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Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
1
Ten Years of Urban Air Quality Management in India: Findings of a Recent Study Across Five Cities
Presented at National Workshop on Urban Air Quality and Integrated Traffic ManagementKarachi, 13th – 14th September 2006
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
2
Air Quality Levels 2000-2001
Source: Information collected from national and local government agencies through CAI-Asia network, 2003, detailed sources available from CAI-Asia Secretariat
SO2
NO2
SPM
PM10
SPM Limit = 90 µg/m3 (WHO, 1979)
PM10 Limit = 50 µg/m3 (USEPA,
1997)
SO2 Limit = 50 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Bangk
ok
Busan
Chong
qing
Colom
bo
Hong
Kong
Jaka
rta
Kolkat
a
Man
ila
Mum
bai
New D
elhi
Osaka
Pune
Singap
ore
Seoul
Shang
hai
Tokyo
con
cen
trat
ion
in
µg
/m
NO2 Limit = 40 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Background
Very high levels of urban air pollution, especially particulate pollution, in Indian cities in the 1990’s.Independent analyses estimated that it could be responsible for significant health damage. A series of policy interventions followed, in which civil society and judiciary have played a major role (Delhi has set an example) A number of other highly polluted cities to prepare “action plans” for addressing urban air pollution.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Context
On-going debate among air quality experts about the exact impacts of specific measures that have already been taken, and by how much the urban air quality has improved as a result.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Objectives
To strengthen, within the limits of the available data and analytical methods, the understanding of factors influencing ambient air quality in different cities so as to assist in the process of formulating future city-level strategies and action plans for addressing urban air pollution.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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City SelectionFive major cities—Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, and Hyderabad all with a population of more than 5 million inhabitants in the metropolitan area. These cities, cover a wide range in the levels of PM pollution; cover different geographical locations (north,
south, east, and west), diverse climatic conditions, and both coastal and inland cities;
have relatively more extensive data available; represent a sample that has had policy
interventions; and are also on the list of the cities that have been
asked to develop “action plans” to address PM pollution.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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PM Averages (2002)
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480 540
Delhi
Kolkata
Mumbai
Hyderabad
Chennai
ug/m3
RSPM
SPM
NEERI Data
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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What efforts have been made to address urban air pollution ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Delhi: Chronology of Key Actions
1994-95: Transport Introduction of Catalytic Converters and Unleaded petrol
1996: Transport & Industry Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel introduced CNG vehicles and catalytic converters for government
petrol vehicles, excluding public transport introduced (but unsuccessful)
Closure of 168 hazardous industries, including stone crushers completed
Lower Sulphur content in coal (0.4% S) and oil for industrial use (1.8%) introduced
1997: Industry Relocation of 513 industries 337 hazardous category industries shifted (total of 1160
industries closed or relocated including hot mix plants, arc induction furnaces, brick kilns)
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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1998: Transport Supply of only premix petrol in all petrol filling stations to two
stroke engine vehicles; ban on supply of loose 2T oils Phasing out/ban on old commercial/transport vehicles (>15 yrs) Start of major construction program: flyovers plus the Delhi
metro
1999: Transport Registration of only EURO II 3-wheelers and diesel taxis Restricting the plying of goods vehicles during the day Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25%
2000: Transport, Industry & Urban Diesel and gasoline sulphur reduced to 0.05% in selected outlets Replacement of all pre-1990 3-wheelers and taxis with new
vehicles on clean fuels All private 4-wheeled vehicles to conform to Euro II Buses more than 8 Yrs phased out or to ply on CNG The three coal based power plants to switch over to beneficiated
coal Piped NG by March 2000 to 1311 domestic, 9 small, and 3 large
commercial establishments
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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2001: Transport, Industry & Urban Replacement of all post-1990 3-wheelers and taxis with
new vehicles on clean fuels Sulphur content in diesel further reduced to 0.05% in
select outlets Number of CNG vehicles as follows: 14000 3-w; 2200 taxis;
400 buses; 250 RTVs; 9500 private (26350 total) Piped NG by March to 2821 domestic, 15 small , and 5
large commercial establishments Hazardous Industry closure continues: total of 3538 closed
2002: Transport & Urban 94 CNG stations setup up to March All diesel buses phased-out / converted to CNG. Number of CNG vehicles as follows: 35678 3-w; 4816 taxis;
4231 buses; 2165 RTVs; 10350 private (57240 total) Piped NG by March to 4111 domestic, 37 small , and 5
large commercial establishments 16340 non-destined good vehicles turned away from
entering Delhi between July and November
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
12
Kolkata: Chronology of Key Actions
1995: Industry Air polluting industries directed to install air pollution control
devices
1996: Transport Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated
1997: Industry Siting policy for red category (hazardous) industry was
implemented
1998: Transport Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles mandated 0.25% S diesel mandated in Kolkata Metropolitan Area
1999: Transport Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25% for all of Kolkata
2001: Transport & Industry Low sulphur petrol and diesel (0.05%) mandated The use of cleaner fuels made mandatory in industrial boilers
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Mumbai: Chronology of Key Actions 1996: Transport & Industry
Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated Textile industries decline started after the strikes of textile workers
1997: Transport & Urban CNG conversion of taxis started Construction of large number of flyovers started
1998: Transport Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles mandated CNG conversion of taxis on a large scale
1999: Transport Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport & Industry Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25% Conversion of a number of industries to natural gas
2001: Transport & Industry Low sulphur petrol and diesel (0.05%) mandated
2002: Transport Age-based phase out of taxis and 3-wheelers unless converted to
LPG/CNG
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
14
Hyderabad: Chronology of Key Actions
1996: Transport Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated
1998: Transport Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles
mandated
1999: Transport Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport & Urban Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25% Construction of flyovers started
2001: Transport & Urban Construction of by-pass roads for heavy vehicles started Widening of roads undertaken
2002: Transport Stopping of permit to new autorickshaws
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Chennai: Chronology of Key Actions
1996: Transport Fuel Quality: 0.5% S diesel mandated
1998: Transport Low smoke 2T oil for two-stroke engine vehicles mandated
1999: Transport Pre-mixed 2T oil for two-wheelers mandated
2000: Transport Diesel sulphur reduced to 0.25%
2001: Transport Low sulphur diesel & petrol (0.05%) mandated
2002: Transport & Urban Entry of old buses into the center of the city prohibited,
and old buses diverted to new bus terminal in the outskirts
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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What were the effects of those efforts on air quality ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Annual Average RSPM Concentration
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
ug/m
3
Delhi Kolkata Mumbai Hyderabad Chennai
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Delhi: RSPM by Area (Ann. Avgs.)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
ug/M
3
Industrial Commercial Residential
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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What are the health impacts of changes in air quality ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Changes in RSPM levels
Delhi(ug/m3)
Kolkata (ug/m3)
Mumbai (ug/m3)
Hyderabad(ug/m3)
Chennai (ug/m3)
1993-95Average
255 196 142 69 73
2000-02Average
180 130 83 66 63
Reduction
75(29%)
66(34%)
59(42%)
3(4%)
10(14%)
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Health benefits of changes in RSPM
Cities Population (mil.)
No. of lives saved/yr
Economic value (mil. $/yr)
Delhi 12.8 3629 432
Kolkata 13.2 3293 392
Mumbai 11.9 5308 409
Hyderabad
5.5 125 10
Chennai 6.4 484 37
TOTAL 49.8 12,838 1279
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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What are the key factors that affect air quality and need to be considered in strategies and action plans ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Relative Contribution of Sources to PM2.5 in 2001
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350D
elhi
Mar
.
Del
hi J
une
Del
hi O
ct.
Del
hi D
ec.
Kol
kata
Mar
.
Kol
kata
Jun
e
Kol
kata
Oct
.
Kol
kata
Dec
.
Mum
bai M
ar.
Mum
bai O
ct.
Mum
bai D
ec.
Mic
rogr
ams
per c
ubic
met
er
Unidentified
Secondary ammonium
Secondary nitrates
Secondary sulfates
Biomass
Coal
Road dust
Gasoline
Diesel
Source: ESMAP 2004
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Relative Contribution of Sources
The results indicated that there was no single dominant source in Delhi, Kolkata, and Mumbai, but rather three principal sources of particulate air pollution: vehicle exhaust, re-suspended road dust, and solid fuels. The use of solid fuels in more pronounced in cities with colder winters.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Delhi: Role of Meteorological Parameters
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
monsoon monsoon monsoon summer summer summer summer winter winter winter
ug/m
3
101 ug/m3
188 ug/m3
283 ug/m3
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Chennai: Role of Meteorological Parameters
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
monsoon monsoon monsoon summer summer summer summer summer summer w inter w inter
ug/m
3
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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6. What do the findings of this study tell ?
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Concluding RemarksRSPM, the main pollutant of public health concern, fell between 1993 and 2002. Clearly, the interventions undertaken had some effect !This decline in RSPM levels might have led to nearly 13,000 fewer cases of premature deaths and much greater reductions in the number of cases of respiratory illness annually in the five cities by 2002, than in the early 1990s.Despite substantial past progress the levels of RSPM are the highest and dangerously above the national standards in the northern cities of Delhi and Kolkata, especially in winter. Given that there is no established threshold for health impacts from exposure to RSPM, all cities will gain substantial health benefits from further reductions.Reductions in RSPM concentrations have been achieved through a combination of measures targeting industry, transport, and better urban planning / development. This is an important lesson for developing “action plans”.
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Sector-wise summary of key actions across the cities
Intervention Industry Urban Transport
Clean fuels Switching to cleaner fuels (reduction in sulphur, gaseous alternatives)
Increasing share of domestic and commercial users of cleaner fuels (gas and kerosene for cooking, electricity for heating)
Use of cleaner fuels (gasoline lead elimination, sulfur reduction in liquid fuels, use of gaseous fuels)
Better lubricant quality and only pre-mixed 2T oil for two- and three-wheelers
Improved technology
More efficient and cleaner combustion technology
Better road infrastructure (road widening, traffic management, new flyovers)
Scrappage of old commercial vehicles and their replacement with a new fleet
Stronger and better enforced regulation
Tightened and better enforced emissions norms leading to installation of pollution control devices
Enforcement of land-use zoning regulations (closure and relocation of industry from non-conforming areas, development of green belts/areas)
Introduction and enforcement of new and more stringent emission norms for new and in-use vehicles
Sameer Akbar, The World Bank
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Thank You All!
The full report entitledFor a Breath of Fresh Air: Ten Years of Progress and Challenges in Urban Air Quality Management in India 1993-2002 can be accessed at http://www.worldbank.org/sarurbanair