SAYGIN GONC (Alternative Fuel Concepts)

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SAYGIN GÖNÇ

AVIMA 10

Manufacturers Management

27/02/2012Lecturer: Christian Bergner

Alternative Fuel Concepts

- The Aviation Biofuels -



2 Alternative Fuel Concepts – The Aviation Biofuels

Contents

1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3

1.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................................ 31.2 Situation in Aviation Industry ........................................................................................................ 3

2. Biofuels ................................................................................................................................................ 7

2.1 What are biofuels? ........................................................................................................................ 7

2.2 Second Generation Biofuels .......................................................................................................... 9

2.2.1 Camelina ................................................................................................................................. 9

2.2.2 Algae ..................................................................................................................................... 10

2.2.3 Jatropha ................................................................................................................................ 10

2.2.4 Halophytes ............................................................................................................................ 10

2.2.5 Household and Municipal Waste ......................................................................................... 11

2.3 Biofuels in Aviation Industry........................................................................................................ 11

2.3.1 Technical Challenges ............................................................................................................ 12

2.3.2 Sustainability Challenges ...................................................................................................... 12

2.3.3 Testing and Approval ............................................................................................................ 13

2.3.3.1 Demonstration Flights ................................................................................................... 15

2.3.3.2 Commercial Flights ........................................................................................................ 17

2.3.4 Economic Viability ................................................................................................................ 17

3. Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................... 19

Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................... 20




1. Introduction

1.1 Overview

Concerns over environmental issues and diminishing supply of fossil fuels have intensified

the search for alternative source of energy. It is well known that petroleum reserves are

limited resources and the date of the global peak in oil production is fixed between 1996 and

2035. In the current situation, oil prices are volatile while supplies are unstable. Besides its

vulnerability in energy supply and demand, the world is still depending on petroleum for the

main source of energy. An alternative and renewable energy source is eminent to solve the

current issues of over dependence on fossil fuels for energy (Demirbaş, 2008).

This is the reason why new sources of energy and preferably renewable energies (e.g biomass,

wind, solar energy) are being deeply studied and gradually applied in order to substitute fossil

fuels. One such solution is to process agricultural residues as an energy source.

The newly introduced biomass energy technologies use waste or plant matter to produce

energy with a lower level of greenhouse gas emissions than fossil fuel sources. Biomass can

be converted into liquid and gaseous fuels through thermochemical and biological routes. The

term biofuel is referred to liquid or gaseous fuels for the transport sector that are mainly

produced from biomass. A variety of fuels can be obtained from biomass resources including

liquid fuels, such as ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, Fischer-Tropsch diesel, and gaseous fuels,

such as hydrogen and methane (Demirbaş, 2008).

The interest in the biofuels production is due to energy security reasons, environmental

concerns, foreign exchange savings, and socioeconomic issues related to the rural sector.

Biofuel offers several advantages to the environment and sustainability.

1.2 Situation in Aviation Industry

The world‟s transport system is highly oil dependent and aviation is no exception, it can

actually be counted as the most oil dependent transportation type. Annually 2.4 billion

passengers enter an aeroplane to be transported to another city, country or continent.

Today almost 100 per cent of aviation fuel is extracted from crude oil, a fossil fuel subject to

depletion. The characteristics of air travel mean that a lot of caution must be taken when

introducing new fuels; being 10,000 meters in the air provides no room for failure and tests

for approving aviation fuel are therefore rigorous. Petroleum in the form of crude oil has been




used for the past one hundred years in a steadily increasing amount. Most crude oil was found

in the sixties and has been continuously extracted since. Eventually production will reach its

maximum and start to decline. Many of the oil producing countries have reached that peak

and their production is declining, for example the USA reached its maximum level in 1970

and Norway in 2003. Today more oil is consumed than found.

Today, Aviation industry experiences with regard to its economic and environmental issues a

challenging situation. The oil price has taken an unpredictable, most positive, trend due to

probable economical and political crisis and airlines are particularly vulnerable to substantial

price increases, which have tripled during the past decade and worries about remaining oil

resources are growing more and more.

At the same time, aviation industry is under extreme pressure from socio-environmental

community due to its increasing contribution in large ratio in producing GHG and CO 2

emissions as well as destroying the environment due to use of fossil fuels for its vehicles.

Rapid growth in air traffic by purchasing more aircraft than before caused all new measures to

be compensated negatively. In 2010, the commercial aviation industry produced 649 million

tonnes of carbon dioxide (CO2). According to the International Energy Agency, emissions

from aviation industry accounts for about 2% of the total man-made CO 2 emissions by (See

Figure 1),

Fig.1: Global CO 2 Emissions

(Source Air Transport Action Group – ATAG)

but they are increasing rapidly – by 80% since 1960s and also forecasted that by 2012,

aviation emissions are likely to more than double from present level (See Figure 2).




Fig.2: Total tonnes of CO2 emitted by aviation over the last 10 years and forecast to 2012


So, inevitably efforts have been oriented around more eco-friendly and sustainable technologyby designing and manufacturing modern engines that are more fuel-efficient with less noise

during these years. New engine concepts for Airbus A320-neo and Boeing 787 are the signs

of these measures. The airlines and the aircraft manufacturers keep improving the planning

and routing of traffic and keep improving the fuel efficiency of airplanes to meet the goal of

less jet fuel consumption. The aviation industry has actually gone through huge development

since the first commercial aircraft came in to service. In the last 40 years, manufacturers have

cut fuel burn and CO2 emissions by 70%, NOx emissions by 75% and noise by 90%, with

work continuing to deliver further improvements (See Figure 3).

Fig3: Historical trend for average fuel consumption of the global fleet of aircraft

(Source Boeing)




In the last decade the demand for jet fuel has increased 3%, whilst traffic in terms of RPKs

(Revenue Passenger Kilometres) has increased 45%. Aviation will continue to strive to

become ever more eco-efficient, reducing fuel burn per aircraft to the benefit of the

environment and airlines, who face the prospect of fuel being a significant portion of their

operating costs in the years to come (Airbus, 2011).

The Association of European Airlines (2008) declared that the current average fuel

consumption is less than 5 litres/100 RPK, and that the modern aircraft consume approxi-

mately 3.5 litres/100 RPK (Nygren, Kjell, & Höök, 2009).

However, increasing demand for air travel and as a result the airlines‟ tendency to expanding

their fleet would outstrip the mentioned fuel-efficiency developments. Rate of crude oil

production will not keep pace with such demand; consequently, the industry has been forced

to introduce alternative fuels with less impact on environment and higher productivity.

Among options as drop-in alternative jet fuel, only synthetic manufactured fuels and biofuels

are currently found (Dagget, Hadaller, Hendricks, & Walther, 2006).




2. Biofuels

2.1 What are biofuels?

Theoretically, biofuels can be produced from any renewable biological carbon material,

although the most common sources are plants that absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) and use

sunlight to grow (ATAG, 2011).

They are combustible liquids that store the energy derived from biomass such as plant crops

or animal fats. Crops with high oil content such as soybeans, rapeseed (canola), and

sunflowers are the starting materials used to produce bio-oils or bio-blending components that

can be mixed with petroleum fuels (Dagget, Hadaller, Hendricks, & Walther, 2006).

International Energy Agency predicted in its 2010 report as in figure 4, that among all

available energy modes, biofuels will constitute 23% share of energy market used in the

transportation sector. Of this, about 26% will be utilized to propel the aircraft engines and

other facilities in aviation industry; the most significant are ethanol and biodiesel.

Fig.4: (left) Global Energy Use in The Transport Sector and (Right) Use of Biofuels in Different Transport

Modes in 2010

(Source International Energy Agency - IEA)

Globally, biofuels are most commonly used for transport, home heating, power generation

from stationary engines, and for cooking.

The other most common feedstock sources for making biofuels are plants rich in sugars.

Crops that are rich in sugars (such as sugar cane) or starch (such as corn) can be processed to

release their sugar content. This is fermented to make ethanol, which can be used directly as a




petroleum substitute or additive. These fuels, known as first-generation biofuels, are typically

not suitable for use in aircraft, as they do not have the necessary performance and safety

attributes for modern jet engine use and often come from feed stocks that are not sustainable.

When compared to fossil fuels, sustainably produced biofuels result in a reduction in CO2

emissions across their life cycle. Carbon dioxide absorbed by plants during the growth of the

biomass is roughly equivalent to the amount of carbon dioxide produced when the fuel is

burned in a combustion engine – which is simply returned to the atmosphere. This would

allow the biofuel to be approximately carbon neutral over its life cycle (See figure 5).

Fig.5: Carbon Lifecycle Diagram of Biofuels


However, there are emissions produced during the production of biofuels, from the equipment

needed to grow the crop, transport the raw goods, refine the fuel and so on. When these

elements are accounted for, many biofuels are still expected to provide an anticipated

reduction in overall CO2 lifecycle emissions of up to 80% compared to fossil fuels (ATAG,

2011).




Figure 6: Camelina

2.2 Second Generation Biofuels

The production of first-generation biofuels (derived from food crops such as rapeseed,

sugarcane and corn – which can also be used as food for human and animals) has raised a

number of important questions. These include questions about changes in use of agricultural

land, the effect on food prices and the impact of irrigation, pesticides and fertilisers on local

environments. In addition, some of the first-generation biofuels, such as biodiesel and ethanol

(produced from corn) are not suitable fuels for powering commercial aircraft. Many of these

fuels don‟t meet the high performance or safety specifications for jet fuel (ATAG, 2011).

Learning from the experience of other industries, the aviation industry is therefore looking at

second-generation biofuels that are sustainable. This new generation of biofuels is derived

from non-food crop sources. Second-generation biofuels can also be mass grown in a range of

locations, including deserts and salt water. Each of the second-generation feedstocks being

investigated for aviation use has the potential to deliver large quantities of greener and

potentially cheaper fuel. It is unlikely, however, that the aviation industry will rely on just one

type of feedstock. Some feedstocks are better suited to some climates and locations than

others and so the most appropriate crop will be grown in the most suitable location. It is likely

that aircraft will be powered by blends of biofuel from different types of feedstock along with

jet fuel (ATAG, 2011).

Some potential sustainable aviation biofuel feedstocks are as follows;

2.2.1 Camelina

Camelina is primarily an energy crop, with high lipid oil

content. The main market for camelina oil is as a

feedstock to produce renewable fuels. The left over solid

„meal‟ from the oil extraction process can also be used as

a feed supplement for poultry and livestock. Camelina is

often grown as a rotational crop with wheat and other

cereal crops when the land would otherwise be left fallow

(unplanted) as part of the normal crop rotation programme. It therefore provides growers with

an opportunity to diversify their crop base and reduce mono-cropping (planting the same crop

year after year), which has been shown to degrade soil and reduce yields and resistance to

pests and diseases (ATAG, 2011).




Figure 7: Algae

Figure 8: Jatropha

Figure 9: Halophytes

2.2.2 Algae

Algae are potentially the most promising feedstock for producing large quantities of sustainable aviation

biofuel. These microscopic plants can be grown in

polluted or salt water, deserts and other inhospitable

places. They thrive on carbon dioxide, which makes

them ideal for carbon capture (absorbing carbon dioxide)

from sources like power plants. One of the biggest

advantages of algae for oil production is the speed at which the feedstock can grow. It has

been estimated that algae produces up to 15 times more oil per square kilometre than other

biofuel crops. Another advantage of algae is that it can be grown on marginal lands that aren‟t

used for growing food, such as on the edges of deserts (ATAG, 2011).

2.2.3 Jatropha

Jatropha is a plant that produces seeds containing inedible lipid

oil that can be used to produce fuel. Each seed produces 30 to

40% of its mass in oil. Jatropha can be grown in a range of

difficult soil conditions, including arid and otherwise non-arableareas, leaving prime land available for food crops. The seeds are

mildly toxic to both humans and animals and are therefore not a

food source (ATAG, 2011).

2.2.4 Halophytes

Halophytes are salt marsh grasses and other saline habitat species

that can grow either in salt water or in areas affected by sea spray

where plants would not normally be able to grow. These plants

have special physiological adaptations that enable them to absorb

water from soils and from seawater, which have solute

concentrations that nonhalophytes could not tolerate. Some

halophytes are actually succulents, with a high water-storage

capacity (ATAG, 2011).




Figure 10: Municipal Waste

2.2.5 Household and Municipal Waste

Biofuel feedstock does not just need to be grown. Household

and municipal waste is also a very promising source of

sustainable aviation biofuels, not to mention the waste by-

products of the forestry industry or the cultivation of crops.

Advanced planning is already underway for building a

number of biofuel plants that use such varied waste as wood

products, paper, food scraps, forestry waste, agricultural

residues, industrial residues, animal by-products, sewage and

municipal solid waste, which through various processes can potentially be turned into jet fuel.

These may provide feedstock sources to complement the specially grown biofuel supply and

could also prevent several hundred million tonnes of waste from entering landfill sites

annually (ATAG, 2011).

2.3 Biofuels in Aviation Industry

As mentioned in the Introduction, rate of developing High-Technology in designing more

efficient engines cannot keep pace with increasing rate of air traffic, booming aviation market

and growing pressure of governments and society for having more environmentally andenergy-efficient procedures in these years. Demands for stabilizing the energy supplies,

turmoil in oil market and its probable financial dangers, and most significantly, concerns for

increasing negative contribution in global warming issue, have forced aviation industry to

look for a new substitute for current jet fuels.

At this stage, there is no foreseeable new technology to power flight beyond hydrocarbon

fuels. Hydrogen can be burned in a turbine engine for aviation. However, there are significant

technical challenges in designing a hydrogen-powered aircraft for commercial aviation and in

producing enough hydrogen in a sustainable way to supply the industry‟s needs. There is

research underway using nanotechnology as a potential for storing hydrogen in a convenient

and safe way for air transport, but the conclusion of this research and potential

commercialisation is a long way off. The use of sustainable biofuels can provide the air

transport industry with a near term solution to provide a fuel with a lower environmental

impact than petroleum-based fuels (ATAG, 2011).




2.3.1 Technical Challenges

Second-generation biofuels must have the ability to directly substitute and mix with

traditional jet fuel for aviation (known as Jet A and Jet A-1) and have the same qualities and

characteristics. This is important to ensure that manufacturers do not have to redesign engines

or aircraft and that fuel suppliers and airports do not have to develop new fuel delivery

systems. At present, the industry is focused on producing biofuels from sustainable sources

that will enable the fuel to be a “drop-in” replacement to traditional jet fuel. Drop-in fuels are

combined with the petroleum-based fuel either as a blend or potentially as a 100%

replacement. Some biofuels, such as biodiesel and ethanol, are not suitable fuels for powering

commercial aircraft. Many of these fuels don‟t meet the high performance or safety

specifications for jet fuel. Recent advances in fuel production technology have resulted in jet

fuel produced from bio-derived sources that not only meets but exceeds many of the current

specifications for jet fuel (ATAG, 2011).

2.3.2 Sustainability Challenges

Many first-generation biofuel sources, such as ethanol produced from corn, compete for

valuable land with food crops and can contribute to deforestation and pressure on freshwater

resources. The aviation industry is committed to using only biofuels that are grown in asustainable way that do not put food security at risk by competing for land or water with food

crops.

International Energy Agency have also enumerated in its 2012 road map for biofuels, used in

transportation, creating a financial support scheme to the sustainable performance of biofuels

as one of its 10 steps for the next 10 years in order to ensure more than 50% life-cycle GHG

emission savings for all biofuels.

Both the EU and the US have introduced regulatory standards (Renewable Energy Directive

(RED) in the EU, Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) in the US) prescribing criteria that biofuels

for industrial applications have to meet in order to be eligible for incentives or to be counted

towards a biofuel blend or volume mandate. In particular, specific GHG reduction thresholds

are required by these standards (IATA, 2011). Unfortunately the different existing

sustainability standards do not only cover different criteria, but also use different

methodologies to determine impact parameters such as lifecycle GHG emissions. For

aviation, due to its global and border-crossing nature, these divergent regulations make it

difficult to make best use of incentives for biojet fuel.




The RSB (Roundtable on Sustainable Biofuels) is the most comprehensive existing biofuel

standard, which goes beyond RED and RFS2 and also extends the requirements into the social

domain. The RSB Global Sustainability Standard is a universal standard, which describe the

requirements for sustainably-produced biofuels and biomass. The following issues are set by

RSB as the red line in sustainability, which will impact both human and environment:

Degradation of water, air and soils.

Loss of biodiversity and wildlife habitat

Infringement of the land and water rights of indigenous peoples

Unacceptable working conditions and lack of benefit sharing for local communities

Potential effects on food security

Increased GHG emissions.

For instance, by Greenhouse Gas emissions RSB standard mentions that biofuels should

contribute to mitigate the GHG emissions across the life cycle:

“Biofuel blends shall have on average 50% lower lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions relative

to the fossil fuel baseline. Each biofuel in the blend shall have lower lifecycle GHG emissions

than the fossil fuel baseline.” (Criteria 3c)

The RSB is in close contact with members of the aviation industry, including airlines, biojet

producers, aircraft manufacturers and other stakeholders, in order to work towards the

production of sustainable and certified aviation biofuel. Aviation operations are inherently

international, so it is essential that bio-jet purchased in one region and meeting local

sustainability criteria would be recognized as sustainable at that aircraft‟s destination (IATA,

2011).

2.3.3 Testing and Approval

Safety is the aviation industry's top priority. Given this and the specific requirements of any

fuels used in aircraft, the process for testing potential new fuels is particularly rigorous.

Through testing in laboratories, in equipment on the ground, and under the extreme operating

conditions that the aviation industry requires, an exhaustive process determines those biofuels

that are suitable for aviation (Dagget, Hadaller, Hendricks, & Walther, 2006).

Because of the very strict standards required in the aviation industry, biofuels are needed to be

approved as safe and appropriate for commercial use. The aviation industry worked closely

with fuel specification bodies, such as the ASTM (American Society of Testing and

Materials) International and the UK‟s Defence Standards Agency.




Researchers developed a biofuel that has similar properties to traditional jet fuel, Jet A-1. This

is important because fuel is used for many purposes inside the aircraft and engine, including

as a lubricant, cooling fluid and hydraulic fluid, as well as for combustion (IATA, 2011).

Tests look at specific fuel consumption at several power settings from ground idle to take-off

speed, which is then compared to performance with traditional Jet A-1. Tests are also

completed on the amount of time it takes for the engine to start, how well the fuel stays

ignited in the engine and how the fuel performs in acceleration and deceleration. Tests are

also completed to ensure that the fuels don‟t have a negative impact on the materials used in

building aircraft and components. Finally, an emissions test determines the exhaust emissions

and smoke levels for the biofuels (ATAG, 2011).

Once the lab and on-the-ground testing have been completed, the fuel is ready to be tested on

aircraft under normal operating conditions. A number of airlines provided aircraft for biofuel

flight trials designed to:

provide data to support fuel qualification and certification for use by the aviation

industry;

demonstrate that biofuels are safe and that they work; and

stimulate research and development into biofuels.

During a flight, pilots perform a number of ordinary and not-so-ordinary tests to ensure the

fuel can withstand use under any operating condition (See Figure 11).

The approval process has three parts:

the test program;

the original equipment manufacturer internal review; and

determination by the specification body as to the correct specification for the fuel

Fig. 11: Flight trials – evaluation of engine performance during all phases of flight: including a number of

extraordinary “manoeuvres” (e.g. shutting down the engine in-flight and ensuring it can restart)





The approval process looks at a minimum of 11 key properties, including energy density,

freezing point, appearance, composition, volatility, fluidity and many other characteristics that

will make it fit for aviation use (ATAG, 2011).

ASTM International and other lead certification agencies, have spent the last couple of years

working with various parties across the aviation industry, fuel suppliers and researchers

before committing to change the specification of aviation jet fuel to include fuel from sources

other than fossil fuels (IATA, 2011). The agencies approved one process for biofuel

production – „biomass to liquid‟ using the Fischer -Tropsch process – in 2009, and in July

2011, approval was granted to conduct passenger flights using biofuel produced through the

„hydro- processed esters and fatty acids‟ process. There are a number of other processes that

can potentially be used to produce biofuels suitable for aviation: testing and evaluation iscurrently underway for these. Following this approval, airlines are now able to use biofuels in

commercial passenger flights up to a blend of 50% with Jet A-1.

Since 2008, a large number of test flights have been conducted, and since ASTM approval in

July 2011, several commercial flights with passengers have also occurred.

2.3.3.1 Demonstration Flights

Date Operator Platform Biofuel Notes

Feb

2008

Virgin

Atlantic

Boeing

747

Coconut

and

Babassu

Virgin flew the very first biofuel test flight between

London and Amsterdam, using a 20% blend of

biofuels in one of its engines

Dec

2008

Air New

Zealand

Boeing

747

Jatropha A two-hour test flight using a 50-50 mixture of the

new biofuel with Jet A-1 in the number one

position Rolls Royce RB-211 engine of 747-400. The

engine was then removed to be scrutinised and

studied to identify any differences between the

Jatropha blend and regular Jet A1. No effects to

performances were found.

Jan

2009

Continental

Airlines

Boeing

737

Algae and

jatropha

Continental Airlines ran the first flight of an algae-

fueled jet. The flight from Houston's George Bush

Intercontinental Airport completed a circuit over

the Gulf of Mexico. The pilots on board executed a

series of tests at 38,000 feet (12,000 m), including

a mid-flight engine shutdown. Larry Kellner, chief

executive of Continental Airlines, said they had

tested a drop-in fuel which meant that no

modification to the engine was required. The fuel

was praised for having a low flash point and

sufficiently low freezing point, issues that have

been problematic for other bio-fuels.

Jan

2009

Japan

Airlines

Boeing

747

Camelina,

jatropha

and algae

Japan Airlines conducted a one and a half hour

flight with one engine burning a 50/50 mix of Jet-A

and biofuel from the Camelina plant.




Apr

2010

US Navy F/A-18 Camelina The Navy tested this biofuel blend on the F⁄A-18

Super Hornet aka "Green Hornet". Results from

those tests indicated the aircraft performed as

expected through its full flight envelope with no

degradation of capability.

Mar2010

US Air Force A-10 Wastecooking oil

On March 25, 2010, the United States Air Forceconducted the first flight of an aircraft with all

engines powered by a biofuel blend. The flight,

performed on an A-10 at Eglin Air Force Base, used

a 50/50 blend of JP-8 and Camelina-based fuel.

Jun

2010

EADS Diamond

D42

Algae Occurred at an air show in Berlin in June 2010.

Nov

2010

US Navy MH-60S

Seahawk

Camelina Flown on 50⁄50 biofuel blend in Patuxent River,

Md. The helicopter, from Air Test and Evaluation

Squadron 21 at Naval Air Station Patuxent River

tested a fuel mixture made from the Camelina

seed.Nov

2010

TAM Airbus

320

Jatropha A 50⁄50 biofuel blend of conventional and jatropha

oil

Jun

2011

Boeing Boeing

747-8F

Camelina Boeing flew its new model 747-8F to the Paris Air

Show with all four engines burning a 15% mix of

biofuel from camelina

Aug

2011

US Navy T-45 Camelina Successfully flew a T-45 training aircraft using

biofuels at the Naval Air Station in Patuxent River,

Maryland. The flight was completed by the “Salty

Dogs” of Air Test and Evaluation Squadron (VX) 23

flying on biofuel mixture of 50/50 petroleum-based

JP-5 jet fuel and plant-based camelina.Sep

2011

US Navy AV-8B Camelina Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division, China

Lake performed the first bio-fuel flight test in AV-

8B Harrier from Air Test and Evaluation Squadron

(VX) 31.

Oct

2011

Air China Boeing

747-400

Jatropha Air China flew China's first flight using aviation

biofuels. The flight was conducted using Chinese

grown jatropha oil from PetroChina. The flight was

2 hours in duration above Beijing, and used 50%

biofuel in 1 engine.

Jan

2012

Etihad

Airways

Boeing

777-

300ER

Vegatable

cooking oil

Etihad Airways conducted a biofuel flight from Abu

Dhabi to Seattle using a combination of traditional

jet fuel and fuel based on recycled vegatable

cooking oil

Table 1: List of demonstration flights done so farSource (Wikipedia, 2012)




2.3.3.2 Commercial Flights

Date Operator Platform Biofuel Notes

Jun 2011 KLM Boeing

737-800 Used

cooking oil KLM flew the world's first commercial biofuel

flight, carrying 171 passengers from

Amsterdam to Paris Jul 2011 Lufthansa Airbus

A321

Jatropha,

camelina

plants and

animal fats

First German commercial biofuel's flight and

the start of 6 month regular series of flights

from Hamburg to Frankfurt with one of the

two engines use biofuel. It officially end at

January 12, 2012 with a flight from Frankfurt

to Washington and would not take biofuel

further unless the biofuel was more widely

produced.

Jul 2011 Finnair Airbus

A319

Used

cooking oil

The 1,500 km journey between Amsterdam

and Helsinki was fuelled with a mix of 50 per

cent biofuel derived from used cooking oiland 50 per cent conventional jet fuel. Finnair

says it will conduct at least three weekly

Amsterdam-to-Helsinki flights using the

biofuel blend in both of the aircraft's engines.

Refueling will be done at Amsterdam Airport

Schiphol.

Jul 2011 Interjet Airbus

A320

Jatropha Flight was powered by 27% jatropha between

Mexico City and Tuxtla Gutierrez

Aug 2011 AeroMexico Boeing

777-200

Jatropha Aeromexico flew the world's first trans-

Atlantic revenue flight, from Mexico City to

Madrid with passengers Oct 2011 Thomson

Airways

Boeing

757-200

Used

cooking oil

Thomson flew the UK's first commercial

biofuel flight from Birmingham Airport on

one engine using biofuel from used cooking

oil, supplied by SkyNRG

November

2011 Continental

Airlines

Boeing

737-800

Algae United / Continental flew biofuel flight from

IAH to ORD on algae jet fuel, which supplied

by Solazyme

2.3.4 Economic Viability

Challenges in the jet fuel supply chain are intensifying, making investment in Biofuels

essential. The price of jet fuel is on the rise again. During 2010, increasing demand for oil

pushed jet fuel prices up from $88 a barrel at the start of the year to $107 a barrel by year end.

The 12-month average was $91 a barrel, a rise of almost 30% from average 2009 levels.

Hedging and fuel efficiency gains provided some protection but, even so, the airline industry

fuel bill rose more than 11% to $139 billion in 2010, equivalent to 26% of operating

expenses.

Table 2: List ofcommercial flights done so farSource (Wikipedia, 2012)






3. Conclusion

Aviation's share of the greenhouse gas emissions is poised to grow, as air travel increases and

ground vehicles use more alternative fuels like ethanol and biodiesel. Currently aviation

industry represents 2% of global emissions, but is expected to grow to 3% by 2050. In

addition to building more fuel efficient aircraft and operating them more efficiently, the

industry has identified the development of biofuels as one of the major ways it can reduce its

greenhouse gas emissions. Biofuels derived from sustainable oil crops such as jatropha,

camelina and algae or from wood and waste biomass can reduce the overall carbon footprint

of industry partially, and perhaps one day fully, replace carbon-intensive petroleum fuels.

Now that biofuels for aviation have been approved as suitable for use on commercial flights,

one of the biggest challenges is cultivating the required quantity of feedstock. The worldwide

aviation industry consumes some 1.5 to 1.7 billion barrels of Jet A-1 annually (IATA, 2011).

Analysis suggests that a viable market for biofuels can be maintained when as little as 10% of

the world‟s aircraft fleet is running on a blend of 10% biofuel and 90% Jet A-1. Some parts of

the aviation industry have put in place a goal to operate the fleet using 25% biofuel by 2025,

which would be increased to 30% by 2030 (ATAG, 2011). However, for these targets to be

reached, it is necessary to produce sustainable feedstock in commercial-scale quantities.

In any case, the amount of biofuel that can be supplied is a number of years away from

reaching 50% of the jet fuel market. But the continued testing and development of new

processes and feedstock will yield useful data to support revision of the specifications to

allow more flexibility in the supply chain, as well as potential benefits in terms of fuel price

stability and availability.

But, the most significant challenge is not in developing viable alternative fuels that could

reduce aviation's Greenhouse gas emission but in developing the large scale production of

next generation of biomass feedstock that could be produced in a sustainable manner.

Introducing biofuels as a substitute for jet fuel in the near future would count for aviation

industry, which is faced with the problem of providing sustainable and energy-efficient fuel,

as a milestone.

The fossil fuel industry has a 100-year head start compared to sustainable biofuels, which arestill emerging technologically.




Bibliography

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http://www.airbus.com/company/market/forecast/passenger-aircraft-market-forecast/

ATAG. (2011, September). Beginner’s Guide to Aviation Biofuels. Retrieved February 13, 2012, from

The Air Transport Action Group (ATAG): www.atag.org

Dagget, D., Hadaller, O., Hendricks, R., & Walther, R. (2006). Alternative Fuels and Their Potential

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IATA. (2011). IATA 2011 Report on Alternative Fuels. Montreal - Geneva: IATA.

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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation_biofuel

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SAYGIN GONC (Alternative Fuel Concepts)

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