Research Methodology

Presentation by, P.S.Vaideki

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In research we quite often face measurement problem, specially when the concepts to be measured are complex and abstract and we do not posses the standardized measurement tools. Alternatively, we can say that while measuring attitudes and opinions, we face the problem of their valid measurement.

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As such we should study some procedures which may enable us to measure abstract concepts more accurately. This brings us to the study of scaling techniques.

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Meaning of ScalingScaling describes the procedures of assigning of numbers 0r symbols (i.e., quantitative measures) to subjective abstract concepts (or properties of objects) This can be done in two ways viz., 1. Making a judgement about some characteristic of an individual and then placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of that characteristic.

2. Constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual s responses assigns him a place on a scale. Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which

measured objects are located.

y These scale point positions are so related to each

other that when the first point happens to be the highest point, the positions are so related to each other that when the first point happens to be the highest point, the second point indicates a higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as compared to the third point and the third point indicates a higher degree as compared to the fourth and so on.

y Numbers for measuring the distinctions of degree

in the attitudes/opinions are, thus, assigned to individuals corresponding to their scale-positions.y Scaling has been defined as a procedure for the

assignment of numbers (or other symbols ) to a property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in question.

Scale Classification BasesThe number of assigning procedures or the scaling procedures may be broadly classified on the following bases: Subject orientation Response form Degree of subjectivity Scale properties Number of dimensions Scale construction techniques

Subject Orientation:y Under it a scale may be designed to measure

characteristics of the respondent who completes it or to judge the stimulus object which is presented to the respondent.y In respect of the former, we presume that the stimuli

presented are sufficiently homogeneous so that the between stimuli variation is small as compared to the variation among respondents.

y In the latter approach, we ask the respondent to judge

some specific object in terms of one or more dimensions and we presume that the betweenrespondent variation will be small as compared to the variation among the different stimuli presented to respondents for judging.

Response form:y Under this we may classify the scales as categorical

and comparative.y Categorical scales are also known as rating scales.

These scales are used when a respondent scores some object without direct reference to other objects.y Under comparative scales, which are also known as

ranking scales, the respondent is asked to compare two or more objects.

Degree of subjectivity:y With this basis the scale date may be based on

whether we measure subjective personal preferences or simply make non-preference judgements. y In the former case , the respondent is asked to choose which person he favours or which solution he would like to see employed, whereas in the latter case he is simply asked to judge which person is more effective in some aspect or which solution will take fewer resources without reflecting any personal preference.

Scale PropertiesNominal Scales Ordinal Scales

Interval Scales

Ratio Scales

Scale Properties:y In nominal scale the numbers serve only as labels or

tags for identifying and classifying objects. y The ordinal scale is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which the objects possess some characteristic. y In interval scale numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal values in the characteristic being measured. y The ratio scale possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales. It has an absolute zero point.

Nominal Scale A nominal scale is the simplest of the four scale types and in which the numbers or letters assigned to objects serve as labels for identification or classification. Example: Males = 1, Females = 2 Sales Zone A = Islamabad, Sales Zone B = Rawalpindi Drink A = Pepsi Cola, Drink B = 7-Up, Drink C = Miranda

Ordinal Scale:y Ordinal measurements describe order, but not relative size or degree of difference between the items measured. y In this scale type,the numbers assigned to objects or events represent the rank order (1st,2nd,3rd,etc) of the entities assessed. y A likert scale is a type of ordinal scale and may also use names with an order such as:

Bad , medium and good very satisfied , satisfied , neutral , unsatisfied , very unsatisfied

Example of an ordinal scale:y The result of a horse race,which says only which horses

arrived first, second, or third but include no information about race times.y Another example is military rank; they have an order,

but no well defined numerical difference between ranks.

Examples of Ordinal: Career Opportunities = Moderate, Good, Excellent Investment Climate = Bad, inadequate, fair, good, very good Merit = A grade, B grade, C grade, D grade

A problem with ordinal scales is that the difference between categories on the scale is hard to quantify, ie., excellent is better than good but how much is excellent better?

Interval Scale An interval scale is a scale that not only arranges objects or alternatives according to their respective magnitudes, but also distinguishes this ordered arrangement in units of equal intervals (i.e. interval scales indicate order (as in ordinal scales) and also the distance in the order). Examples: Consumer Price Index Temperature Scale in Fahrenheit

Interval scales allow comparisons of the differences of magnitude (e.g. of attitudes) but do not allow determinations of the actual strength of the magnitude.

Ratio Scale A ratio scale is a scale that possesses absolute rather than relative qualities and has an absolute zero. Examples: Money Weight Distance Temperature on the Kelvin Scale

Interval scales allow comparisons of the differences of magnitude (e.g. of attitudes) as well as determinations of the actual strength of the magnitude.

Number of dimensions:y In respect of this basis, scales can be classified as

unidimensional and multidimensional scales.y Under the former we measure only one attribute of

the respondent or object, whereas multidimensional scaling recognizes that an object might be described better by using the concept of an attribute space of n dimensions, rather than a single-dimension continuum.

Scale construction techniques:y Following are the five main techniques by which

scales can be developed.

Arbitrary approach Consensus approach Item analysis approach Cumulative scales Factor scales

Arbitrary approach:y It is an approach where scale is developed on ad hoc

basis. This is the most widely used approach. It is presumed that such scales measure the concepts for which they have been designed, although there is little evidence to support such an assumption.

Consensus approach:y Here a panel of judges evaluate the items chosen for

inclusion in the instrument in terms of whether they are relevant to the topic area and unambiguous in implication.

Item analysis approach:y Under it a number of individual items are developed

into a test which is given to a group of respondents.y After administering the test ,the total scores are

calculated for everyone.y Individual items are then analyzed to determine

which items discriminate between persons or objects with high total scores and those with low scores.

Cumulative Scales:y Cumulative scales or Louis Guttman s scalogram analysis, like other scales, consist of series of statements to which a respondent expresses his agreement or disagreement. y The technique developed by Louis Guttman is known as scalogram analysis, or at times simply scale analysis. Scalogram analysis refers to the procedure for determining whether a set of items forms a unidimensional scale. Under this technique, the respondents are asked to indicate in respect of each item whether they agree or disagree with it, and these items form a unidimensional scale, the response pattern will be as under:

Response Pattern in Scalogram AnalysisItem Number

4X __ __ __ __

3X X __ __ __

2X X X __ __

1X X X X __

Respondent Score

4 3 2 1 0

* X = agree; __ = disagree.

y A score of 4 means that the respondent is in

agreement with all the statements which is indicative of the most favourable attitude.y But a score of 3 would mean that the respondent is not

agreeable to item 4, but he agrees with all others.y In the same way one can interpret other values of the

respondents scores.y This pattern reveals that the universe of content is

scalable.

Factor Scalesy Factor scales are developed through factor analysis or

on the basis of intercorrelations of items which indicate that a common factor accounts for the relationships between items.y An important factor scale based on factor analysis is

Semantic Differential(S.D), and Multidimensional Scaling.

Semantic differential scalesy Semantic differential scale or the S.D. scale developed

by Charles E.Osgood, G.J.Suci and P.H.Tannenbaum(1957),is an attempt to measure the psychological meanings of an object to an individual. This scale is based on the presumption that an object can have different dimensions of connotative meanings which can be located in multidimensional property a set of bipolar rating scales, usually of 7 points, by which one or more respondents rate one or more concepts on each scale item. For instance, the S.D. scale items for analysing candidates for leadership position may be shown as under:

Semantic Differential Scale

Graphic of SD Analysis(E)Successful (P)Severe (P)Heavy (A)Hot (E)Progressive (P)Strong (A)Active (A)Fast (E)True (E)Sociable 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 Unsuccessful Lenient Light Cold Regressive Weak Passive Slow False Unsociable

y Candidates for leadership position (along with the

concept-the ideal candidate) may be compared and we may score them from +3 to -3 on the basis of the above stated scales.y The letters ,

E-Evaluation P-Potency A-Activity

Graphic of SD Analysis

Scale construction Techniquesy Arbitrary approach - scales on ad hoc basis y Consensus approach- panel of judges evaluate y Item analysis approach- individual items into test y Cumulative scales - ranking of items y Factor scales

inter correlation of items

Important Scaling Techniquesy The important scaling techniques often used in the

context of research specially in context of social or business research are as follows:y Rating Scales y Ranking Scales

Rating Scales: The rating scale involves qualitative description of a

limited number of aspects of a thing or of traits of a person. These ratings may be in such forms as like-dislike , above average, average, below average etc. There is no specific rule whether to use a two-points scale, three-point scale or scale with still more points. In practice, three to seven points scales are generally used for the simple reason that more points on a scale provide an opportunity for greater sensitivity of measurement.

Graphic rating scaley The graphic rating scale is quite simple and is

commonly used in practice. Under it the various points are usually put along the line to form a continuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply making a mark (such as ) at the appropriate point on a line that runs from one extreme to the other.y The following is an example of five-points graphic

rating scale when we wish to ascertain people s liking or disliking any product:

Graphic Rating Scale

Graphic Rating Scales

12-40

Itemized rating scale:y The itemized rating scale(also known as numerical

scale) presents a series of statements from which a respondent selects one as best reflecting his evaluation. y Suppose we wish to inquire as to how well does a worker get along with his fellow workers? In such a situation we may ask the respondent to select one, to express his opinion, from the following:

y He is almost always involved in some friction with a y y y y

fellow worker. He is often at odds with one or more of his fellow workers. He sometimes gets involved in friction. He infrequently becomes involved in friction with others. He almost never gets involved in friction with fellow workers.

Selected Itemized Rating ScalesPURCHASE INTENT Definitely will buy Probably will buy Probably will not buy Definitely will not buy

LEVEL OF AGREEMENT Strongly Somewhat Neither Somewhat agree agree agree disagree nor disagree

Strongly disagree

Very Good

Good

QUALITY Neither good nor bad

Fair

Poor

Completely Dependable

DEPENDABILITY Somewhat Not very Not dependable dependable dependable at all STYLE Somewhat Not very stylish stylish

Very stylish

Completely unstylish

SATISFACTIONCompletely Somewhat Neither satisfied Satisfied satisfied nor dissatisfied Somewhat dissatisfied Completely dissatisfied

COSTExtremely Expensive Expensive Neither expensive nor inexpensive Slightly Very inexpensive inexpensive

EASE OF USEVery easy to use Somewhat easy to use Not very easy to use Difficult to use

COLOR BRIGHTNESSExtremely Bright Very bright Somewhat bright Slightly bright Not bright at all

MODERNITYVery Modern Somewhat modern Neither Somewhat modern old-fashioned nor old-fashioned Very old-fashioned

Ranking Scales:y There are two generally used approaches of ranking

scales viz., Method of paired comparisons Method of rank order

Method of paired comparisons:Under it the respondent can express his attitude by making a choice between two objects, say between a new flavour of soft drinks and an established brand of drink.

y But when there are more than two stimuli to

judge, the number of judgements required in a paired comparison is given by the formula: N= n(n-1) 2 Where N=number of judgements n=number of stimuli or objects to be judged.

Obtaining Shampoo Preferences Using Paired ComparisonsInstructions: We are going to present you with ten pairs of shampoobrands. For each pair, please indicate which one of the two brands of shampoo you would prefer for personal use.

Recording Form:Jhirmack Finesse Vidal Sassoon Head & Shoulders Pert Number of Times PreferredbaA

Jhirmack

Finesse 0

Vidal Head & Sassoon Shoulders 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 4

Pert 0 0 1 0 1

1a 1 0 1 3 1 0 1 2

1 in a particular box means that the brand in that column was preferred over the brand in the corresponding row. A 0 means that the row brand was preferred over the column brand. bThe number of times a brand was preferred is obtained by summing the 1s in each column.

Paired Comparison SellingThe most common method of taste testing is paired comparison. The consumer is asked to sample two different products and select the one with the most appealing taste. The test is done in private and a minimum of 1,000 responses is considered an adequate sample. A blind taste test for a soft drink, where imagery, self-perception and brand reputation are very important factors in the consumer s purchasing decision, may not be a good indicator of performance in the marketplace. The introduction of New Coke illustrates this point. New Coke was heavily favored in blind paired comparison taste tests, but its introduction was less than successful, because image plays a major role in the purchase of Coke. A paired comparison taste test

Comparative Scaling Techniques Rank Order Scalingy Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank them according to some criterion. y It is possible that the respondent may dislike the brand ranked 1 in an absolute sense. y Furthermore, rank order scaling also results in ordinal data. y Only (n - 1) scaling decisions need be made in rank order scaling.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order ScalingInstructions: Rank the various brands of toothpaste in order of preference. Begin by picking out the one brand that you like most and assign it a number 1. Then find the second most preferred brand and assign it a number 2. Continue this procedure until you have ranked all the brands of toothpaste in order of preference. The least preferred brand should be assigned a rank of 10. No two brands should receive the same rank number. The criterion of preference is entirely up to you. There is no right or wrong answer. Just try to be consistent.

Preference for Toothpaste Brands Using Rank Order Scaling FormBrand 1. Crest 2. Colgate 3. Aim 4. Gleem 5. Macleans 6. Ultra Brite 7. Close Up 8. Pepsodent 9. Plus White 10. Stripe Rank Order _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________ _________