School of the Officer
and NCO
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School of the Officer and NCO History of the NCO
You are a leader in the same Army that persevered at Valley Forge, held its
ground at the Little Round Top, turned the tide of a war at St. Mihiel and
began the liberation of a continent at Omaha Beach. You lead soldiers from
the same Army that burst out of the Pusan Perimeter, won against
enormous odds at La Drang Valley, fought with determination at
Mogadishu and relieved terrible misery in Rwanda. Leaders like you and
soldiers like yours conducted intense combat operations in Afghanistan
while only a short distance away others supported that nation’s rebuilding
and still others fought fires in the northwestern US. Throughout the
history of the Army the NCO has been there, leading soldiers in battle and
training them in peacetime, leading by example and always, always – out
front.
The Revolution to the Civil War
The history of the United States Army and of the noncommissioned officer
began in 1775 with the birth of the Continental Army . The American
noncommissioned officer did not copy the British. He, like the American
Army itself, blended traditions of the French, British and Prussian armies
into a uniquely American institution. As the years progressed, the
American political system, with its disdain for the aristocracy, social
attitudes and the vast westward expanses, further removed the US Army
noncommissioned officer from his European counterparts and created a
truly American noncommissioned officer.
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The Revolution
In the early days of the American Revolution, little standardization of NCO
duties or responsibilities existed. In 1778, during the long hard winter at
Valley Forge, Inspector General Friedrich von Steuben standardized NCO
duties and responsibilities in his Regulations for the Order and Discipline
of the Troops of the United States (printed in 1779). His work, commonly
called the Blue Book, set down the duties and responsibilities for
corporals, sergeants, first sergeants, quartermaster sergeants and
sergeants major, which were the NCO ranks of the period. The Blue Book
also emphasized the importance of selecting quality soldiers for NCO
positions and served a whole generation of soldiers as the primary
regulation for the Army for 30 years. In fact, part of Von Steuben’s Blue
Book is still with us in FM 22-5, Drill and Ceremonies and other
publications.
Von Steuben specified duties of the noncommissioned officer. The Sergeant
Major served as the assistant to the regimental adjutant, keeping rosters,
forming details and handling matters concerning the "interior
management and discipline of the regiment." The Sergeant Major also
served “at the head of the noncommissioned officers.” The Quartermaster
Sergeant assisted the regimental quartermaster, assuming his duties in
the quartermaster's absence and supervising the proper loading and
transport of the regiment's baggage when on march. The First Sergeant
enforced discipline and encouraged duty among troops, maintaining the
duty roster, making morning report to the company commander and
keeping the company descriptive book. This document listed the name,
age, height, place of birth and prior occupation of every enlisted man in
the unit.
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The day-to-day business of sergeants and corporals included many roles.
Sergeants and Corporals instructed recruits in all matters of military
training, including the order of their behavior in regard to neatness and
sanitation. They quelled disturbances and punished perpetrators. They
forwarded sick lists to the First Sergeant. In battle, NCOs closed the gaps
occasioned by casualties, encouraged men to stand their ground and to fire
rapidly and accurately. The development of a strong NCO Corps helped
sustain the Continental Army through severe hardships to final victory. Von
Steuben’s regulations established the foundation for NCO duties and
responsibilities from 1778 to the present.
During the early stages of the American Revolution the typical Continental
Army NCO wore an epaulet to signify his rank. Corporals wore green and
sergeants wore red epaulets. After 1779, sergeants wore two epaulets,
while corporals retained a single epaulet. From the American Revolution to
World War II the noncommissioned officer received his promotion from the
regimental commander. Entire careers were often spent within one
regiment. If a man transferred from one regiment to the next, he did not
take his rank with him. No noncommissioned officer could transfer in
grade from one regiment to another without the permission of the General
in Chief of the Army; this was rarely done. Without permanent promotions
of individuals, stripes stayed with the regiment.
The Purple Heart
Three NCOs received special recognition for acts of heroism during the
American Revolution. These men, Sergeant Elijah Churchill, Sergeant
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William Brown and Sergeant Daniel Bissell, received the Badge of Military
Merit, a purple heart with a floral border and the word "merit" inscribed
across the center. In practice this award was the precursor to the Medal of
Honor introduced during the Civil War. After a long period of disuse,
Badge of Military Merit was reinstituted in 1932 as the Purple Heart and is
a decoration for members of the armed forces wounded or killed in action
or as a result of a terrorist attack.
Rank Insignia
In 1821 the War Department made the first reference to noncommissioned
officer chevrons. A General Order directed that sergeants major and
quartermaster sergeants wear a worsted chevron on each arm above the
elbow; sergeants and senior musicians, one on each arm below the elbow;
and corporals, one on the right arm above the elbow. This practice ended
in 1829 but returned periodically and became a permanent part of the
NCO’s uniform before the Civil War.
In 1825 the Army established a systematic method for selecting
noncommissioned officers. The appointment of regimental and company
noncommissioned officers remained the prerogative of the regimental
commander. Usually regimental commanders would accept the company
commander's recommendations for company NCOs unless there were
overriding considerations. The Abstract of Infantry Tactics, published in
1829, provided instructions for training noncommissioned officers. The
purpose of this instruction was to ensure that all NCOs possessed "an
accurate knowledge of the exercise and use of their firelocks, of the
manual exercise of the soldier and of the firings and marchings."
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Field officers and the adjutant frequently assembled noncommissioned
officers for both practical and theoretical instruction. Furthermore, field
officers ensured that company officers provided proper instruction to their
noncommissioned officers. The sergeant major assisted in instructing
sergeants and corporals of the regiment. Newly promoted corporals and
sergeants of the company received instruction from the First Sergeant. The
first sergeant of that time, like today, was a key person in the maintenance
of military discipline.
The Civil War
During the 1850's major changes occurred in US Army weaponry. Inventors
developed and refined the percussion cap and rifled weapons. Weapons like
the Sharps carbine added greatly to fire power and accuracy. The increased
lethality of weapons did not immediately result in different tactics. The
huge numbers of casualties in the American Civil War proved that
technological advances must result in changes to battlefield tactics.
Operationally, the Civil War marked a distinct change in warfare. No
longer was it sufficient to defeat an enemy’s army in the field. It was
necessary to destroy the enemy’s will and capacity to resist through
military, economic and political means. This became the concept of total
war. The war required a large number of draftees and unprecedented
quantities of supplies.
During the Civil War, noncommissioned officers led the lines of
skirmishers that preceded and followed each major unit. NCOs also carried
the flags and regimental colors of their units. This deadly task was crucial
to maintain regimental alignment and for commanders to observe their
units on the field. As the war progressed, organizational and tactical
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changes led the Army to employ more open battle formations. These
changes further enhanced the combat leadership role of the
noncommissioned officer. New technology shaped the Army during the
Civil War: railroads, telegraph communications, steamships, balloons and
other innovations. These innovations would later impact the
noncommissioned officer rank structure and pay.
Since its founding on 14 June 1775, the Army normally expanded in
wartime with volunteers, with the professional soldiers forming the basis
for expansion. The Civil War in particular brought a huge increase in the
number of volunteer soldiers. This policy endured to some extent until
world commitments and the stationing of troops overseas in the 20th
century required the Nation to maintain a strong professional force.
In the post-Civil War era the Artillery School at Fort Monroe reopened to
train both officers and noncommissioned officers. In 1870 the Signal Corps
established a school for training officers and noncommissioned officers.
Because both the Artillery and the Signal Corps required soldiers to have
advanced technical knowledge to operate complex equipment and
instruments, these were the first schools established. Efforts to provide
advanced education for noncommissioned officers in other less technical
fields, however, failed to attract supporters. Army leaders thought
experience and not the classroom made a good NCO.
Duties and Responsibilities of Officers and NCOs
Captains will be held responsible for the theoretical and practical
instruction of their noncommissioned officers, and the adjutant for the
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instruction of the non-commissioned staff. To this end, they will require
these tactics to be studied and recited, lesson-by-lesson; and when
instruction is given on the ground, each noncommissioned officer, as he
explains a movement, should be required to put it into practical operation.
The non-commissioned officers should also be practiced in giving
commands. Each command, in a lesson, at the theoretical instruction,
should first be given by the instructor, and then repeated, in succession, by
the non-commissioned officers, so that while they become habituated to
the commands, uniformity may be established in the manner of giving
them.
In the school of the soldier, the company officers will be the instructors of
the squads; but if there be not a sufficient number of company officers
present, intelligent sergeants maybe substituted; and two or three squads,
under sergeant instructors, be superintended, at the same time) by an
officer.
In the school of the company, the lieutenant colonel and the majors, under
the colonel, will be the principal instructors, substituting frequently, the
captain of the company, and sometimes one of the lieutenants; the
substitute, as far as practicable, being superintended by one of the
principals.
Individual instruction being the basis of the instruction of companies, on
which that of the regiment depends, and the first principles having the
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greatest influence upon this individual instruction, classes of recruits
should be watched with the greatest care.
Instructors will explain, in a few clear and precise words, the movement to
be executed; and not to overburden the memory of the men, they will
always use the same terms to explain the same principles.
They should often join example to precept, should keep up the attention of
the men by an animated tone, and pass rapidly from one movement to
another, as soon as that which they command has been executed in a
satisfactory manner.
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Instruction of Officers
Officers and Non-Commissioned officers are entitled to implicit obedience from the soldiers, and they should be obeyed and respected by the men. The confidence of the soldiers in the integrity of officers and NCOs can
only be obtained by his being rigidly just and impartial to those under him,
and by keeping his temper on all occasions, and discharging his duty
without passion or feeling. An officer or NCO who cannot control himself
will find difficulty in controlling those whom he is placed in command over.
Confidence and energy are the progressive traits of officers and NCOs who
will be successful. Let him first feel he is right, and acting in obedience to
orders and instructions, and then do his duty with decision and firmness;
and success will be more certain, and failure much less discreditable.
The instruction of officers can be perfected by joining theory to practice.
The colonel will often practice them in marching and in estimating
distances, and he will carefully endeavor to cause them to take steps equal
in length and swiftness.
The instruction of officers will include all the Titles in this system of drill,
as well as a perfect knowledge of the system of firing.
Every officer will make himself perfectly acquainted with the bugle signals.
This knowledge, so necessary in general instruction, becomes of vital
importance on actual service in the field.
Commissioned Officers
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“The utmost attention will be paid by commanders of companies to the
cleanliness of their men, as you their persons, clothing, arms,
accouterments, and equipments, and also as to their quarters or tents."
Regulations for the Army of the Confederate States, 1863
ColonelA Colonel In the United States Army is a field grade officer rank. A colonel
ranks above lieutenant colonel and below brigadier general. Colonel is
equivalent to the rank of captain in the other uniformed services.
The rank of Colonel was relatively rare in the early 19th century, due in
part that the United States Army was very small in size and the rank of
Colonel was usually obtained only after long years of service. During the
War of 1812, many temporary Colonels were appointed but these
commissions were either considered brevet ranks or the commissions were
canceled at the war’s conclusion.
Shoulder Strap from an infantry Colonel in the Union Army.
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A Colonel of the Confederate Army wearing the three star insignia.
The American Civil War saw a large influx of Colonels as the rank was
commonly held in both the Confederate Army and Union Army by those
who commanded a regiment. Since most regiments were state formations
and were quickly raised, the Colonels in command were known by the title
“Colonel of Volunteers”, in contrast to Regular Army Colonels who held
ranks from the “old school” of the professional army before the Civil War.
During the Civil War, the Confederate Army maintained a unique insignia
for Colonel being that of three stars worn on the collar of a uniform.
Robert E. Lee wore this insignia in respect to his former rank in the United
States Army. Lee refused to wear the insignia of a Confederate General,
stating that he would only accept permanent promotion when the South
had achieved independence.
After the Civil War, the rank of Colonel again became rare as the forces of
the United States Army became extremely small in number. Many Brevet
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Colonels also appeared during the Spanish American War, chief among
them Theodore Roosevelt.
Lt ColonelThe rank of lieutenant colonel was first created during the Revolutionary
War, when the position was held by aides to Regiment Colonels, and was
sometimes known as "Lieutenant to the Colonel." The rank of Lieutenant
Colonel had existed in the British Army since at least the 16th century.
During the 19th century, lieutenant colonel was often a terminal rank for
many officers, since the rank of "full colonel" was considered extremely
prestigious reserved only for the most successful of officers. Upon the
outbreak of the Civil War, the rank of Lieutenant Colonel became much
more common and was used as a "stepping stone" for officers who
commanded small regiments or battalions and were expected, by default,
to be promoted to full Colonel once the manpower of a regiment grew in
strength. Such was the case of Joshua Lawrence Chamberlain, who
commanded a Maine Regiment as both a lieutenant colonel and later as a
colonel.
After the Civil War ended, those officers remaining in the U.S. armed
forces found lieutenant colonel to again be a terminal rank, although many
lieutenant colonels were raised to higher positions in a brevet status. Such
was the case with George A. Custer, who was a lieutenant colonel in the
regular army, but held the brevet rank of major general.
The 20th century saw lieutenant colonel in its present day status although,
during the 1930s, many officers again found the rank to be terminal as the
rank of colonel was reserved for only a select few officers. Such was not the
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case during World War II, when lieutenant colonel became one of the most
commonly held officer ranks in the U.S. Army.
MajorA major in the U.S. Army typically serves as a battalion executive officer or
as the battalion operations officer. A major can also serve as a primary
staff officer for a brigade in the areas concerning personnel, logistical and
operations. In addition, majors command augmented companies in Combat
Service and Service Support units. U.S. Army majors also command U.S.
Army Special Operations companies such as a Special Forces Operational
Detachment Bravo (ODB), Civil Affairs (CA) company or Psychological
Operations company.
American Civil War (Union)During the American Civil War the Union forces continued to use the same
rank structure previously established for the Army and Marine Corps.
American Civil War (Confederate)Prior to the American Civil War the rank structure for the military forces
of the United States were modeled after the British rank insignia. After the
southern states seceded and became the Confederate States of America,
the Confederate Army developed their own system of rank identification for
its officers.
The new confederate rank of Major was to be indicated on the collar and in
rows of gold lace forming an Austrian knot on each sleeve. Previously, the
United States military at that time indicated rank by systems using
epaulettes, chevrons, or shoulder straps so this new style differed greatly
from the system used by Union forces.
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Aide-de-CampAides-de-camps are specifically appointed to general-grade officers only.
For those general officers with more than one aide, the senior-ranking aide
is usually considered to be the senior aide and serves in the capacity of
coordinating the other aides and the others of the general's personal staff
such as his driver, orderlies, et cetera.
The following is a listing of the accepted number of aides allotted a
general officer:
Brigadier General: 1 First Lieutenant
Major General: 1 Captain; 1 Lieutenant
Lieutenant General: 1 Major; 1 Captain
General: 1 Lieutenant Colonel, 1 Major, 1 Captain
General of the Army: 1 Colonel, 1 Lieutenant Colonel, 1 Major
Lieutenant Colonels and Colonels commanding units do not have aides, but
it is generally accepted that the unit's adjutant also serves the
commanding officer as an aide.
The Aide-de-Camp handles brigade paperwork, including making required
reports to Brigade Headquarters, and letters and reports as required.
Receives company morning reports at events where consolidated morning
reports are required. Produces or oversees production of a daily
consolidated brigade morning report for Brigade headquarters as required
in the field. Signs for orders received from higher headquarters and passes
them on to the Brigadier. Produces daily schedule and posts it on battalion
bulletin board. Attends meetings at higher headquarters as required.
Stands in for field-grade brigade officers at meetings at higher
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headquarters as needed. Reviews guard mount when formal guards are
required. Places company markers for formal reviews as directed by
reviewing officer. Attends to the Brigadier in the field, doing duty at his
pleasure as brigade marker, messenger, and overall assistant. Refers to
Regulations and General Orders to resolve potential problems as they
arise. Takes primary responsibility for the brigade colours.
In some circles of the military, an Aide-de-Camp is known as a dog-robber,
because the aide is expected to rob anyone including the family dog, to get
his general what he wants.
Ordinance OfficerOversees weapons inspections as assigned by higher headquarters.
Inspects weapons within the brigade as required. Makes field repairs on
weapons or suggests needed repairs as needed. Produces report to higher
headquarters at events on condition of weapons inspected as needed. He
instructs brigade personnel on use and care of weapons as needed.
Liaisons with chief ordnance officer at higher headquarters at each event
to learn specific needs.
EngineerReceives word from the Aide-de-Camp about number of men and tents
scheduled to appear at upcoming events. Arrives early at event sites and
lays out camp area as directed by higher headquarters, applying numbers
received. When required, produces requisitions for material supplied by
higher headquarters such as wood and straw and assigns it to companies
as needed. Oversees stockpiling of wood and straw in situations where such
is required as needed. Liaisons with chief quartermaster officer at higher
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headquarters at each event to learn specific needs. Supervises any enlisted
personnel assigned as needed. Maps battlefield and reports details of
enemy strength and movement to the Brigadier. Oversees the building of
rifle pits when necessary.
SurgeonAttends to injured personnel as needed and legally or otherwise possible.
Makes suggestions to colonel involving health and welfare of battalion
personnel. Supervises battalion hospital and/or medical area and
personnel.
ChaplainAttends to spiritual needs of battalion personnel. Holds Sunday and other
services as required and possible. Makes suggestions involving the
spiritual welfare of brigade personnel.
Captain " Captains or commanders of companies fill one of the most important
stations in the service, when they are viewed in relation to the direct
influence they exercise upon the soldiery; to them attaches the high
responsibility of the instruction, good order, efficiency, and discipline of
their companies; and no one should be willing to accept the post who is not
qualified, or ready to qualify himself, for a faithful discharge of all the
duties of the office." -Manual for Volunteers and Militia, 1861.
The rank of Captain is an officer rank historically corresponding to
command of a company of soldiers. Today a captain is typically in
command, of a company or squadron.
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Captain is one rank above a lieutenant (or first lieutenant) and one below a
major (or commandant). The rank of captain should not be confused with
the naval rank of captain or with the commonwealth air force rank of
Group Captain, both of which are more senior.
For purposes of a re-enacting company, the Captain is the man in charge of
the tactical implementation of his company. He will attend officer's call,
develop a plan based on the available information, and give verbal and
written commands to his lieutenants and NCOs to make sure that his plan
is accomplished. The Captain is the head of the company and ultimately, it
is his responsibility to make sure that the company is where it needs to be,
and is doing what needs to be done. The Captain must know and be able to
teach the School of the Soldier, the School of the Company, and have some
working knowledge of the School of the Battalion or Regiment. He should
be prepared to assume command of a wing of the brigade if called upon to
do so by the brigade commander. He must maintain a neat appearance,
and maintain his composure in front of the men because he serves as an
example to the rest of the soldiers. A good Captain will communicate with
his NCOs and keep them informed as to what is going on. The Captain is
the point of contact for events. The Captain is not only the person in
charge of the company on the field; he is in charge of his company at all
times. From the time setup of camp begins, to the time the last tent comes
down, the Captain is the one is command. When in column formation, he
will march at the head of the column and one step out to the left. All
soldiers will show the Captain proper respect during the hours that the
camp is open to the public. This includes the use of the word "sir" and
saluting when speaking to the Captain. The Captain should be obeyed and
respected, and possess the confidence in the company that he commands.
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Lieutenant "Each subaltern officer will be charged with a squad for the supervision of
its order and cleanliness; and Captains will require their Lieutenants to
assist them in the performance of ALL Company duties." - Paragraph 83,
Regulations for the Army of the Confederate States, 1863
The first lieutenant is the second-lowest ranking commissioned officer. It
is one grade above the rank of second lieutenant and one grade below a
captain. Second lieutenants are usually promoted to first lieutenant
between 18 months to 24 months of commissioned service.
The difference between the two ranks of Lieutenant is slight, primarily
being experience and higher pay. It is not uncommon to see officers moved
to positions requiring more experience sometime after promotion to first
lieutenant. For example, in the Army these positions can include leading a
specialty platoon, or assignment as the executive officer for a company-
sized unit (65-150 soldiers). Lieutenants have many of the same job duties
as the Captain of the company. They must be able to take over for the
Captain in his absence and therefore must be involved in the running of
the company. They must be able to teach the School of the Soldier, the
Drill for Skirmishers, and the School of the Company. The Lieutenant will
post himself to the left rear of the company when in a line of battle. The
Lieutenant should assist the Captain in the running of the company on the
field as much as possible including the relaying of commands from senior
officers and adjusting the line if necessary. He should not parrot
commands unless the soldiers cannot hear the commands.
The Non-Commissioned Officer Corps
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"The Choice of non-commissioned officers is an object of the greatest
importance: The order and discipline of a regiment depend so much on
their behavior, that too much care cannot be taken in preferring none to
that trust but those who by their merit and good conduct are entitled to it.
Honesty, sobriety, and a remarkable attention to every point of duty, with a
neatness in their dress, are indispensable requisites…" - Baron Von
Stubbing, Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the
United States, 1794
A non-commissioned officer, also known as an NCO, is an enlisted member
of an armed force who has been given authority by a commissioned officer.
The NCO corps includes all the grades of sergeant and, corporals.
The non-commissioned officer (NCO) corps is often referred to as "the
backbone" of the Army. NCOs are the primary and most visible leaders for
the bulk of Service personnel -- the enlisted corps. Additionally, NCOs are
the primary military leaders responsible for executing the military
organization's mission, and for training the personnel in an organization
so they are prepared to execute the mission. NCO training and education is
rigorous and includes leadership and management as well as Service-
specific and combat training. Another critical role NCOs play is providing
advice and guidance to the officer corps at all levels. This role is
particularly important for junior officers, who begin their careers in a
position of authority but lack practical experience, commanders at all
levels and flag officers (generals and admirals). Senior NCOs, with their
wealth of leadership and mission training and experience, are the primary
link between the bulk of the enlisted personnel and the officers in any
military organization.
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In the Army, all ranks of Sergeant are termed NCOs, as are Corporals. The
rank of Corporal in the Army is a junior NCO, and is to be shown the same
respect as any other NCO. Junior NCOs function as first tier supervisors
and technical leaders.
Senior NCOs are expected to exercise leadership at a more general level.
They lead larger groups of service members, mentor junior officers, and
advise senior officers on matters pertaining to their areas of
responsibility.
Sergant Major (also Quartermaster Sgt) Sergeant Major refers to both a military rank and to a specific
administrative position. The rank refers to the highest enlisted rank, just
above First Sergeant. The leadership position, Sergeant Major, is the
senior enlisted advisor to the commanding officer and carries with it
certain ceremonial functions such as caring for the unit's Colours (flag).
Additionally, they serve as monitors for, and advocates of, the enlisted men
in the command. This position exists in units of brigade size and larger.
Confederate Sergeant Major stripes shown in infantry blue pattern.
An alternative usage of Command Sergeant Major is the senior NCO of a
headquarters unit at battalion level or above; the soldier filling this
position should carry the rank of Sergeant Major, but personnel shortages
may, from time to time, force this sergeant major position to be held by a
senior First Sergeant or Master Sergeant.
Colour Sergeant
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A non-commissioned rank, ranking above Sergeant and below Warrant
Officer. It is equivalent to Staff Sergeant in other corps of the Army.
The rank was introduced into the British Army during the Napoleonic Wars
to reward long-serving sergeants. By World War I it had given way to
Company Sergeant Major and Company Quartermaster Sergeant, but it was
later reintroduced.
Historically, Colour Sergeants of line regiments were tasked with
protecting Ensigns, the most junior officers who were responsible for
carrying their battalions' Colours (flag or insignia) to rally troops in
battles. For this reason the Colour Sergeant rank was considered a
prestigious one given normally to courageous Sergeants who had attained
accomplishments in battles. This tradition continues today as Colour
Sergeants form part of a Colour Party in military parades.
Colour Sergeants are referred to and addressed as "Colour Sergeant",
never as "Sergeant". Unusually, NCOs with the rank of Colour Sergeant
may also hold the appointment of Company Quartermaster Sergeant are
still addressed and referred to by their rank, not their appointment
First Sergeant"The duties of the First Sergeant are peculiar to his position, and require
capacity and knowledge superior to those of the other NCOs. His position
is one of the most responsible and honorable that a non-commissioned
officer can occupy. He has the immediate supervision of the company. He
gets his orders from the Captain or officer commanding the company, and
sees that they are performed in the company. He is, in fact, the foreman;
and the men are the artisans. He lays out and superintends the details of
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work which the Captain has directed to be executed." - Customs of Service,
August V. Katz, 1864
First Sergeants can be identified by the presence of a "French lozenge"
(diamond shaped figure of four equal sides) on their rank insignia.
The rank of First Sergeant is below the rank of Sergeant Major. Upon
reassignment to a non-First Sergeant billet, the soldier reverts back to
their original rank of Sergeant. First Sergeants are generally the senior
non-commissioned officers of company (battery, troop) sized units, and are
unofficially but commonly referred to as "Top", "Top Kick", or "Top Hat",
due to their seniority and their position at the top of the company's
enlisted ranks. They are also sometimes referred to as "Second Hat," in
recognition that even though a company includes several lieutenants, it is
more often the First Sergeant that the Company Commander will turn to
when entrusting important responsibilities
First Sergeants handle the leadership and training of their Non-
Commissioned officers, manage the promotable soldiers within the
company, and are the first step in an Article 15 (Non-Judicial Punishment)
proceeding, as well as have a host of other responsibilities.
A First Sergeant holding or temporarily filling the position of Sergeant
Major will be referred to as "Sergeant Major"
American Civil War
Confederate First Sergeant stripes in blue infantry pattern.
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The rank was used by both the Union Army and the Confederate Army
during the American Civil War. The same rank insignia was used by both
armies. Both armies varied the color of the stripes by assigning red for
artillery, yellow for cavalry, and blue for infantry. Some Confederate militia
units varied these colors even further and had other colors including black
stripes for various units. The rank was just below Ordnance Sergeant and
just above Sergeant.
To be a First Sergeant in this company, you are required to be able to
teach the School of the Soldier, Drill for Skirmishers, and have a working
knowledge of the School of the Company. The First Sergeant must be
prepared to take over command of the company should the Captain or
other officers become unavailable. The First Sergeant is in charge of the
entire company and it's compliment of NCOs. He is the TOP soldier of the
company and answers to the commanding officer of the company. A good
company commander will let the First Sergeant run the company in its
daily routine and details, but only if the First Sergeant is capable of
performing these tasks.
The First Sergeant is in charge of training and drilling the company in the
School of the Soldier and Company. He oversees and supervises the
company drill, and ensures that the section corporals properly drill their
men in their care.
The First Sergeant is in charge of maintaining accurate records on
attendance at drills and at events in the company book. He will keep this
book on him at all times, and in his absence, the next senior NCO will be
responsible for recording attendance.
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At roll call, the First Sergeant takes his place six to eight paces in front of
the company facing towards it. He calls the company to attention and
orders the men to "shoulder arms." He then orders the men to "support
arms." The First Sergeant will then call the roll, beginning with the
Sergeants, then to the Corporals, and finally to the Privates who will be
called in alphabetical order. As each name is called, the soldier will reply,
"Here First Sergeant" and move their weapons to "shoulder arms" and then
to "order arms" immediately upon answering to their names.
After roll has been called, the First Sergeant turns to the commanding
officer and reports the absentees by name. If none are absent without
proper authority, he reports all present and accounted for. If the officer
then takes charge of the company, the First Sergeant takes his post and
acts as the right guide of the company in a line. In column formation, the
First Sergeant will march at the head of the column in the first file on the
right. He should NOT march in any other position then at the front left of
the company when in column.
Other duties of the First Sergeant include filling out the morning report,
supervising the Quartermaster Sergeant, the Company Clerk, and
Commissary Sergeant in their duties, and supervising the other NCOs in
their duties.
"The most important task of the first sergeant relates to the government of
the company and the preservation of good order and military discipline.
This depending on chiefly on innate qualifications, definite rules, cannot be
easily given. A complete control of temper, good judgment, and a strong
sense of justice are essential; whilst a due application to duty and attention
to the necessities of the men are also of the highest importance." August V.
Katz, Customs of Service, 1864
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The Sergeant"It is difficult to draw the line between the duties of the Corporal and the
duties of the Sergeant. There is really no great difference in their duties.
Sergeants generally have larger details under their charge, and have
corporals under their direction to assist them.
They are usually interested with more responsible duties, and they are
suppose to have greater experience, and to approach nearer the
commissioned officer in a knowledge of all military matters." August V.
Katz, Customs of Service, 1864
The rank was used by both the Union Army and the Confederate Army
during the American Civil War. The same rank insignia was used by both
armies. Both armies varied the color of the stripes by assigning red for
artillery, yellow for cavalry, and blue for infantry. Some Confederate militia
units varied these colors even further and had other colors including black
stripes for various units. The rank was just below First Sergeant and just
above Corporal.
CS Sgt’s Stripes in red artillery pattern are shown here.
To be a Sergeant requires the ability to teach the School of the Soldier, a
familiarity with the Drill for Skirmishers, and some basic knowledge of the
School of the Company. He should be able to take over for the First
Sergeant in his absence.
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The most important duty for a Sergeant is that of a file closer in line.
Posted to the rear of the company when it is paraded, it is his duty to see
that the men pay attention to their duty, preserve order, march properly,
and keep the files closed up. In time of battle, it is his duty to keep men in
ranks and not allow them to fall out for any reason. It is his duty to shoot
down men if they attempt to run in times of danger. He must prevent the
men from falling out to help wounded comrades. The battle must be won
first, and then the wounded men can properly be cared for.
Additional duties of the Sergeant include making sure the men have full
canteens of water, supervise the corporals in their duties, act as Sergeant
of the guard when called upon, lead a skirmish squad, act as color sergeant
of the regiment or battalion, and lead a scouting patrol into enemy
territory. The position of Sergeant is elected only if the company has 21-25
men consistently attend events.
As the discipline and efficiency of a company materially depend on the
conduct and character of its sergeants, they should be selected with care,
and properly instructed in all the duties appertaining to their rank.
Sergeants shall habitually maintain Shoulder Arms. That is, at all times,
even while marching, the Sgt. will carry his weapon at Shoulder Arms, no
matter what the order is to the rest of the Company, Regiment or Brigade.
Their theoretical instruction should include the School of the Soldier, the
School of the Company, and the Drill for Skirmishers; and also knowledge
of the principles of firing. They should likewise be well instructed in their
duties as brigade guides.
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The Captain selects from the corporals in his company, those whom he
judges fit to be admitted to the theoretical instruction of the sergeants.
The Corporal "The appointment to Corporal is the first step to promotion in the army,
and may lead to the highest distinction in the military service. The
sergeants are appointed from the corporals and they should therefore look
upon their position as one of probation, and should seek to perform well
their part, in order that they may be advanced." August V. Katz, Customs of
Service, 1864
August Kautz in The Customs of Service for Non-Commissioned Officers
and Soldiers describes the Corporal as below.
The duties of a corporal are simple, and depend for their successful
performance mainly upon his capacity to control and direct soldiers in the
performance of their duty. They take charge of the smaller details for
fatigue and police duty in camp and garrison duty: their most important
duty is that of Corporal of the Guard. They frequently succeed to the
responsibilities of sergeant in his absence, and should therefore be
familiar with his duties.
Corporals should be living examples for the soldiers in the neatness and
cleanliness of their clothing, arms, and accoutrements. They should be the
first to fall into ranks at roll-calls, and should have their tents or bunks,
wherever their quarters, always systematically in order.
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They should be familiar with the "School of the Soldier," and capable of
instruction the recruits in the elementary principles of tactics.
In the field, where it is sometimes difficult to cook for the entire company,
it is divided into messes and the non-commissioned officers placed in
charge of the different messes pro rata. They are held responsible for the
conduct of the mess-mates in the keeping of their tents and the care of the
camp and garrison equipage in their charge."2
Each Corporal should have a book in which he can take down the names of
the men in his fatigue, and take notes on orders from the 1st Sergeant.
This requirement is a must for every NCO.
The rank of Corporal is preceded by the rank of Private. A Corporal is a
junior non-commissioned officer and may direct the activities of other
soldiers. Corporals are found in many combat units. It is common for a
Corporal to lead a Settee, or Comrades in Battle. Their theoretical
instruction should include the School of the Soldier, and knowledge of
firing.
The rank of Corporal is the only rank in the United States Army that has
never been removed from the NCO Corps since its earliest days.
To be a Corporal you must be able to teach the School of the Soldier, have
a working knowledge of the Drill for Skirmishers, and be familiar with the
School of the Company. The Corporal is the closest NCO to the private in
the ranks and his first and primary concern is the welfare of the men in his
care. He should be familiar with the Sergeant and First Sergeant positions
as he may need to perform those duties in the absence of a Sergeant. Off
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the field, the Corporal is responsible for calling all the members in his
settee and informing them of upcoming events and activities.
The field duties of the Corporal are very simple. They must have the
capacity to control and direct the soldiers in the performance of their
duties. Corporals need to have as much direct contact as possible with the
men. He needs to camp and eat with the men in his settee.
Corporals should be a living example for the soldiers in the neatness and
cleanliness of their clothing, arms, and accouterments. They should always
be the first to fall into ranks for roll call, and should always have their tent
or campsite in order.
The Corporal should be very familiar with the School of the Soldier and be
capable of instructing the men in his settee in both the school of the
soldier and the elementary principles of tactics. He should also be familiar
with the Drill for skirmishers. He will be responsible for assuring that his
section can perform the school of the soldier drill and will drill his settee
at assigned times.
The Corporal needs to keep his men informed. He should have an idea of
what is happening and what is going to happen. He needs to explain to the
men any changes in their orders as soon as possible and be the source of
knowledge for their section.
He needs to know the symptoms of heat and cold injuries and check the
health of the men at regular intervals. Ensure that they are drinking
enough to ward off hot weather injuries and that they have sufficient
clothing to protect themselves from cold weather injuries. A good rule to
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follow is to have your men drink a canteen of water before going out on the
field.
Finally, the corporal is responsible for ensuring that every man in his
section cleans his weapon immediately following the battle and they he
takes proper care of his weapon on the field. If a weapon in your section
needs maintenance, the corporal needs to take charge of the weapon and
make the repair himself or find someone that can repair it. After a firing
demonstration or battle, you need to ensure that there is enough hot water
and cleaning materials to clean the mess gear and the weapons. No man in
your section should be allowed out of camp without first cleaning his
musket! It is your responsibility to inspect each man in your section before
allowing him to leave the camp. The position of Second Corporal is elected
only if the company has 16-20 men consistently attend events.
The captain selects from his company a few privates, who may be admitted
to the theoretical instruction of the corporals.
As the instruction of sergeants and corporals, is intended principally to
qualify them for the instruction of the privates, they should be taught not
only to execute, but to explain intelligibly every thing they may be required
to teach.
Private
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Personnel with no command authority bear the title Private. In some
countries and services, personnel in different branches have different
titles. These may have a variety of grades, but these usually only reflect
variations in pay, not increased authority.
The Officer
OverviewThe purpose of this School is to detail the duties and skills required for
each rank required in the running of a Civil War era company. It is
intended as a resource for all military members of the 11th - to be used as
reference, guide, and to generate questions that can be answered or
further researched at events. Ideally we will set time aside at each event to
hold mini-NCO/Officer Schools and to discuss the finer points of drill. This
will be a work in progress for some time to come.
ResponsibilitiesRank in both the 11th and Ector’s Brigade is a position of responsibility.
You must show a willingness to learn the impression, and demonstrate
leadership. You must be willing to attend events when possible, accept the
duties of the position and be willing to perform them in the field. Lastly
rank is given by the unit membership; remember this is a hobby and that
all authority is tacit and the idea is for everyone to have fun.
The responsibilities for each rank can be considered like building blocks.
The skills of each rank build upon the previous one. Therefore, each rank
is responsible for knowing and teaching the duties of the rank below, as
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well as performing the extra requirements, duties, and skills of the rank
held. In addition, persons holding rank should be looking at the duties of
the rank above so they can perform those duties when called upon. Thus a
Corporal needs to be able to teach the skills of a Private and be prepared
to step up as a Sergeant, and a Sergeant must be able to teach the skills of
a Corporal and be prepared to step up as a Lieutenant and so on up the
ladder.
A Synopsis of the Responsibilities for each Rank as Follows:
"Sergeants and Corporals, being in closest contact with the rank and file,
must deal with the men on a personal level. Squad drill, camp cleanliness,
guard and fatigue details, as well as the duties of file closer are their
responsibilities. They must see that their company is running smoothly
when their captain takes command. The company officers should not have
to distract themselves with the many small details to run the company.
This is the NCOs job.
Company Officers must be free to maneuver their companies and pay the
closest attention to the field officers. Company officers must oversee all the
activities of their NCOs in company will be expected to command various
details at times. Their main responsibility, however, is to be totally familiar
with company and brigade drill and to train their men in the skills they
need to function as part of the brigade.
Field and Staff have the ultimate responsibility for the success or failure of
the brigade. Although they are dependent upon the efforts of the NCOs and
line officers, the field and staff must assure that all the elements come
together to form a smoothly running machine. In camp, the Aide-de-Camp,
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Officer of the Day, and Sergeant Major must coordinate all activities and
deal with the problems that arise. On the drill field and in battle the field
officers must be as completely familiar with the methods of controlling the
brigade as a pilot is with his airplane. The tactics of Civil War era
centralize tremendous authority and responsibility into the hands of a few
men.
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MANUAL OF THE SWORD
"Draw me not without reason,
Sheath me not without honor"
IntroductionOfficers on all duties under arms draw and return sword without waiting
for any command. All commands given to soldiers under arms are given
with the sword or sabre drawn. [5]
Nomenclature of the Sword / Sabre
How the Sword is Worn
When on duty, the sword will be hooked up by the upper hook, the sword
reversed, edge to the rear, gripe (grip) forward. [2, 3]
We must start by hanging the scabbarded sword properly from the slings
on the sword belt.
The novice always seems to hang the sword from the hook on the belt, but
hangs it the same way it hangs from the straps - guard forward and drag to
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the rear. This gets in the way while walking, interferes with ladies dresses
or other persons walking close by, hits the ground, is inconvenient when
sitting down, and can bang on the steps or trip the wearer while going up
or down ladders or stairs.
The hook hanging from the left side of the belt at the top of the front
sword strap is to carry the sword while not drawn from the scabbard (all
branches). There is not a reference in Naval Regulations or in Hardee's
concerning carrying or hanging officers' swords. However, period naval,
marine and army photos show the accepted manner.
The proper way to hang the sword when not in use is to seize the upper
ring between the thumb and the fore finger of the left hand, back of the
hand up, raising the scabbard, whilst turning the hilt toward the body,
until it points to the rear; passing the ring over the hook attached to the
waist-belt. It is obvious that elevating the sword and hanging it with the
drag (point) forward was the desired result more than the guard to the
rear. The left elbow can be slightly pressed against the body and forward of
the properly hung sword guard while walking. This keeps the drag forward
and resting slightly across the left leg and out of the way of feet and people
in the rear. The left hand falls naturally on the scabbard to rotate the drag
of the sword further up and forward out of the way when sitting down and
going up and down stairs. See figures 1 through 3. This manner may be
observed in period photos in The Image of War, Vols. I and III.
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To Draw the Sword (in two motions)
Bring the right hand quickly to the position of salute [with arms] - palm
to the left; at the same movement seize the scabbard (between the
mouthpiece and upper hook) with the left hand and turn the sword,
bringing the guard to the front; pass the right hand through the sword
knot (if you have one), and seize the gripe. Draw the sword from the
scabbard by extending the right arm easily; turn the hand and bring the
sword to the position about to be described below (The Carry). [3]
THE CARRY (SHOULDER ARMS)
The arm nearly extended, back of the blade against the shoulder; sword
supported by the thumb and two first fingers, extended and placed on the
gripe in such a manner that in raising the sword to the salute, etc., the
fingers can be introduced inside the guard, and a firm grasp of the sword
obtained without effort. [3] The right hand will be supported against the
right hip. [4]
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To Return the Sword (in two motions)
Raise the sword perpendicularly, point up, the flat of the blade opposite the
right eye, the guard at the height of the shoulder-elbow supported by the
body; carry the hand to the left opposite the left shoulder, and reverse the
sword; insert the point of the blade in the scabbard which is held by the
left hand. - Insert the blade, withdraw the hand from the sword knob; with
the left hand turn the sword, back of the blade to the front, hilt behind the
arm; drop the hands by the side. [3]
The Salute Three times (or pauses).
To salute with the sword or sabre [from Shouldered Arms]
1st At the distance six paces from the person to be saluted, raise the sword
or sabre perpendicularly, the point up, the flat of the blade opposite to
the right eye, the guard at the height of the shoulder, and the elbow
supported on the body.
2ndDrop the point of the sword or sabre by extending the arm, so that the
right hand may be brought to the side of the right thigh, and remain in
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that position until the person to whom the salute is rendered shall be
passed, or shall have passed, six paces.
3rd Raise the sword or sabre smartly and place the back of the blade
against the right shoulder. [3,4]
Present
For Present Arms, Upton specifies two movements. At “Present,” the 1st
motion of the Salute is executed. At “ARMS,” the blade is
dropped [4].Thesword is kept at the 2d position as long as the men are at
Present Arms. Officers return to the Carry at “1.
Shoulder (Carry). 2. ARMS.” [1]
Order Arms from Shoulder (Carry) Arms:
Drop the sword to the front, the edge down, point three inches from the
ground. [1]
Parade Rest
Step back with the right foot. Reverse the sword; rest the point on the toe
sole of the left boot (do not [ever] allow the point to go into the ground);
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clasp the left hand over the right, both resting on the guard [edge to the
right]. [2,3]
In-Place Rest from Shouldered or Support Arms:
Carry the right hand to the left and clasp it with the left hand - blade in the
hollow of the right arm. [2,3] or fold the arms, sword hand under the left
elbow, sword hanging down the left hip.
Rest or Stack Arms
At the command, “REST,” or “Stack Arms,” return the sword to the
scabbard. At attention, draw it. [2]
The Support
Blade diagonally across the body, supported by the left hand, which is held
opposite the shoulder [2] [the gripe is in the right hand.
1st Raise the sword hand as the [sic] high as the right breast, edge to the
left.
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2nd Raise the left hand as high as the shoulder, fingers closed, turn the
edge to the front, and drop the sword between the thumb and joint of fore
finger of left hand, and lower the right hand to the hip.
Right Shoulder Shift
Point downward, held a little above the ground - back of the blade to the
left - sword held easily by the right hand. [2]
Double Quick Time
In marching in double time, the sword is carried diagonally across the
breast, edge to the front, the point in front of and at the height of the left
shoulder; the left hand steadies the scabbard. [5]
Route Step
In route marches the sword can be carried in the scabbard, or over the
right shoulder, with the toe grasped by the right hand; the left hand
steadies the scabbard. [5]
Sources:
1. Berriman, M.W., Militiaman’s Manual and Sword-Play without a
Master, New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1858, 1864, pp. 7,8,11.
2. DeWitte, J.H., Baxter’s Zouave Light Infantry Tactics, 1861, pp. 107-
108.
3. Ellsworth, E.E., Manual of Arms for Light Infantry Adapted to the
Rifled Musket, 1859, pp.71-75 (see DeWitte’s work).
4. Hardee, William J., Rifle and Light Infantry Tactics, Philadelphia: J.B.
Lippincott, 1861, p 214.
5. Upton, Emory, Infantry Tactics, New York: D. Appleton and Co., 1874,
Paras. 755-758, 760-761.
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How to Command a
Civil War Battlefield
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How to Command a Civil War BattlefieldBy Mark Grimsley
Edited by WRG
Commanding a battlefield has six components: First, you must have a firm grasp of the organization of Civil War armies.
Second, you must be familiar with the basic battlefield functions of Civil
War leaders. Third, you must have a working knowledge of Civil War
tactics. Fourth--and critically--you must develop a good eye for terrain and
see the ground as Civil War commanders would have seen it. Fifth, you
need to be able to estimate distance and know the typical ranges at which
Civil War weapons were employed. Finally, you need to have done some
previous reading about battles and, if possible, you should bring along, or
draw when you’ve arrived, plenty of good maps.
The Organization of Civil War Armies Each army (40,000-100,000 men) typically consisted of two or more corps
(10,000-25,000 men). An army was usually commanded by a full General on
the Confederate side and a Major General on the Union side.
Each corps typically consisted of two to four divisions (3,000-5,000 men). A
corps was usually commanded by a Lieutenant General on the Confederate
side and a Major General on the Union side.
Each division consisted of two to four brigades, usually three (1,200-2,500
men). Divisions were usually commanded by major generals.
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Each brigade consisted of three to five regiments (300-800 men). A brigade
was usually commanded by a Brigadier General.
The authorized strength of each regiment was about 1,000 men, but in
practice they rarely maintained their full strength for very long. Regiments
were usually commanded by colonels.
The Basic Battlefield Functions of Civil War CommandersIn combat environments, the duties of Civil War leaders divided into two
main parts: decision-making and moral suasion. Although the scope of
their decisions varied according to rank and responsibilities, they generally
dealt with the movement and deployment of troops, artillery, and logistical
support (signal detachments, wagon trains, and so on). Most of the
decisions were made by the leader himself. While his staff assisted with
administrative paperwork, in combat they functioned essentially as
glorified clerks who did almost nothing in the way of sifting intelligence or
planning operations.
Once made, decisions were transmitted to subordinates either by direct
exchange or by courier, with the courier either carrying a written order or
conveying the order verbally. More rarely, signal flags were used to send
instructions. Except in siege operations, when the battle lines were fairly
static, the telegraph was almost never used in tactical situations.
Moral suasion, simply put, was the art of persuading troops to perform
their duties and dissuading them from a failure to perform them. This was
often done by personal example, and conspicuous bravery was a vital
attribute of any good leader. It is therefore not surprising that 8 percent of
Union generals--and 18 percent of their Confederate counterparts--were
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killed or mortally wounded in action. (By contrast, only about 3 percent of
Union enlisted men were killed or mortally wounded in action.)
Although any commander might be called upon to intervene directly on the
firing line, army, corps, and division commanders tended to lead from
behind the battle line, and their duties were mainly supervisory.
In all three cases, their main ability to influence the fighting, once it was
underway, was by the husbanding and judicious commitment of troops held
in reserve.
Army Commanders principally decided the broad questions--whether to
attack or defend, where the army's main effort(s) should be made, and
when to retreat (or pursue). In effect, they made most of their key choices
before and after an engagement rather than during it. Once battle was
actually joined their ability to influence the outcome diminished
considerably. They might choose to wait it out or they might choose,
temporarily and informally, to exercise the function of a subordinate
leader. In various Civil War battles army commanders conducted
themselves in all sorts of ways: as detached observers, "super" corps
commanders, division commanders, and so on, all the way down to de facto
colonels trying to lead through personal example.
Corps Commanders chiefly directed main attacks or supervised the defense
of large, usually well-defined sectors. It was their function to carry out the
broad (or occasionally quite specific) wishes of the army commander. They
coordinated all the elements of their corps (typically infantry divisions and
artillery battalions) in order to maximize its offensive or defensive
strength. Once battle was actually joined, they influenced the outcome by
"feeding" additional troops into the fight--sometimes by preserving a
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reserve force (usually a division) and committing it at the appropriate
moment, sometimes by requesting additional supports from adjacent corps
or from the army commander.
Division Commanders essentially had the same functions as corps
commanders, but on a smaller scale. When attacking, however, their
emphasis was less on "feeding" a fight than husbanding the striking power
of their divisions as much as possible. The idea was to strike one hard blow
rather than a series of lesser ones.
The commanders below were expected to conduct actual combat; to close
with and destroy the enemy.
Brigade Commanders principally conducted the actual business of
attacking or defending. They accompanied the attacking force in person or
stayed on the firing line with the defense. If they had five regiments at
their disposal, they typically placed three abreast of one another with the
other two in immediate support. Their job was basically to maximize the
fighting power of their brigades by ensuring that these regiments had
unobstructed fields of fire and did not overlap. During an attack it often
became necessary to expand, contract, or otherwise modify the brigade
frontage to conform with the vagaries of terrain, the movements of
adjacent friendly brigades, and/or the behavior of enemy forces. It was the
brigade commander's responsibility to shift his regiments as needed while
preserving, as far as possible, the unified striking power of the brigade.
Regiment Commanders were chiefly responsible for making their men do
as the brigade commanders wished, and their independent authority on the
battlefield was quite limited. For example, if defending they might order a
limited counterattack, but they usually could not order a retreat without
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approval from higher authority. Assisted by company commanders, they
directly supervised the soldiers, giving specific, highly concrete commands:
move this way or that, hold your ground, fire by volley, forward, and so on.
Commanders at this level were expected to lead by personal example and to
display as well as demand strict adherence to duty.
Civil War TacticsCivil War armies basically had three kinds of combat troops: infantry,
cavalry and artillery. Infantrymen fought on foot, each with his own
weapon. Cavalrymen were trained to fight on horseback or dismounted,
also with their own individual weapons. Artillerists fought with cannon.
Infantry Infantry were by far the most numerous part of a Civil War army and were
chiefly responsible for seizing and holding ground. The basic Civil War
tactic was to put a lot of men next to one another in a line and have them
move and shoot together. By present-day standards the notion of placing
troops shoulder-to-shoulder seems insane, but it still made good sense in
the mid-19th century.
There were two reasons for this: First, it allowed soldiers to concentrate
the fire of what were still rather limited weapons. Second, it was almost the
only way to move troops effectively under fire. Most Civil War infantrymen
used muzzle-loading muskets capable of being loaded and fired a maximum
of about three times a minute.
Individually, therefore, a soldier was nothing. He could affect the
battlefield only by combining his fire with that of other infantrymen.
Although spreading out made them less vulnerable, infantrymen very
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quickly lost the ability to combine their fire effectively if they did so. Even
more critically, their officers rapidly lost the ability to control them.
For most purposes, the smallest tactical unit on a Civil War battlefield was
the regiment. Although theoretically composed of about 1,000 officers and
men, in reality the average Civil War regiment went into battle with about
300-600 men. Whatever its size, however, all members of the regiment had
to be able to understand and carry out the orders of their colonel and
subordinate officers, who generally could communicate only through voice
command.
Since in the din and confusion of battle only a few soldiers could actually
hear any given command, most got the message chiefly by conforming to
the movements of the men immediately around them. Maintaining "touch
of elbows"--the prescribed close interval--was indispensable for this crude
but vital system to work. In addition, infantrymen were trained to "follow
the flag"--the unit and national colors were always conspicuously placed in
the front and center of each regiment.
Thus, when in doubt as to what maneuver the regiment was trying to carry
out, soldiers could look to see the direction in which the colors were
moving. That is one major reason why the post of color bearer was
habitually given to the bravest men in the unit. It was not just an honor; it
was insurance that the colors would always move in the direction desired
by the colonel.
En route to a battle area, regiments typically moved in a column formation,
four men abreast. There was a simple maneuver whereby regiments could
very rapidly change from column to line once in the battle area; i.e., from a
formation designed for ease of movement to a formation designed to
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maximize firepower. Regiments normally moved and fought in line of
battle--a close-order formation actually composed of two lines, front and
rear.
Attacking units rarely "charged" in the sense of running full-tilt toward the
enemy; such a maneuver would promptly destroy the formation as faster
men outstripped slower ones and everyone spread out. Instead a regiment
using orthodox tactics would typically step off on an attack moving at a
"quick time" rate of 110 steps per minute (at which rate it would cover
about 85 yards per minute). Once under serious fire the rate of advance
might be increased to a so-called "double-quick time" of 165 steps per
minute (about 150 yards per minute).
Only when the regiment was within a few dozen yards of the defending line
would the regiment be ordered to advance at a "run" (a very rapid pace but
still not a sprint). Thus a regiment might easily take about ten minutes to
"charge" 1,000 yards, even if it did not pause for re-alignment or execute
any further maneuvers en route. In theory an attacking unit would not stop
until it reached the enemy line, if then.
The idea was to force back the defenders through the size, momentum, and
shock effect of the attacking column. (Fixed bayonets were considered
indispensable for maximizing the desired shock effect).
In reality, however, the firepower of the defense eventually led most Civil
War regiments to stop and return the fire--often at ranges of less than 100
yards. And very often the "charge" would turn into a stand-up fire fight at
murderously short range, until one side or the other gave way.
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It is important to bear in mind that the above represents a simplified idea
of Civil War infantry combat. As you will see when you visit specific
battlefields, the reality could vary significantly.
ArtillerySecond in importance to infantry on most Civil War battlefields, was the
artillery. Not yet the "killing arm" it would become during World War One,
when 70 percent of all casualties would be inflicted by shellfire, artillery
nevertheless played an important role, particularly on the defense. Cannon
fire could break up an infantry attack or dissuade enemy infantry from
attacking in the first place. Its mere presence could also reassure friendly
infantry and so exert a moral effect that might be as important as its
physical effect on the enemy.
The basic artillery unit was the battery, a group of between 4 and 6
fieldpieces commanded by a captain. Early in the war, batteries tended to
be attached to infantry brigades. But over time it was found that they
worked best when massed together, and both the Union and Confederate
armies presently reorganized their artillery to facilitate this. Eventually
both sides maintained extensive concentrations of artillery at corps-level or
higher. Coordinating the fire of twenty or thirty guns on a single target was
not unusual, and occasionally (as in the bombardment that preceded
Pickett's Charge at Gettysburg) concentrations of well over hundred guns
might be achieved.
Practically all Civil War fieldpieces were muzzle-loaded and superficially
appeared little changed from their counterparts in the 17th and 18th
centuries. In fact, however, Civil War artillery was quite modern in two
respects.
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First, advances in metallurgy had resulted in cannon barrels that were
much lighter than their predecessors but strong enough to contain more
powerful charges. Thus, whereas the typical fieldpiece of the Napoleonic
era fired a 6-pound round, the typical Civil War era fieldpiece fired a round
double that size, with no loss in ease of handling.
Second, recent improvements had resulted in the development of practical
rifled fieldpieces that had significantly greater range and accuracy than
their smoothbore counterparts.
Civil War fieldpieces could fire a variety of shell types, each with its own
preferred usage.
Solid shot was considered best for battering down structures and for use
against massed troops (a single round could sometimes knock down
several men like ten pins).
Shell--rounds that contained an explosive charge and burst into fragments
when touched off by a time fuse--were used to set buildings afire or to
attack troops behind earthworks or under cover.
Spherical case was similar to shell except that each round contained
musket balls (78 in the case of a 12-pound shot, 38 for a 6-pound shot); it
was used against bodies of troops moving in the open at ranges of from
500 to 1,500 yards.
At ranges of below 500 yards, the round of choice was canister, essentially
a metal can containing about 27 cast-iron balls, each 1.5 inches in
diameter. As soon as a canister round was fired, the sides of the can would
rip away and the cast-iron balls would fly directly into the attacking
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infantry. In desperate situations double and sometimes even triple charges
of canister were used.
As recently as the Mexican War, artillery had been used effectively on the
offensive, with fieldpieces rolling forward to advanced positions from which
they could blast a hole in the enemy line. The advent of the rifled musket,
however, made this tactic dangerous--defending infantry could now pick off
artillerists who dared to come so close--and so the artillery had to remain
farther back.
In theory the greater range and accuracy of rifled cannon might have offset
this a bit, but rifled cannon fired comparatively small shells of limited
effectiveness against infantry at a distance. The preferred use of artillery
on the offensive was therefore not against infantry but against other
artillery--what was termed "counter battery work." The idea was to mass
one's own cannon against a few of the enemy's cannon and systematically
fire so as to kill the enemy's artillerists and dismount his fieldpieces.
Cavalry"Whoever saw a dead cavalryman?" was a byword among Civil War soldiers,
a pointed allusion to the fact that the battlefield role played by the
mounted arm was often negligible. For example, at the Battle of Antietam--
the single bloodiest day of the entire war--the Union cavalry suffered
exactly 5 men killed and 23 wounded. This was in sharp contrast to the role
played by cavalry during the Napoleonic era, when a well-timed cavalry
charge could exploit an infantry breakthrough, overrun the enemy's
retreating foot soldiers, and convert a temporary advantage into a
complete battlefield triumph.
Why the failure to use cavalry to better tactical advantage? The best single
explanation might be the fact that for much of the war there was simply
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not enough of it to achieve significant results. Whereas cavalry had
comprised 20 to 25 percent of Napoleonic armies, in Civil War armies it
generally averaged 8 to 10 percent or even less.
The paucity of cavalry may be explained, in turn, by its much greater
expense compared with infantry. A single horse might easily cost ten times
the monthly pay of a Civil War private and necessitated the purchase of
saddles, bridles, stirrups, and other gear as well as specialized clothing
and equipment for the rider. Moreover, horses required about 26 pounds of
feed and forage per day, many times the requirement of an infantryman.
One might add to this the continual need for remounts to replace worn-out
horses and the fact that it took far more training to make an effective
cavalryman than an effective infantryman, as well as the widespread belief
that the heavily-wooded terrain of America would limit opportunities to use
cavalry on the battlefield.
All in all, it is perhaps no wonder that Civil War armies were late in
creating really powerful mounted arms. Instead, cavalry tended to be used
mainly for scouting and raiding, duties that took place away from the
battlefields. During major engagements their mission was principally to
screen the flanks or to control the rear areas. By 1863, however, the North
was beginning to create cavalry forces sufficiently numerous and well-
armed to play a significant role on the battlefield. At Gettysburg, for
example, Union cavalrymen armed with rapid-fire, breach-loading carbines
were able to hold a Confederate infantry division at bay for several hours.
At Cedar Creek in 1864 a massed cavalry charge late in the day completed
the ruin of the Confederate army, and during the Appomattox Campaign in
1865 Federal cavalry played a decisive role in bringing Lee's retreating
army to bay and forcing its surrender.
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Terrain Understanding the terrain is basic to understanding almost every aspect of
a battle. Terrain helps to explain why commanders deploy their troops
where they do, why attacks occur in certain areas and not in others, why
some attacks succeeded and others do not.
When defending, Civil War leaders often looked for positions with as many
of the following characteristics as possible:
First, the position obviously had to be ground from which they could keep
the enemy from getting at whatever it was they were ordered to defend.
Second, it should be elevated enough so as to provide good observation and
good fields of fire--they wanted to see as far as possible and sometimes
(though not always) to shoot as far as possible. The highest ground was not
necessarily the best, however, for it often afforded an attacker defilade
(areas of ground which the defenders' weapons could not reach). For that
reason leaders seldom placed their troops at the very top of a ridge or hill
(the "geographical crest"). Instead they placed them a bit forward of the
geographical crest at a point from which they had the best field of fire (the
"military crest). Alternatively, they might even choose to place their troops
behind the crest. This concealed the size and exact deployment of the
defenders from the enemy and offered protection from long-range fire. It
also meant that an attacker, upon reaching the crest, would be silhouetted
against the sky and susceptible to a sudden, potentially quite destructive
fire at close range.
Third, the ground adjacent to the chosen position should present a
potential attacker with obstacles. Streams and ravines made good
obstacles because they required an attacker to halt temporarily while
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trying to cross them. Fences and boulder fields could also slow an attacker.
Dense woodlands could do this too, but they offered concealment for
potential attackers and were therefore less desirable. In addition to its
other virtues, elevated ground was prized because attackers moving uphill
had to exert themselves more and got tired faster. Obstacles were
especially critical at the end of a unit's position--the flank--if there were no
other units beyond to protect it. That is why commanders "anchored" their
flanks, whenever possible, on hills or the banks of large streams.
Fourth, a good position had to offer ease of access for reinforcements to
arrive and, if necessary, for the defenders to retreat.
Fifth, a source of drinkable water--the more the better--had to be
immediately behind the position if possible. This was especially important
for cavalry and artillery units, which had horses to think about as well as
men.
When attacking, the concerns of Civil War commanders were different:
First, they looked for weaknesses in the enemy's position, especially
"unanchored" flanks. If there were no obvious weaknesses they looked for a
key point in the enemy's position--often a piece of elevated ground whose
loss would undermine the rest of the enemy's defensive line.
Second, they searched for ways to get close to the enemy position without
being observed. Using woodlands and ridgelines to screen their movements
was a common tactic.
Third, they looked for open, elevated ground on which they could deploy
artillery to "soften up" the point to be attacked.
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Fourth, once the attack was underway they tried, when possible, to find
areas of defilade in which their troops could gain relief from exposure to
enemy fire. Obviously it was almost never possible to find defilade that
offered protection all the way to the enemy line, but leaders could often
find some point en route where they could pause briefly to "dress" their
lines.
Making the best use of terrain was an art that almost always involved
trade-offs among these various factors--and also required consideration of
the number of troops available. Even a very strong position was vulnerable
if there were not enough troops to defend it. A common error among Civil
War generals, for example, was to stretch their line too thin in order to
hold an otherwise desirable piece of ground.
Estimating Distance Estimating distance can help you estimate how long it takes troops to get
from Point A to Point B or to visualize the points at which they would have
become vulnerable to different kinds of artillery fire. There are several easy
tricks to bear in mind.
1. Use reference points for which the exact distance is known. Locate such
a reference point, then try to divide the intervening terrain into equal
parts. For instance, say the reference point is 800 yards away. The ground
about halfway in between will be 400 yards; the ground halfway between
yourself and the midway point will be 200 yards, and so on.
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2. Use the football field method. Visualize the length of a football field,
which of course is 100 yards. Then estimate the number of football fields
you could put between yourself and the distant point in which you're
interested.
3. Use cars, houses, and other common objects that tend to be roughly the
same size. Most cars are about the same size and so are many houses.
Become familiar with how large or small such objects appear at various
distances--300 yards, 1000 yards, 2000 yards, etc. This is a less accurate
way of estimating distance, but can be helpful if the lay of the land makes
it otherwise hard to tell whether a point is near or far. Look for such
objects that seem a bit in front of the point. Their relative size can give you
a useful clue.
Maximum Effective Ranges of Common Civil War Weapons
Smoothbore musket: 150 yds.
Rifled musket: 400 yds. (but in practice, seldom used in battle beyond 250
yds.)
Breech-loading carbine: 300 yds.
Napoleon 12-pounder smoothbore: Solid shot: 1,700 yds. Shell: 1,300 yds.
Spherical case: 500-1,500 yds. Canister: 400 yds.
Parrott 10-pounder rifle: Solid shot: 6,000 yds.
3-inch ordnance rifle: Solid shot: 4,000 yds.
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Strategy &
Tactics
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Strategy & Tactics
StrategyIn this military art, troops are maneuvered outside the battlefield to achieve success in a large geographic area. That geographic expanse can be a "front" (in the Civil War, part or all of one state) or a "theater" (several contiguous states possessing geographical, geopolitical, or military unity). When the expanse encompasses an entire country, the corresponding waging of war on the largest scale to secure national objectives is called "grand strategy.""Offensive strategy" carries war to the enemy, either directly by challenging his strength or indirectly by penetrating his weakness." Defensive strategy" protects against enemy strategic offensives. And "defensive-offensive strategy" (which Confederates often practiced) uses offensive maneuvers for defensive strategic results (e.g., Gen. R. E. Lee and Maj. Gen. Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson took the offensiveMay-June 1862 to defend Richmond and Virginia).Strategic objectives include defeating, destroying, or forcing enemy armies to retreat; seizing enemy strategic sites (supply lines, depots, arsenals, communications centers, and industry) crucial to his military effort; capturing the enemy capital; disrupting his economy; and demoralizing his will to wage war. While seeking such goals, the strategist must correspondingly protect his own army, strategic sites, capital, economy, and populace. He must strike proper balance between securing his rear and campaigning in his front. Supply lines and homelands must be guarded; especially in war between 2 republics, which the Civil War really was, the compelling necessity of protecting the political base cannot be ignored. Yet if too many troops are left in the rear, too few remain to attack or even defend against enemy armies at the front.Of these objectives, European experience, from which Civil War strategic doctrine derived, emphasized 3 strategies: destroying the enemy's army in 1 battle, seizing strategic sites, and capturing the enemy's capital. In the Civil War, attacking and defending Richmond and Washington consumed much effort, but their actual strategic importance, though great, was more symbolic than substantial, since neither was its country's nerve center, as European capitals were. Also illusory were quests for victory through seizing strategic sites and cutting "lines of communication" (supply lines); only a few Civil War campaigns, such as Holly Springs and Second Bull Run, were decided or even significantly affected by such captures. Most chimerical of all were hopes of annihilating the enemy's army in 1 great Napoleonic victory.Rather, Civil War strategists used a series of battles--each of them indecisive but cumulatively effective--to cripple the enemy, drive him back, and overrun or protect territory. Some strategies aimed directly at such battles. Other strategies sought first to maneuver so as to gain advantage
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of ground or numbers and only then to give battle under such favorable conditions. Whatever the overall numbers in the theater, strategy strove to assure numerical superiority on the battlefield; this principle was called "concentrating masses against fractions." Both sides practiced it, but it was especially important to the overall weaker Secessionists, as when Jackson performed it so effectively in the Shenandoah Valley.Again, each side, particularly the Confederates, used "interior lines" to move forces from quiet fronts through the interior to threatened fronts more quickly than the enemy could move around the military border. But, in practice, Southern supply lines were so primitive and Federal supply lines were so good that, despite longer distance, Northerners often moved in shorter time due to their "superior lateral communications." Even more effective against Confederate reliance on interior lines was Ulysses S. Grants grand strategy of concerting the armed might of the Union for simultaneous advances to pin and defeat Confederate troops on all major fronts.Besides these approaches, Civil War strategists, especially Union commanders such as William T. Sherman and Philip H. Sheridan, usually reluctantly but increasingly came to make the enemies economy and populace suffer. For the first time since the Thirty Years War, those 2 targets regained legitimacy. While free from the brutality of 1618-48, Federal strategy eventually crippled Southern capability and will to wage war though, to be effective, such strategy could only complement Northern success in maneuver and battle.Long-range strategic cavalry raids -- in brigade to corps strength -- played some role in such crippling, but those raids rarely had much military effect before collapse became imminent in 1865. Instead, the principal unit of strategic maneuver was the infantry corps, and the basic element of strategic control was the army. And in theaters where I side had several armies, those armies themselves became maneuver units, and control resided at military division headquarters or with the general-in-chief himself.Whatever the elements and whatever the means, the fundamental goal of strategy remains the same: the overall use of force to accomplish broad military and political objectives.
Source: "Historical Times Encyclopedia of the Civil War" Editor, Patricia L. Faust
TacticsTactics is the military art of maneuvering troops on the field of battle to achieve victory in combat. 'Offensive tactics" seek success through attacking; "defensive tactics" aim at defeating enemy attacks.In Civil War tactics, the principal combat arm was infantry. Its most common deployment was a long "line of battle," 2 ranks deep. More massed was the "column," varying from 1 to 10 or more companies wide
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and from 8 to 20 or more ranks deep. Less compact than column or line was "open-order" deployment: a strung-out, irregular single line.Battle lines delivered the most firepower defensively and offensively. Offensive firepower alone would not ensure success. Attackers had to charge, and massed columns, with their greater depth, were often preferable to battle lines for making frontal assaults. Better yet were flank attacks, to "roll up" thin battle lines lengthwise. Offensive tacticians sought opportunity for such effective flank attacks; defensive tacticians countered by "refusing" these flanks on impassable barriers. In either posture, tacticians attempted to coordinate all their troops to deliver maximum force and firepower and to avoid being beaten "in detail" (piecemeal). Throughout, they relied on open-order deployment to cover their front and flanks with skirmishers, who developed the enemy position and screened their own troops.Open order, moreover, was best suited for moving through the wooded countryside of America. That wooded terrain, so different from Europe's open fields, for which tactical doctrine was aimed, also affected tactical control. Army commanders, even corps commanders, could not control large, far-flung forces. Instead, army commanders concentrated on strategy. And corps commanders handled "grand tactics": the medium for translating theater strategy into battlefield tactics, the art of maneuvering large forces just outside the battlefield and bringing them onto that field. Once on the field, corps commanders provided overall tactical direction, but their largest practical units of tactical maneuver were divisions. More often, brigades, even regiments, formed those maneuver elements. Essentially, brigades did the fighting in the Civil War.Besides affecting organization, difficult terrain helped relegate cavalry and artillery to lesser tactical roles. More influential there was the widespread use of long-range rifled shoulder arms. As recently as the Mexican War, when most infantry fired smoothbore muskets, cavalry and artillery had been key attacking arms. Attempting to continue such tactics in the Civil War proved disastrous, as infantry rifle power soon drove horsemen virtually off the battlefield and relegated artillery to defensive support. Rifle power devastated offensive infantry assaults, too, but senior commanders, who were so quick to understand its. impact on cannon and cavalry, rarely grasped its effect on infantry. By 1864, infantry customarily did erect light field fortifications to strengthen its defensive battlefield positions and protect itself from enemy rifle power; but when attacking, whether against battle lines or fortifications, infantry continued suffering heavy casualties through clinging to tactical formations outmoded by technology.But if infantry was slow to learn, other arms swiftly found new tactical roles. The new mission of the artillery was to bolster the defensive, sometimes with 1 battery assigned to each infantry brigade, but more often with I battalion assigned to a Confederate infantry division and 1 brigade to a Federal infantry corps. With long-range shells and close-in canister, artillery became crucial in repulsing enemy attacks. But long-range shelling to support ones own attack had minimal effect, and artillery
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assaults were soon abandoned as suicidal. Throughout, artillery depended almost entirely on direct fire against visible targets.Cavalry, in the meantime, served most usefully in scouting for tactical intelligence and in screening such intelligence from the foe. By mid-war, moreover, cavalry was using its mobility to seize key spots, where it dismounted and fought afoot. Armed with breech-loading carbines, including Federal repeaters by 1864-65, these foot cavalry fought well even against infantry. Only rarely did mounted cavalry battle with saber and pistol. Rarer still were mounted pursuits of routed enemies.Cavalry so infrequently undertook such pursuits chiefly because defeated armies were rarely routed. Size of armies, commitment to their respective causes by individual citizen-soldiers, difficult terrain, and impact of fortifications and technology all militated against the Napoleonic triumph, which could destroy an enemy army--and an enemy country--in just 1 battle. Raised in the aura of Napoleon, most Civil War commanders sought the Napoleonic victory, but few came close to achieving it. 60 years after Marengo and Austerlitz, warfare had so changed that victory in the Civil War would instead come through strategy. Yet within that domain of strategy, not just 1 battle but series of them--and the tactics through which they were fought--were the crucial elements in deciding the outcome of the Civil War.
Source: Historical Times Encyclopedia of the Civil War Editor, Patricia L. Faust
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School of the Brigade
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School of the Brigade
School of the Brigade Arranged into Lessons The first thing in drilling any Company, Brigade, or Battalion, is to get the
men into marching order.
Bring the men to “Attention”
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The regiments in sequence await their turn and march at a quarter turn to
their place in line.
Using the same principles of Company Drill, exercise the Brigade in the
following:
By Regiment (or Company) - Forward March
Forming into three wings on the Field
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Advancing the colours
The charge
Wheelings
Abouts
Right, left, front onto skirmish lines
Close order firings
Then, all of the below:
Lesson FirstARTICLE I. - Parade the Brigade. Putting the Brigade through all marching
orders.
ARTICLE II. – Close Order Firing - Different firings faced by the front rank,
and faced by the rear rank.
By Company - odds / evens
By Wing
By Brigade
By Files
By Rank
Lesson Second – ColumnsARTICLE I. - Wheel by company to the right into column, or to the left, “By
company, right (left) wheel”
ARTICLE II. - March in column. Change of direction. “Head of Column to
the right (left)”. March by column in retreat “Right about”.
ARTICLE III. - Halt the column. Form it to the left or right into line of
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battle. “Left (right) into line - wheel”. Execute this formation, the column
marching.
Lesson ThirdARTICLE I. - Break by company to the rear by the right or left, the brigade
being at a halt, or marching.
ARTICLE II. -March in the route step. Cause to be executed, at this gait
and in double quick time, the diverse movements incident to the column in
route, and cause the cadenced step to be resumed.
ARTICLE III. - Form the column forward into line of battle. Form the
column forward into line, and continue the march in this order.
ARTICLE IV. - Form the column on the right (“on the right, into line”), or
the left, into line of battle.
ARTICLE V. - March by the flank and form companies into line, marching.
ARTICLE VI. - Change front forward, or in rear, on the right or left of
companies, in directions perpendicular or oblique.
ARTICLE VII. - March by the right flank, or by the left flank. Change
direction by file. Form the brigade into line of battle, on the right or left by
file. “On the right, by file into line.”
Lesson Fourth - Division Drill for Individual CompaniesARTICLE I. - Break by division to the rear, by the right or left, the battalion
being at a halt or marching.
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ARTICLE II. - March in column by division. Diminish and increase front by
company. This is the oblique method, which will cause the distance
between companies to be full wheeling distance.
ARTICLE III - Close the column in mass on the headmost or rearmost
division.
ARTICLE IV. - Take distances by the head.
ARTICLE V. - The column being by company, form divisions from a halt, or
in march.
ARTICLE VI. - The column being by division, to form it to the left or right
into line of battle at a halt, or in march. This is the closed in mass method
caused by facing to a flank instead of moving at the oblique.
Lesson Fifth - Drill by Wings ARTICLE I. - The brigade being in line of battle, and at a halt to deploy it
by wings into column closed in mass on the right wing or on the left wing
or on an interior wing, the right or left in front, deploy the brigade
marching in line of battle on the right or left wing.
ARTICLE II. - Execute the countermarch.
ARTICLE III. - Change direction to the right, to the left, by the flank of the
column.
ARTICLE IV. - Deploy the column on the right division, on the left division,
or on any interior division, the column being at a halt, or marching.
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ARTICLE V. - Ploy the brigade by company, closed in mass, and form it on
the right or left into line of battle.
ARTICLE VII. - Ploy the brigade into double column closed in mass, the
brigade being at a halt, or marching.
ARTICLE VIII. - March in this order, and change direction.
ARTICLE IX. - Deploy the column at a halt, or marching, and without
suspending the march.
Lesson SixthARTICLE I. - March in line of battle. Halt the brigade, and align it. “Guides
on the Line”
ARTICLE II. - Change direction in line of battle, advancing, or in retreat
(the dreaded brigade wheel). Execute passage of obstacles.
ARTICLE III. - Oblique march in line of battle.
ARTICLE IV. - Disperse and rally the brigade in line of battle.
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The Charge
Background: This maneuver is based on research conducted by Matt
Springer in his seminal PhD thesis “With Zeal and Bayonets Only,” soon to
be released by Oklahoma University Press as a book. It is based on his
statements on the type of bayonet attacks delivered by British troops
throughout the war, but especially by the Army of Canada (Carleton and
Burgoyne’s Army.) I have assembled the actual drill from a number of
sources in the interest of making the maneuver as SAFE as possible while
presenting to the public the kind of attack that British and Loyalist
soldiers ACTUALLY delivered, vice the ponderous and slow bayonet attacks
we often see. I recommend that every officer and man read Springer to
understand how thoroughly the British Army in America disdained any
SLOW maneuver. They were always willing to trade good order for speed, a
decision that horrified the drillmasters at home.
The basis for the maneuver comes from the “Volley and Charge” of the
1778 manual. The 1778 manual was never employed in America, but there
is good reason to believe that it reflected the practice of America in its
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composition. In addition, the “Port Arms” or “Carry Your Firelocks”
position of arms comes from Townshend’s Instructions as well as
Instructions for the Volunteer Exercise (1792) which contains the following
important quote,
“At one motion throw the musket from the shoulder across the body, to a
low diagonal recover, a position known of old in many regiments by the
name of porting arms or preparing to charge, in which the lock is turned to
the front, and at the height of the breast, the muzzle slanting upwards, so
that the barrel may cross opposite the point of the left shoulder, with the
butt proportionally depressed, the right hand grasps the small of the butt
[the wrist], and the left holds the piece at the swell, close to the lower
band, the thumbs of both hands pointing towards the muzzle.”
The Maneuver:
Assume the Brigade is drawn up in two ranks at loose or open order with
ranks closed and officers in the ranks. At no point is any officer to depart
from the ranks, nor are the men to cheer in any way.
The Brigadier will order, “Prepare to Charge!” and will pace himself at the
head of the Brigade, with the colors. At this command, officers will assure
themselves that their men are loaded, and all soldiers will come to the
“Carry” or “Port” position.
The Brigadier will order, “At the double, march!” The Brigade will set off
at the double, with the drums sounding the time, and the best possible
dress and order being kept. The Brigadier will lead the brigade to the
closest SAFE distance from the enemy—at the Brigade level, this distance
will be about thirty yards. (NB—in small units, 30 yards seems very far, but
when you have 100+ under your command, an optical illusion occurs and it
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will seem very close! Commanding officers must practice observing this
distance!) At thirty yards, the Brigadier will order “Halt! Make ready!” He
should pause long enough to make sure that late arrivals and men
breathing hard are not going to spoil his volley (I give a long three count).
“Present!” and “Fire!”
The whole Brigade fires a single volley.
The Brigadier orders, “Prepare to charge!” and the men return to
the ready.
The Brigadier orders, “Charge!” and the men charge—full out, as
fast as they can move, with the following requirements:
1. No man to pass the Brigadier. The Brigadier is responsible for
safety, and thus, he will always be the lead man in the attack.
2. No man to come within five yards of a soldier on the opposing
side. Five yards is a good long way—roughly four musket lengths.
Don’t screw it up.
3. The men are to charge silently, and halt automatically in
achieving the ground originally occupied by the retreating enemy,
or at the order of the commander.
This maneuver requires that either the cooperation of the enemy has been
won, so that they know what is coming and “break” at the moment the
volley is fired, or ABSOLUTE control of your men, so that if the enemy is
not broken, the charge can be halted.
Retreating by Alternate Ranks (as found in Scott's Manual)
ARTICLE I. - The retreat by alternate, or odd and even companies, will be
executed as follows:
The general, intending to execute the retreat by alternate companies, will
give information of his purpose to the two next officers in rank, who are
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respectively to command the lines of odd and even companies, and at the
same time indicate to the one who is to commence the movement the
position in which he will halt his line. The general will then command:
1. Retreat by alternate companies. 2. Odd (or even) companies, commence
the movement.
These commands having been repeated, the officer entitled to command
the line of odd companies, and which line it is supposed ought to
commence the movement, will command:
1. Odd companies, face to the rear.
This having also been repeated, the captains of the designated companies
will cause them to face about.
The commander of the odd companies will then add:
1. The (—) the company of direction.
2. Companies, forward 4. Quick—MARCH.
At the command march, briskly repeated by the captains of the odd
companies, these companies will commence the march, and direct
themselves perpendicularly to the rear. The captains of the subordinate
companies will maintain them abreast with the directing one in conformity
with what is prescribed, when the line arrives at the position indicated by
the brigadier general, the commander of this line will command:
1. Companies. 2. HALT.
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At the second command, the line will halt, each captain will immediately
face his company about, the commander of the line will rectify the
alignment of the directing company, the other companies will be dressed
by that, without constraint, however, as to being absolutely on the same
general alignment.
As soon as the odd companies, which form the second line, have faced
about, the commander of the first line (of even companies) will command:
1. Face to the rear.
This will be executed as prescribed, the commander of this line will then
command:
2. The (—) the company of direction. 3. Companies forward. 4.
Quick—MARCH.
The first line will march in retreat by the means prescribed, each company
will be directed upon the middle of the corresponding interval in the
second line, cross this line, and march perpendicularly to the rear. When it
arrives at the position indicated by the Brigadier general, the first line will
be halted and faced about, by the commands and means indicated.
The second line, become first, will execute the same movement, and so on
alternately.
The Brigadier will superintend both lines, and determine, according to the
ground and the distance he may wish to have between the lines, the
position each ought successively to occupy.
To re-form the line.
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The Brigadier, wishing to re--form the line, will cause the drums to beat a
short roll after the first line (the one actually in front) is put in march,
which roll will be briskly repeated by all the drums of this line.
The companies of the first line will continue to march, and when they find
themselves exactly in their intervals of the second, their respective
captains will halt them, face them about and rectify their alignment: the
Brigadier will then give a general alignment if he judge it necessary.
Remarks on the retreat by alternate companies
The commander of each line will endeavour to maintain the necessary
harmony between its companies, notwithstanding the intervals between
them; to this end, he will look to the strict execution of what is prescribed.
He will more particularly see that all the companies, after crossing the
second line, direct themselves perpendicularly to the rear, this being the
only means by which the intervals can be preserved with sufficient
accuracy to enable the two lines to re-form into one.
Remarks on the School of the Brigade (by Wm. Hardee)
In every course of instruction, the first lesson will be executed several
times in the order in which it is arranged; but as soon as the brigade shall
be confirmed in the principles of the lesson, the fires will be executed after
the advance in line, and after the various formations. Into line of battle,
and into square. Particular attention will be given to the fire by file, which
is that principally used in war.
Every lesson of this school will be executed with the utmost precision; but
the second, which comprehends the march in column, and the march in
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line of battle, being of the most importance, will be the oftenest repeated,
especially in the beginning. Great attention ought, also, to be given to the
fourth lesson, which comprehends the march in column by division, and
the dispositions against cavalry.
The successive formations will sometimes be executed by inversion. In the
beginning, the march in column, the march in line of battle, and the march
by the flank, will be executed only in quick time, and will be continued
until the battalion shall have become well established in the cadence of
this step. The non-cadenced step will be employed in this school only in the
repetition of the movements incident to a column in route, or when great
celerity may be required. When it may be desired to give the men relief,
arms may be supported, if at a halt, or marching by the flank. In marching
by the front, arms may be shifted to the right shoulder; but not in the
march in line of battle until the brigade shall be well instructed. After
arms have been carried for some time on the right shoulder, they may be
shifted, in like manner, to the left shoulder.
When a battalion is maneuvering, skirmishers will cover all movements. All
the companies will be exercised, successively, in this service.
Dress Parade“There shall be daily one dress parade, at Troop or Retreat, as the
commanding officer may direct. A dress parade once a day will not be
dispensed with, except on extraordinary and urgent occasions.”
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- Refer to the beginning of this chapter to view Brigade Formation. From
this formation, the Brigade will be marched to the Battalion Dress Parade
and reform.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
A signal will be beat or sounded half an hour before troop or retreat, for
the music to assemble on the regimental parade, and each company to turn
out under arms on its own parade, for roll-call and inspection by its own
officers.
Ten minutes after that signal, the Adjutant's call will be given, when the
Captains will march their companies (the band playing) to the regimental
parade, where they take their positions in the order of battle. When the
line is formed, the Captain of the first company, on notice from the
Adjutant, steps one pace to the front, and gives to his company the
command, "Order-ARMS! Parade-REST!" which is repeated by each Captain
in succession to the left.
The Adjutant takes post two paces on the right of the line; the Sergeant
major two paces on the left. The music will be formed in two ranks on the
right of the Adjutant. The senior officer present will take the command of
the parade, and will take post at a suitable distance in front, opposite the
centre, facing the line.
When the companies have ordered arms, the Adjutant will order the music
to beat o, when it will commence on the right, beat in front of the line to
the left, and back to its place on the right.
When the music has ceased, the Adjutant will step two paces to the front,
face to the left, and command,
1. Attention! 2. Battalion. 3. Shoulder-ARMS! 4. Prepare to open ranks! 5. To the rear, open order! 6. MARCH!
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Note: In Brigade order, the Dismounted Cav is already in open ranks and does not need to “open”. Maintain attention while the infantry executes this maneuver. At the sixth command of “March” the officers will complete the following, doing so as the Infantry officers move forward: At the sixth command, the ranks will be opened according to the system
laid down in the Infantry Tactics, the commissioned officers marching to
the front, the company officers four paces, field officers six paces, opposite
to their positions in the order of battle, where they will halt and dress.
The Adjutant, seeing the ranks aligned, will command, FRONT! and march
along the front to the centre, face to the right, and pass the line of
company officers eight or ten paces, where he will come to the right-about,
and command, Present-ARMS! when arms will be presented, officers
saluting.
Seeing this executed, he will face about to the commanding officer, salute,
and report, "Sir, the parade is formed." The Adjutant will then, on
intimation to that effect, take his station three paces on the left of the
commanding officer, one pace retired, passing round his rear.
The commanding officer, having acknowledged the salute of the line by
touching his hat, will, after the Adjutant has taken his post draw his sword,
and command,
1. Battalion. 2. Shoulder-ARMS! and add such exercises as he may think proper, concluding with Order-ARMS! then return his sword, and direct the Adjutant to receive the reports.
The Adjutant will now pass round the right of the commanding officer,
advance upon the line, halt midway between him and the line of company
officers, and command,
1. First Sergeants, to the front and centre. 2. MARCH!
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At the first command, they will shoulder arms as Sergeants, march two
paces to the front, and face inward. At the second command, they will
march to the centre, and halt. The Adjutant will then order,
1. Front-FACE. 2. Report.
At the last word, each in succession, beginning on the right, will salute by
bringing the left hand smartly across the breast to the right shoulder, and
report the result of the roll-call previously made on the company (Brigade)
parade (Formation).
The Adjutant again commands,
1. First Sergeants, outward-FACE! 2. To your posts-MARCH!
when they will resume their places, and order arms. The Adjutant will now
face to the commanding officer, salute, report absent officers, and give the
result of the First Sergeants' reports. The commanding officer will next
direct the orders to be read, when the Adjutant will face about and
announce,
Attention to Orders.
He will then read the orders.
The orders having been read, the Adjutant will face to the commanding
officer, salute, and report; when, on an intimation from the commander, he
will face again to the line, and announce,
Parade is dismissed.
All the officers will now return their swords, face inward, and close on the
Adjutant, he having taken position in their line, the field officers on the
flanks. The Adjutant commands,
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1. Front-FACE! 2. Forward-MARCH!
when they will march forward, dressing on the centre, the music playing,
and when within six paces of the commander, the Adjutant will give the
word,
Halt!
The officers will then salute the commanding officer by raising the hand to
the cap, and there remain until he shall have communicated to them such
instructions as he may have to give, or intimates that the ceremony is
finished. As the officers disperse, the First Sergeants will close the ranks of
their respective companies, and march them to the company parades,
where they will be dismissed, the band continuing to play until the
companies clear the regimental parade.
All field and company officers and men will be present at dress parades,
unless especially excused, or on some duty incompatible with such
attendance.
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