrepresentation of the authority ofBLS, as happened with EACW, would in-evitably cost the Church in the UnitedStates dearly in time, money, and goodwill.We simply cannot afford another genera-tion of confusion and bitterness overchurch art and architecture.

The present critique of BLS will con-sider its authority and purpose as a NCCBstatement and will then examine its con-ceptual framework in light of the Catholic

tradition. This analysis will reveal that BLShas no normative force and that it fails toprovide a fully adequate expression of theChurchs tradition, suggesting thereforethat those interested in church art and ar-chitecture will need carefully to weigh andsupplement BLS in light of the primarysources of the tradition.

The Authority and Purpose ofBuilt of Living Stones

BLS discusses its authority in thepenultimate paragraph of the Preface:

This document has been approved bythe bishops of the Latin Church of theUnited States and issued by the author-ity of the National Conference of Catho-

lic Bishops on November 16,2000. Built of Living Stones con-tains many of the provisions ofuniversal law governing liturgi-cal art and architecture and of-fers pastoral suggestions basedupon the experience of the lastthirty-five years. The documentpresents guidelines that canserve as the basis for diocesanbishops to issue further guide-lines and directives for their dio-ceses. Where the documentquotes or reiterates norms fromliturgical books and the Code ofCanon Law, those prescriptionsare binding on local communi-ties and dioceses.

To be more exact, the docu-ment was approved by a major-ity of the bishops in a voice vote.BLS therefore makes no claim tobe a general decree having forceof law for the dioceses of theUnited States. Such a decreewould have required a two-thirds vote of all the bishops,present or not, and a subsequentrecognitio by the Apostolic See.2Since BLS is not a general decree,the competence of each dioc-esan bishop remains intact andits suggestions are not bindingon a single diocese unless the di-ocesan bishop determines other-

wise.3 For this reason, and because theconference [...is not] able to act in thename of all the bishops unless each and ev-ery bishop has given his consent, it is im-precise to refer to BLS as the nationalguidelines of American bishops.4 TheNCCB has issued BLS in its own name, notin the name of all the bishops of the UnitedStates.

In the text of BLS and the manner cho-sen for its promulgation (a simple majorityvote) the NCCB has clearly indicated thatBLS does not establish any new liturgicalnorms. Therefore, while BLS is weightierthan a committee document such asEACW, it has no more authority than themany other statements routinely issued bythe NCCB on a wide range of issues (pasto-ral, sociopolitical, environmental, eco-

Built of Living Stones, approved by the NCCB in November 2000


F E A T U R E

nomic, etc.) which express the mind of theNCCB as an organization without everclaiming to speak definitively on behalf ofall the bishops. Ultimately, BLS has onlythe limited authority it claims: to be guid-ance from a majority of the American bish-ops offered in the name of the NCCB tohelp foster a better understanding andimplementation of the Churchs traditionregarding church art and architecture.

BLS states its rather modest purpose inthe Preface:

Built of Living Stones: Art, Architecture,and Worship is presented to assist thefaithful involved in the building orrenovation of churches, chapels, andoratories of the Latin Church in theUnited States. In addition, the docu-ment is intended for use by architects, li-turgical consultants and artists, contrac-tors, and other professionals engaged inthe design and/or construction of theseplaces of worship. The text also may behelpful to those who wish to under-stand the Catholic Churchs tradition re-garding church buildings, the arts, andarchitecture. While the suggestions andguidelines within the document havebeen carefully prepared, they are not ex-haustive of the subject matter. They areintended to serve as the basis for deci-sion making at the local level and alsocan become the foundation for the de-velopment of diocesan guidelines andlegislation governing liturgical art andarchitecture.5

BLS makes no effort to offer an exhaustivetreatment of art and architecture, butmerely to establish a foundation within thetradition for the development of church de-signs and diocesan norms. BLS can fulfillthis purpose only to the degree that itsprinciples reflect those of the Catholic tra-dition. Even a relatively minor inaccuracyin the statement of principles would resultin a distorted presentation of the authenticcanonical, liturgical, and theological heri-tage of the Church. To borrow an analogyfrom construction: if a foundation or struc-tural design is defective, then the entireedifice is at risk even if otherwise built ofsound material. The defects might be quitesubtle and go unnoticed in an inspection,but if they are not corrected neither theskill of the builder nor the quality of thematerial can secure the structure.

The critique which follows will attemptto show that the principles and schema ofBLS do not adequately reflect the Catholictradition which bases its understanding ofchurch art, architecture, and liturgy on thePaschal Mystery of Christ. BLS departsfrom this foundation in two major ways: 1)it relates church art and architecture prima-rily to the liturgical rites rather than to theChurch herself, and 2) it relates the ritesprimarily to the presence of God and

Christ rather than to the Churchs partici-pation in the Pasch. These defects in turngive rise to inadequate and mistaken de-sign criteria.

Where To Begin: Liturgical Ritesor the Identity of the Church?The Preface of BLS provides an unam-

biguous statement of the principles thatwill determine the foundation and struc-ture of the document:

The document begins with a theologicalreflection on the liturgy and liturgicalart and architecture. Since decisionsabout church art and architectureshould always be based upon the theol-ogy of the eucharistic assembly and itsliturgical action and the understandingof the Church as the house of God onearth, the first chapter is foundationalfor the chapters that follow. The secondchapter outlines the liturgical principlesfor parish communities to apply whenbuilding or renovating liturgical space,and it reviews the spatial demands ofthe major liturgical celebrations duringthe year. The third chapter offers sug-gestions for including art in places ofworship...6

Notice how often the terms liturgy andliturgical appear in this passage. Appar-ently it is axiomatic for BLS that church artand architecture is liturgical art and archi-tecture (no citation from Church teaching isoffered in defense of this claim). This leadsBLS uncritically to assume in the first chap-ter that considerations of art and architec-ture should always be based on the Eucha-ristic assembly and its liturgical action aswell as on the identity of the building asthe house of God. This unsubstantiatedcorollary inturn becomesfoundationalfor the chap-ters that fol-low. Thus,for example,the secondchapter is de-voted to litur-gical prin-ciples for li-turgical spaceshaped by thedemands ofliturgical cel-ebrations andthe thirdchapter con-siders the useof art inplaces of wor-ship. The en-tire develop-ment of BLS

depends on the integrity of the initial as-sumption that church art and architectureis first and foremost designed to reflect theliturgical worship occurring in Godshouse. But this assumption is defective.

To understand the gravity of the defect,consider the treatment of church architec-ture found in Vatican II and thepostconciliar Rite of Dedication of aChurch and Altar (RDCA). According tothese authentic and authoritative expres-sions of the Catholic tradition, the Churchherself, the living temple of God, is sym-bolized in places of worship built of stone7so that the church building is a visiblesign of the living Church, Gods buildingthat is formed of the people themselves.8The church building is meant to reflect themystery of the Church, which is the com-munion of God and humanity wroughtthrough the Paschal Mystery of Christsdeath, resurrection, and ascension; a com-munion to be fully revealed only on theLast Day in the kingdom which is the Wed-ding Feast of the Lamb.9 The entire build-ing is therefore sacramental in that it vis-ibly represents the Church, the kingdom ofGod present now in mystery.10 Put simply,the church building is an icon of theChurch herself and a witness to the king-dom.

According to Vatican II, the Trinity haschosen to accomplish the saving work ofChrists Pasch in and through the Church,for which reason Christ always associatesthe Church with Himself in this great workin which God is perfectly glorified andmen are sanctified.11 The paschal work ofthe Church is shared in various ways by allher members, living or dead, under theheadship of Christ as the basis for all Chris-tian apostolate and ministry. It follows thatdaily life and liturgy are equally real par-ticipations in Christs saving work; they are

Proposed renovation of Saint John the Evangelist Cathedral,Milwaukee, Wisconsin

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The church building as the body of Christ,by Francesco di Giorgio

F E A T U R E

both genuine priestly offerings of that ra-tional worship by which the Christianprophetically lives and witnesses to thePasch of Christ, thereby advancing thekingdom. Therefore, it would be an egre-gious error to limit the realization of thePasch, the spiritual life of the Christian, orthe activity of the Church to liturgical cel-ebrations.12 There is more to the Churchand Christianity than the liturgy.

It follows from this sacramental under-standing of the building and of theChurchs participation in the Pasch thatchurch buildings must reflect the identityof the Church as Christus Totus: the entirepeople of God united to Christ its head ac-complishing the Pasch in life and liturgy.To design a building that represents onlythe ritual worship of the community wouldtherefore run the real risk of distorting theimage of the Church (and the liturgy) by ig-noring both the paschal life of the Churchoutside of public worship and those mem-bers not present in the assembly. Theologi-cally this would reduce the Church to aparticular worshipping congregation, thebuilding to a congregational worshipspace, and the liturgy to a celebration ofChristian fellowship. The relation of theChurch, the building, and the liturgy to thePasch and the kingdom would be obscuredor lost. BLS heavily favors such a reduc-tionistic approach by limiting its reflectionsto liturgical art and architecture rather thanbeginning with the broader ecclesial andpaschal vision of Vatican II. The only way it

could avoid becoming trapped in a reduc-tionistic vision would be by consideringthe liturgy in its fullest sense as a recapitu-lation of the entire life of the whole Church(living and dead) participating in thePasch. Then the ecclesial and paschal as-pects would emerge because the designwould reflect the reality encountered in li-turgical ritual: the Pasch which lies at theheart of the Churchs life and worship. ButBLS has not considered the centrality of thePasch in the Church and the liturgical rites.

The Heart of the Liturgy: RitualPresence or Participation in the

Pasch?BLSs reliance on a reductionistic con-

cept of the liturgical rites becomes increas-ingly evident and detrimental throughoutthe first chapter. The chapter begins with asection on The Living Church: GodsBuilding. The first three paragraphs arein many ways compatible with the visionof Sacrosanctum Concilium 5-13 except forthe crucial difference that BLS makes nomention of the Pasch. It offers no clearstatement that the Church participates inChrists Pasch such that her whole life (notjust the liturgy) is seen to be a priestly, pro-phetic, and kingly act of worship givingpraise to God and advancing the salvationof the world. Instead, the focus is entirelyon the Churchs ritual life. For instance,the fourth paragraph states that everytime the Church gathers for prayer, she isjoined to Christs priesthood and made onewith the saints and angels, transcendingtime and space..., when the full truth isthat she is always joined to Christs priest-hood, to the angels and saints, in a com-munion transcending time and space for thepurpose of participating in the fulfillment of thePasch. The text makes it appear that com-munion with God and His people is thesource and summit of Christian worship sothat the experience of communion in lit-urgy is a window to eternity and aglimpse of what God calls us to be. But itis impossible to enter the presence of Godor to have communion with Him apartfrom the Pasch of Christ. Therefore, the lit-urgy cannot be a window to eternity or towhat we are called to be unless it is a com-munion in the Pasch of the Lamb. By ig-noring the Paschal Mystery in this discus-sion BLS has ignored the heart of the lit-urgyand of the life of the Church.

For Vatican II, continual participationin the Pasch is the basis of Christian dailylife and worship. The Churchs liturgicalcelebrations, the Eucharistic sacrifice, andthe Eucharist itself are each rightly calledthe source and summit of Christian andecclesial life precisely because they areuniquely privileged expressions and real-izations of this on-going participation inthe Pasch.13 But they are not the only

means of participation and, whether in lit-urgy or out, Christs Pasch itself remainsthe source and summit of our lives. As BLSstates it, the liturgical rites would appearprimarily to be about recognizing our com-munion with God and His presence to us.It is difficult to see how an understandingof liturgy based on a theory of divine pres-ence rather than on a sacramental com-munion in the Pasch could possibly giverise to the full, conscious, and active par-ticipation in Christian life and worshipsought by Vatican II. To the extent that atheory of presence permits participation, itwould seem to focus on participating in theperformance of the rites rather than on cel-ebrating the rites as a means of deepeningour participation in the Paschal mysterythey signify. The ritual presence of Godand Christ are wonderful realities, but forVatican II those presences have a specificpurpose: to enable our sacramental com-munion with Christ in the Pasch which weare to live each moment until we come toits fullness in the kingdom. Participationin the Pasch enables Christian life and lit-urgy to be distinct foretastes of the com-munion of heaven. It is precisely this par-ticipation which constitutes redeemed hu-manity as the living church, Gods templebuilt on the cornerstone of Christ. Here theconcept of temple or building must besupplemented with that of a body. Thepeople of God constitute not only a com-munity in which God is present (as in atemple), they are a community which Hecontinually enlivens and works through (aswith a body).

The ill effects of the reductionistic ap-proach to the Church and the liturgy areapparent in the second section of ChapterOne, entitled The Church Building. BLSstates that the house of prayer must be ex-pressive of the presence of God and suitedfor the celebration of the sacrifice of Christ,as well as reflective of the community thatcelebrates there.14 This is not a holistic vi-sion; it is a concatenation of diverse reali-ties (house of prayer, Gods presence, litur-gical celebration, celebrating community)which makes no mention of the extra-litur-gical life of the Church or her participationin Christs Pasch in and out of liturgy. Insuggesting that the church building shouldbe designed to express Gods presence andto reflect the worship of the communityBLS offers no insights into the most funda-mental meaning and purpose of that pres-ence or worship.

For Vatican II, churches are designed toexpress the saving Paschal Mystery ofChrist revealed and accomplished in theentire life of the Church. This architecturalproclamation is meant to continue, like thelife of the Church, even outside of liturgicalevents. Because the building is an image ofthe paschal kingdom present now in mys-tery, it is necessarily also an expression ofGods presence through Christ, suited for


particular community in which the pres-ence of God is manifested. So BLS choosesto discuss the Mass under the headingChrists Presence in Sign and Symbolrather than under the heading PaschalParticipation in Sign and Symbol. The Eu-charistic liturgy is presented only in termsof how it realizes Christs presence in theassembly through the baptized members,the Word of God, sacramental celebration,and the Sacred Species. Consequently, BLSclaims that church designs must begin witha reflection on the relation of the placeswhere Christs presence is manifested: al-tar, ambo, presiders chair, and space forthe congregation. There is no indicationthat for Vatican II the understanding ofchurch designand of the Church, the lit-urgy, and the entire Christian lifemustbegin with a reflection on the Churchs par-ticipation in the Pasch of Christ, Gods sav-ing work by which He gathers a peopleuniquely His own, sharing His divine life.BLS substitutes experiencing Gods pres-ence for participation in Christs Pasch asthe basis of liturgy, forgetting that it is onlythrough our share in the Pasch that wehave communion with the Father.

F E A T U R E

liturgical celebration, and reflective of theentire Church (not just the worshipping as-sembly). Thus, Vatican II can explain whythe building should also be useful for lit-urgy, whereas BLS cannot explain whyanything not immediately required for therites should be included in the building.Vatican II suggests a comprehensive andcoherent vision of the church building; thevision in BLS is incomplete and disjointed.

The fourth section of Chapter One seeksto lay the groundwork for moving from ageneral consideration of church architec-ture to concrete guidelines for church de-sign. Given the documents reduction ofchurch art and architecture to only liturgi-cal considerations, it is natural that BLSshould turn to the Mass for guidance at thisstep. After all, the Mass is the supreme ex-pression of the Churchs liturgical life andthe stereotypical ritual assembly of thefaithful. This is so, according to the teach-ing of the Church, because the Mass is thegreat sacramental participation in ChristsPasch. But, as we have repeatedly ob-served, BLS does not consider the central-ity of participation in the Pasch. Instead, itunderstands the liturgy as the worship of a

Design Criteria: Ritualistic orEcclesiological?

Having reduced the building to an im-age of the liturgical assembly and the lit-urgy to the ritual celebration of Gods pres-ence, BLS has no choice but to base its de-sign criteria solely on the demands of therites. Chapter One concludes by offeringthe following criteria:

Liturgical principles for building orrenovating churches1) The church building is designed inharmony with church laws and servesthe needs of the liturgy.2) The church building fosters participa-tion in the liturgy.3) The design of the church building re-flects the various roles of the partici-pants.4) The church building respects the cul-ture of every time and place.5) The church building should be beau-tiful.

These design criteria reflect the rites cel-ebrated at a particular time and place, notthe reality of the entire Church participat-ing in the work of the Pasch in time andeternity.

Consider how the same type of criteriamight have been expressed if BLS had fol-lowed Vatican IIs lead by beginning withthe ecclesiological identity of the buildingrooted in the Pasch:

Ecclesiological principles for buildingor renovating churches1) The church building is designed as animage of the Church, which is the king-dom of God present now in mysteryand the Body of Christ sharing in HisPasch.152) The church building therefore fostersparticipation in the paschal life andworship of the Church, including the lit-urgy and public and private devotions.Consequently it accords with liturgicalnorms.163) As an image of the Church which fos-ters participation in ecclesial life, the de-sign of the building reflects the distinct,hierarchic charisms of the members ofthe Body of Christ, living and dead.174) The church building therefore reflectsthe identity and heritage of the Churchuniversal and of the particular Church.185) The church building, an image of thebride of Christ, should be beautiful.19

These ecclesiological criteria are holistic inthat they consider the entire life of theChurch and situate the liturgical riteswithin the broader context of that life bystaying centered on the Pasch of Christ.According to these criteria the building issuitable for ritual use precisely because it isan adequate image of the Church, not vice-

Interior of the Cathedral of St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri

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versa. The building expresses the uniqueand hierarchical relation of the members toChrist their head with an emphasis on theircontinual participation in His Pasch, notonly on encountering His presence as theyact out various liturgical roles. The beautyof the building is not measured simply asworship space, but in relation to how wellthe design reflects the Church as she is, asshe has expressed herself historically (in-cluding in particular cultures), and as shewill appear on the last day when the workof the Pasch is accomplished.

Using Vatican IIs ecclesiology it be-comes possible to understand why the altaris central (it is the place of thePasch, the source of the Gospeland the Eucharist); why thetabernacle is placed promi-nently and visibly in the sanc-tuary or a chapel integrallyjoined to the main body of thechurch (Christ is the head ofthe Church); why there are im-ages of the saints and angels(they are members of theChurch); why the priests chairis situated in the sanctuary atthe head of the assembly (hepresides in the person of Christthe head); and why there is adistinction between sanctuaryand nave (there is a distinctionof charism among the mem-bers)all these reflect the hier-archical ordering of the Bodyof Christ, the Church. Theidentity of the Church asChristus Totus, not the structureof the rites alone, is the key tochurch design. A buildingbuilt on sound ecclesiologicalprinciples is naturally able to take into ac-count the specific needs of the liturgicaland devotional worship of the Church be-cause in worship the Church is herself. Buta church designed only for ritual use willnot necessarily be able to reflect the com-plete identity of the Church because heridentity is not limited to specific ritual cel-ebrations.

By choosing to base designs on ritualcriteria, BLS has not only failed to suffi-ciently ground itself in the ecclesiology andliturgical theology of Vatican II (both ofwhich are rooted in the Pasch), it has set foritself an almost impossible task. Since li-turgical and canonical legislation have gen-erally presumed the existence of churchbuildings, they have not attempted topresent a comprehensive architectural planfor churches. Besides, the liturgical booksgenerally limit their considerations to theneeds of specific rites. Therefore, there isno reason to believe a priori that a survey ofall the ritual books will provide sufficientcriteria for church design, or that the result-ing criteria will be entirely consistent. In-deed, one of the reasons for writing BLS

was to deal with lacunae and apparent con-flicts. The resolution of such problems, if reso-lutions exist, obviously are not to be found ex-plicitly in the liturgical books. This means thatBLS had no choice but to remain silent on suchcontested issues or to present innovative solu-tions. However, to be authentic these innova-tions would have to be developed in completecontinuity with the tradition of the Church.Unfortunately, as we have seen, BLS has failedto consider ecclesiological and liturgical prin-ciples that are absolutely fundamental to theCatholic tradition. Thus, when BLS offers in-sights or criteria based on its own principles, itis likely to be offering inadequate guidance

and the company of heaven. This is thenecessary conclusion of having begunwith a ritual use conception ofchurch design, rather than with anecclesiological or sacramental concep-tion. Had BLS considered the buildingto be an image of the Church, the heav-enly Jerusalem, then the places ac-corded to Jesus Himself (i.e., the loca-tion of the tabernacle) and to images ofChrist and the saints would have beentreated as primary issues for churchdesign.

Worse than this reductionistic treat-ment of the tabernacle and religious

images, BLS actually in-vents a criterion for taber-nacle placement utterly un-known in the tradition ofthe Church: that its locationnot draw the attention ofthe faithful away from theEucharistic celebration.20BLS makes this assertionwithout justifying its claim.Surprisingly, it citesEucharisticum Mysterium(EM) 55 despite the fact thatEM 55 states no norms,never mentions the taber-nacle as a source of distrac-tion, and is concerned onlywith symbolic reasons thatrecommend placing the tab-ernacle somewhere otherthan on the altar.21 This pe-culiar citation of EM 55strongly suggests that onceagain BLS is being guidedby an inadequate under-standing of the liturgybased on a theory of pres-

ence according to which the rites re-volve around seeing or recognizingdistinct modes of Gods presence.22Apparently BLS is reasoning that theact of seeing the tabernacle (which con-tains the Eucharistic species) duringMass could somehow preempt or con-flict with seeing the Eucharistic specieson the altar after the consecration. Butwe do not see the Eucharist in the tab-ernacle and, in any event, the liturgypresumes that we are capable of recog-nizing Christs presence simulta-neously through a variety of modesand images while remaining primarilyfocused on celebrating our participa-tion in His Pasch (which is the purposeof His diverse presences).

The Eucharist is Christ. His being inthe tabernacle does not distract us fromour Christian life and worship. Werethe reserved Eucharist a distractionfrom full participation in the Pasch,then we would have to suspend ourcommunion in the Pasch while weprayed before the tabernacle. Thiswould be absurd. The Christian finds

F E A T U R E

Our Lady of Fatima Church, Schenectady, NY, after renovationPh

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Other Examples of Distorted CriteriaAs a demonstration of how the defective

principles and design criteria offered in BLSlead to further distortions of the tradition, con-sider the documents treatment of the place-ment of tabernacles and religious images. Tab-ernacles and religious images are almost com-pletely incidental to sacramental celebrationsand therefore the ritual books have relativelylittle to say about them. Because BLS has lim-ited its design criteria to the demands of rites,the placement of the tabernacle and of religiousimages are not matters of high priority inChapter Two (entitled The Church Buildingand the Sacred Rites Celebrated There). Thetabernacle is treated in a section on the Reser-vation of the Eucharist that comes after sec-tions devoted to the major furnishings of theEucharistic liturgy and to the baptistery. Im-ages of Christs saving work and of the angelsand saints are relegated to the very end of thechapter under Popular Devotions. Thus, BLShas reduced the tabernacle and religious im-ages to being objects of worship, completely ig-noring their symbolic function as expressingthe identity of the Church in relation to Christ


F E A T U R E

himself more deeply drawn into his dailyliving of the Pasch while praying before theLord in the tabernacle. Whether duringpersonal prayer in front of the tabernacle orduring the celebration of Mass with thetabernacle visible, we are capable of par-ticipating deeply in the Paschal Mysterywhile being aware of Christs presence.The presence of Christ in the tabernacle (orin the assembly, the priest, the Word, or theHost on the altar) cannot in any adequateaccount of the liturgy possibly distractfrom the Pasch being celebrated. That BLScould posit a source of conflict between thetabernacle and the Massand that itwould think EM 55 supports such aclaimare indications that it has radicallymisconstrued the nature of the liturgy aswell as that of church art and architecture.The Church has never posited such a con-flict and BLS lacks the authority to intro-duce one.

ConclusionThe present article has brought to light a

number of issues which should be kept inmind by those using BLS in the develop-ment of church designs or diocesan norms.First, BLS makes no claim to be a set of na-tional norms issued by the American bish-ops; it is a statement of the NCCB meant tofoster a deeper understanding of theCatholic tradition regarding church design.

Given this purpose, BLS does not attemptto bind anyone to its suggestions and itclearly presumes that its readers will con-tinue to rely on the primary sources of theCatholic tradition.

Second, the principles and schema ofBLS are based on the mistaken assumptionthat considerations of Catholic church artand architecture begin with the liturgicalrites rather than with the identity of theChurch. As a consequence, art and archi-tecture in BLS are not called upon to ex-press the paschal reality of the Church,whose complete life and membership tran-scend the gathered assembly.

Third, the documents reductionistic re-liance on the liturgical rites is worsened byits uncritical acceptance of a liturgicaltheory focused on the ritual presence ofChrist rather than on the Churchs com-munion with Christ in His Pasch. Thisleads BLS to present an impoverished vi-sion of the liturgy which fails to reveal thepaschal and ecclesial dimensions of therites.

Fourth, BLS develops specific designcriteria based on ritual requirements ratherthan on the symbolic function of the build-ing as an image of the Church. Given BLSsemphasis on ritual presence, this leads BLSto suggest a ritualistic rather than a sacra-mental (and hierarchical) arrangement ofaltar, tabernacle, images of Christ andsaints, and the seating for the priest and the

congregation.From its first statement of

principles, BLS fails to ar-ticulate and focus on thePaschal Mystery as the foun-dation of the Church and herliturgy and hence gives in-sufficient consideration tothe paschal and ecclesial as-pects of art, architecture, andliturgy. The resulting re-ductionistic treatment of thebuilding as ritual space andof the liturgy as the ritualpresence of God creates aframework which does notadequately represent theCatholic tradition. There-fore, wherever BLS inter-prets, summarizes, or elabo-rates on the authentic teach-ing and legislation of theChurch there is the dangerof unintended distortions.Claims that are unique toBLS (e.g., regarding the tab-ernacle) are apt to be attrib-utable to its mistaken prin-ciples. Consequently,Catholics interested inchurch design will need tocontinue to rely on Vatican IIand the Churchs liturgy asthe primary inspirations fortheir work. Such considered

reflection on the sources of the traditionwill foster the goal of BLSa deeper un-derstanding and acceptance of authenticcriteria for church art and architecture.Only then will our buildings truly reflectthe identity and beauty of the Church builtof living stones.

Rev. Timothy V. Vaverek, S.T.D. is a boardmember of the Society for Catholic Liturgy andpastor of St. Josephs church in Waco, Texas.(email: [email protected])

NOTES:1 See Preface, paragraph 9. All quotations are taken

from the internet version of BLS located at theofficial NCCB web site (nccbuscc.org or usccb.org).No page or paragraph numbers appear in thatversion. In the present paper citations will refer to thenearest heading and, as needed, to the number of aparticular paragraph under that heading.2 See Canon 455.

3 Canon 455.4. A bishop is free to use all, part, or

none of BLS in the development of diocesan norms.4 Canon 455.4.

5 Preface, paragraph 3.

6 Preface, final paragraph.

7 Lumen Gentium (LG) 6

8 RDCA Ch. 1; see also Ch. 2, nn.1-3 and I Cor. 3:9.

9 See LG 1-4 and Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC) 5-8.

10 See LG 3.

11 See SC 7.

12 See SC 9 and 12.

13 See SC 10, LG 11, and Presbyterorum Ordinis 5.

14 See the first paragraph of The Church Building

in Chapter One.15

See LG 3, 6, 7, and SC 7.16

See SC 124 and 125.17

See SC 26; GIRM (1975) nn. 58 and 257; andGIRM (2000) nn. 91 and 294.18

See SC 122-123.19

See LG 6; Rev. 19:7-8, 21:2, 21:9.20

See The Reservation of the Eucharist in ChapterTwo. Although BLS offers no reference to EACW, itis repeating a claim first expressed in EACW n. 78.EACW n. 78 had cited GIRM (1975) 276 which inturn cites EM 53 and EM 54. However, none ofthese citations mention the faithful being distractedby the tabernacle.21

See BLS n. 102. Note that the portion of EM 55quoted in the footnote begins in mid-sentencewithout indication that the opening words have beenleft out. Those words explicitly state that EM 55 isbasing its recommendation on the grounds of signvalueit is not speaking about attention. Alsonote that BLS has completely abandoned the textsused to support EACW n. 78.22

Taken out of its narrow context, the rationale ofEM 55 could be used to support a novel theory of theliturgy based on the successive manifestation of fourmodes of Christs presence (i.e., assembly, Word,priest, Eucharistic species). This theory is not foundin the sources underlying EM 55 (see SC 7 and EM9). The first draft of BLS explicitly relied on thistheory and the final version continues to presume itsvalidity. On the problems with this mistaken use ofEM 55, please see Timothy V. Vaverek,Eucharisticum Mysterium 55 and the Four Modes ofPresence: Inadequate Principles of Church Design,Sacred Architecture 3:2 (2000) 22-26.

The existing high altar and tabernacle at St. John theEvangelist Cathedral, Milwaukee, Wisconsin

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A R T I C L E S

CHRISTOLOGY AT THE NATIONAL GALLERYBruce Harbert

In the spring of this year, visiting theNorthern Sicilian town of Cefal, I wentto see the famous mosaic of Christ thatdominates the apse of its Cathedral.Poised, posed, and static, Christ looks di-rectly and confidentlyeven sternlyatthe worshipper. In his left hand he holds abook on which is written his words re-corded in Johns Gospel, I am the light ofthe world; whoever follows me will notwalk in darkness, but will have the light oflife (John 8:12). This is apowerful Christ wholeaves us in no doubt thatthe initiative is his. He isChrist the Pantocrator, thedivine judge.

That same month I sawa very different picture ofChrist in London when Iwent to the NationalGallerys exhibition See-ing Salvation, which ex-plored ways of portrayingChrist in visual art. Promi-nent among the paintingsdisplayed there wasHolman Hunts Light ofthe World, inspired by thesame Johannine text as theCefal mosaic, and paintedat the beginning of thetwentieth century to hangin Saint Pauls Cathedral,London. In Hunts pictureChristcrowned, wearinga rich cloak and carrying alanternknocks at a closeddoor around which weedshave grown. It is the doorof the human heart. Christawaits a response, butseems ready to move on ifthe door is not opened. Thepainter has depicted a mo-ment when the initiativebelongs to man. Christ isready to be rejected and hisfacial expression, thoughcalm, shows his vulnerabil-ity. Here we see a human Christ.

The style of the Cefal mosaic is onethat we now associate with EasternChristendom. The standard pattern ofchurches of the Byzantine rite includes afigure of the Pantocrator over the altar, inthe same position as at Cefal. Orthodoxicons show Christ in a similar way. Theyregularly incorporate features seen also inthe Cefal image: the right hand raised inblessing, three fingers held up to indicate

the Trinity, and two fingers joined to sug-gest the two natures united in his personand the two strands of hair on the foreheadwhich also recall the two natures of Christ.But Cefal Cathedral is a Latin church, nota Byzantine one. Roger I, Norman king ofSicily, built it in the mid-twelfth century,when much of Sicily was Muslim and mostof its Christians were Orthodox, as part ofhis program for the strengthening of LatinChristianity in the island. It was to be the

centre of the newly re-established Latindiocese of Cefal. Cefal shows how closewere the Western and Eastern traditions ofChristian artat least in the Mediterra-nean regionas late as the twelfth century.As if to suggest that Latin and Greek Chris-tianity are not rivals but complement oneanother, the Johannine text is written onChrists book in both Greek and Latin.

The Seeing Salvation exhibition toldthe story of the divergence of those tradi-

tions in the second Christian millennium.It showed how Western theology and spiri-tualityand consequently artcame to fo-cus more and more on the humanity ofChrist. In doing so, it highlighted a prob-lem that faced nearly all the artists whoseworks were exhibited: how is it possible,when focussing on Christs humanity, alsoto depict or suggest his divinity?

This dilemma was exemplified in theexhibition by a picture painted by the

Spaniard Murillo in 1681-2called The Heavenly andEarthly Trinities. In it, thechild Jesus, aged perhaps fiveyears, stands on a rock be-tween Mary and Joseph,while above him can be seenGod the Father surroundedby cherubs and the HolySpirit in the form of a dove.The relationships betweenthose depicted are unclear.The face of the Father wholooks down on Jesus appearsgentle, affectionate, yet notwithout pain. Jesus looksheavenward, with an expres-sion that suggests both sub-mission and apprehension,while his stance appears con-fident, as though he is aboutto move forward. He standson a rock, which may be in-tended to suggest an altar.Mary gazes up towards him.He clings to her finger as chil-dren will, but she seemsready, even eager, to releasehim. Joseph looks directly outof the picture towards theviewer with a questioning ex-pression. As the exhibitioncatalogue rightly suggested,this mysterious picture raisesmany questions: In repre-senting Christs dual nature,Murillo also expresses humanambivalences.

The suspicions of anyreader familiar with the traditional lan-guage of Christian theology will be alertedby that last sentence. They will be con-firmed by the fact that an entire section ofthe exhibition bore the title The Dual Na-ture, for it has been recognized since thevery early days of Christianity that Christcannot be understood if his nature is con-ceived of as an amalgam of divinity andhumanity. In him, divine and human na-tures remain intact and unmixed. Christ

Byzantine mosaic of Christ Pantocrator in the apse of the CefaluCathedral, Cefalu, Italy.

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A R T I C L E S

has two natures, not one dual nature.Both Tertullian and Origen taught this inthe third century, and it was affirmed asChristian dogma by the Council ofChalcedon in 451.

Nevertheless, I found stimulation in thisdeparture from inherited theological lan-guage on the part of the organizers of theexhibition. It provoked me to look again atthe story they told, and this article is the re-sult.

They sought to interpret images ofChrist by exploring theological ideas, in-tending to focus attention on the purposefor which the works of art were made, andto explore what they might have meant totheir original owners. A central theme intheir account is the well-documented pro-cess by which, from the twelfth century on-wards, the Western Christian sensibility be-came preoccupied with Christs humanityand his suffering. As the catalogue says,this process is due to the influence of SaintsBernard and Francis. Saint Anselm mightalso have been mentioned as an earliersource. In histories of art this movement isusually represented as beneficial because itcontributed to the growth of realism.But Neil MacGregor, Director of the Na-tional Gallery, recognizes that, although athird of the pictures in the Gallery are ofChristian subjects, many of its visitors arenot Christian, and it is clear that for mostthis is a difficult inheritance. What hasbeen good for art, then, may have been badfor Christianity.

In the thirteenth century, when theFranciscan movement was gathering paceand representations of Christ were becom-ing more naturalistic, Thomas Aquinaspointed in a different direction. He knewthe teaching of Chalcedon, of course, withits assertion that the divine and human na-tures of Christ remained after the Incarna-tion without confusion, without change,without division, without separation. ButChalcedon made no definition regardingthe way in which the natures were united,and so offered little guidance as to how weshould conceive, speak of, or depict theunity of Christ. In the last few years of hislife, Thomas developed a keen interest inChalcedons successor, the Second Councilof Constantinople, held in 553. Thomas of-ten called it the Fifth Synod, because itwas the fifth of the councils recognized asecumenical. Its proceedings were not wellknown to Western theologians, but Thomasmade the effort to get hold of its docu-ments and study them, and he was im-pressed. He saw that the Fifth Synod pro-vided a necessary complement toChalcedon by pointing to the danger of soseparating Christs two natures that the hu-man Christ and the divine Christ seemedto be two different people. Following theFifth Synod, and using also ideas fromBoethius and John Damascene, Thomas de-veloped his mature Christology, according

to which Christs two natures are united inhis one person, his humanity being the in-strument of his divinity.

A problem remained: when we say thatChrist took human nature, he obviouslydid not take all human naturehe did notbecome every human being. He must havetaken a single instance of human nature.But had that single human nature an indi-vidual existence prior to its assumption byChrist? Thomas said no. Christs humannature owes its very existence, its esse, to itsassumption by the Divine Word. Thomaspreoccupation in developing thismetaphysic was to safeguard the unity ofChrist. It is hard to understand, as Thomasacknowledged, but he followed his masterAlbert in reminding his readers that it isnot surprising if the metaphysics of the In-carnation have no parallel. His was a lonevoice. Most medieval theologians held thatChrists human nature had its own sepa-rate esse.

The problem that Thomas saw, of creat-ing a unified picture of Christ, is the prob-lem faced by many Western artists, as theNational Gallery exhibition amply demon-strated. Histories of art show painters ofthe Renaissance, particularly in Italy,breaking free of the shackles of the iconictradition and learning to portray Christ asa human being. Had Thomas been more in-fluential, Western Christianity might haveremained more ready to represent the di-vine person in art, and have retained moreof its Eastern

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