Science 10 Provincial Notes

1.1 Biomes

The World is the BIOSPHERE • As in all of the living that occur on the earth and their interactions with all other non-living thing

things • It is very difficult to study the world, as there is much variation • Ecology divides the Biosphere up into chunks that are easier to study

Biomes

• Biomes are the largest division of the biosphere • There are 8 land biomes (terrestrial) & many more aquatic biomes • Defined broadly by their BIOTIC (living) and ABIOTIC (non-living) factors

Factors that Affect Biome Conditions • Certain factors affect TEMPERATURE and PRECIPITATION, which are the main conditions of a

biome: - Latitude - Elevation - Ocean currents Latitude

• Measured in degrees from the equator • Areas closest to the equator have a more constant temperature

Elevation

• The higher you go, the less atmosphere you have on top of you • Thinner atmosphere holds less heat

Ocean Currents

• CONVECTION cycles warm water from the equator up to the poles (bringing cool water back to the equator)

• Water is a heat sink (high specific heat) that can stabilize temperatures Adaption to Biomes

• Plants and animals will often evolve adaptations to better suit their biomes condition • 3 main types:

- Structural - Physiological - Behavioural Structural Adaptation

• An outward physical change to an animal (or plant) that gives it better chance to survive • Ex. Opossum has a prehensile (can grab and curl) tail

Physiological Adaptation

• Physiological adaptation is an adaptation that occurs within the animal (not surface) • Ex. Snake venom

Behavioural Adaptation • Adaptations to the behaviour of an animal • Ex. Squirrels storing nuts for the winter

1.2 Ecosystems - Further Dividing Biosphere • Biomes can be subdivided into ecosystems • Ecosystems have abiotic components that support biotic components • Can be large (like a park), or small (like a tide pool)

Habitat

• A division of the ecosystem • The place where the organism actually lives

Abiotic Interactions

• Nutrients are chemicals that are required for growth and repair • Oxygen and sunlight are important for plant life • Soil is an integral nutrient store for plants

Species, Organisms, Populations and Communities

• A species is a group of organisms that are so closely related they can reproduce • A population is all of one particular species in an area (ex. herd) • A community is all of the populations in one ecosystem

Biotic Interactions

Commensalism • An interaction between two species where one is helped, but the other is not affected • Ex. Remora shark attaching to whales or larger shark to feed off of “messy eating”

Mutualism • Both organisms benefit from the interaction • Ex. Bees pollinate plants while gaining the means to make honey

Parasitism

• One organism is harmed and the other is helped • Ex. Cymothoa Exigua replacing fish tongue

Competition

• Two or more organisms compete for the same resource (food, habitat, etc.) Predation

• Occurs when one animals eats another • Some animals have developed means to hide (camouflage) or look like things that are poisonous

(miming)

2.1 Energy Flow in Ecosystems Energy Must be Able to Grow

• Living things need to grow and reproduce • Once dead, there must be a way for matter and energy to be recycled • The term BIOMASS is given to the total mass of all organic materials

Producers and Consumers

• Producers are anything that produces carbohydrates (energy) from the sun using photosynthesis • Consumers eat the plants or other consumers to gain their energy

When they die?

• Decomposition is “the process of breaking down organic wastes or dead organisms” • If the thing breaks down the dead stuff is living… We can call it BIODEGRADATION

! We classify the living thing itself as a decomposer

Food Chains • One of the ways to describe the flow of energy through an ecosystem • Each level on the chain is called a TROPHIC LEVEL

Terms

• PRIMARY PRODUCER – Typically a plant. Creates energy from sunlight • PRIMARY CONSUMER – Eats the primary producer • SECONDARY CONSUMER – Eats the primary consumer • TERTIARY CONSUMER – Eats the secondary consumer • DETRIVER – An animal that eats dead things

Food Web • Similar to a food chain, but it relates to many different food chains together

Food Pyramids

• Used to show how much energy is lost at each level • Up to 90% of the energy is lost at each level • 100% " 10% " 1% " 0.1%

2.2 Nutrient Cycles

• There must be a way for CARBON, NITROGEN & PHOSPHORUS to cycle around in the biosphere • If there wasn’t, then everything would be trapped in dead matter & there would be nothing to build

anything with

Stores and Sink • If a nutrient is trapped in a dormant form, it is considered a STORE/SINK • Some SINKS are short term, others are long term • Ex. A STORE OF CARBON is called: coal • The nutrient cycles explain how nutrients are released from the stores, and how they get back into

them

Carbon Cycle • Anything that is living on Earth has carbon in it • The 3 mains producers of CARBON: Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration, Decomposition

Photosynthesis • The method by which plants use sunlight and carbon dioxide to create sugar • Light + 6CO2 + 12H2O " C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O • Takes carbon out of the atmosphere (store) & make it available for other organisms

Cellular Respiration • When an animal eats sugar, it needs to break it down, so it can turn it into useful energy for growth &

repair • C6H12O6 +6O2 " 6CO2 + 6H2O

Decomposition • Once matter has died, decomposition is undertaken by bacteria and fungi • This decomposition makes the carbon in the dead organisms available for use by other organisms Sedimentation and Decomposition • Sedimentation occurs when particles turn to rock over time (due to the pressure from things piling on

top of it) • Results in formation of rock with carbon in it (store) • Decomposition is the breakdown of dead organic matter releasing carbon into the environment as

carbon dioxide.

Nitrogen Cycle • Nitrogen is an important part of DNA, RNA and protons • It is also the most abundant gas in the Earth’s atmosphere (78%) • Plants are unable to use atmospheric nitrogen. It must be made available by certain processes.

Nitrogen Fixation • Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into NITRATE (NO3) or ammonium (NH4

+) • N2 + 3H2 = 2NH3

nitrogen + hydrogen = ammonia ç fertilizer

• Both of these compounds can be used by plants • Nitrogen fixation is done by:

! Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the roots of legume plants ! Lightning strikes ! Cyanobacteria

What happens after it has become Nitrate & Ammonium? • A 2nd process called NITRIFICATION converts the ammonium into Nitrate • This process is done by Nitrifying Bacteria

Uptake • Now that the nitrogen has been converted into useable Nitrate, plants can uptake it and incorporate it

into proteins • This is how nitrogen is introduced into the food chain

Returning Nitrogen to the atmosphere • In order to maintain balance in an ecosystem, some nitrate must be converted back into atmospheric

nitrogen • This is done by DENITRIFYING BACTERIA • Nitrogen can also be cycled into the atmosphere in volcanic ash & nitrous oxide

Phosphorus Cycle • Phosphorus is an important part of DNA, RNA and bones • ***1 of 3 nutrients that isn’t found in the atmosphere*** • Phosphorus is stored as Phosphate ions in rocks • Can be released by the process of WEATHERING (environmental breakdown)

Human Effects on Nutrient Cycles • Human activities often disrupt the nutrient cycles • Deforestation/fossil fuels increase carbon dioxide in the atmosphere • Run off over fertilization can increase nitrogen level in lakes and streams • This disruption can have a negative effect on biodiversity of ecosystems

2.3 Effects of Bioaccumulation on Ecosystems

Bioaccumulation

Human-made Compounds • Compounds like pesticides & industrial by-product get into the base level of the food chain & get

consumed by primary producers • When animals up the food chain eat these producers, these compounds can cause health issues • If an organism eats “toxin-infected” material every day, the toxin will build up in that organism • This build up inside the organism is called BIOACCUMULATION

Biomagnification • Animals higher on the food chain will eat many organisms that have been bioaccumulating toxins • As a result, the concentration of these toxins will magnify as you move up the food chain since it gets

stored in the tissues

Keystone Species • A keystone species is a species that affects many different food webs. • It is very important to the ecosystem and harming it will harm the whole system (ex. Salmon)

Method of Quantifying Toxins • PPM (parts per million) • If you are take 1 PPM, then there is 1 part of the part of the thing you are looking for to 999, 999 parts

of everything else • Ex. If 4 PPM lead à 4 parts lead to 999, 996 parts everything else

PCB’s • Stands for PLYCHLLORINATED BIPHENYLS • Used in many industrial processes (manufacturing plastics, etc.) • Fat-soluble toxin that harms immune system of Orca

POP’s • Persistent Organic Pollutants • Typically pesticides like DDT (dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane) • Kills bugs very well, but toxic to man animals (thins bird shells)

Heavy Metals • Any metal of high density is considered a heavy metal • Examples: Lead, Cadmium, Mercury, Copper, Selenium

Lead • Used to be used in gas to stop “rough idling” • Also large amount in “e-wash” • Effects nervous and reproductive systems in humans

3.1 Change in the Ecosystem

Adaptive Radiation • Adaptive Radiation is where many different species evolve from one ancestral species • This allows species to inhabit different niches, lessening competition

Natural Selection • Organisms with traits that are beneficial to survive will be more likely to pass their genes on to future

generations

Ecological Succession • After serious damage has been done to an ecosystem (by natural disaster), there must be a way for

the land to be reclaimed • There processes are called ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION, there are 2 types: - Primary - Secondary

Primary Succession

• Reclaiming land from rock (like after a volcanic eruption) • Step 1:

! Spores from lichen & other PIONEER SPECIES are blown in on the wind or, are carried in on birds

! Pioneer species are organisms that are capable of living and growing in harsh conditions • Step 2:

! Pioneer species consume rock, breaking it down & releasing nutrients ! When the organism dies and rots, it adds to the growing layer of soil

• Step 3: ! Plants and other organisms take hold, animals move in. Eventually a MATURE

COMMUNITY (a.k.a. CLIMAX COMPOUND) is achieved

Secondary Succession • Happens after a forest fire or other catastrophic event where the soil remains • Just like primary succession, but it starts at the point where the plants take hold and animals move

in

Natural Disasters Flooding

• Can cause soil erosions, and large amounts of property damage • Sometimes causes raw sewage to be released into populations causing disease

Tsunami

• Caused by underwater earthquakes or mudslides • Massive damage from concussive force of the wave • Salt can cause problems in ecosystems

Drought

• Below average precipitation • Can cause problems with farming and livestock • Major issue with changing climate

Insect Infestation

• Introduced species of insect can cause serious harm to plants, in an ecosystem • As the plants are also habitat for many other creatures, the whole ecosystem suffers

Pine Beetle

• Burrows into older, weaker pine trees • Younger pine trees produce resin that flushes them out

Blue Stain Fungus

• Stressed trees (drought, overcrowding, etc.) produce less resin and are unable to fight off the beetle

• The beetle has developed a symbiotic relationship with the blue stain fungus that inhibits resin production

• Warmer winter temperature kills off less beetles Sustainability

• The use of resources in a manner that allows the resource to recover Resource Use

• Refers to the way in which humans acquire and use materials like gas, oil, wood • If we are talking about how land is used, we call it “LAND USE”

Problems with Human Expansion

• Human-built roads and other pathways divide ecosystems into smaller fragments • This will affect wildlife and plant seed movement

Habitat Loss

• Refers to the complete destruction of an ecosystem • The habitat can no longer support the plants and animals that are native to it

Deforestation

• Where trees are cut down and not replaced • Can lead to soil degradation (no roots to hold nutrient rich soil in place) it will wash away/ erode

with rain Effects of Agriculture

• Loss of biodiversity in the region (only growing one or two crop plants)

• Tractors and other farm machinery can cause SOIL COMPACTION which harms soil health • This compaction can increase the amount of “run-off” (rain water washing away nutrients) and

increase the amount of nitrogen and phosphorus • Excess grazing animals can also stress the land through compaction and loss of plant biomass

Aeration

• Punching out plugs of earth can help allow air and nutrients to reach the root systems

Effects of Exploitation Contamination

• Toxins from manufacturing can leach into the environment, harming living things Over Exploitation

• The use of a resource till it is completely exhausted • Can cause extinction

Overexploitation and Food Webs

• Certain species are critical to the success of an ecosystem (typically because they are food for many things). These species are known as KEYSTONE SPECIES

• Harming the health of a keystone species can have devastating effects on the ecosystems Orcas

• Orcas used to eat these sperm whales • Now that they weren’t around anymore they had to eat harbour seals, sea lions, fur seals, and sea

otters • The result of this was a lack of sea otters • Sea otter eat sea urchins, without them, the sea urchins grew out of control (and ate through much

of our kelp forests) • Kelp forests are very important marine ecosystems • In the end • Preying on sperm whales lead to a large decline in kelp forests

3.3 Introduced Species

Native and Foreign Species

• A native species is a species that “belongs” in a given ecosystem • Foreign species are species that are not native to an ecosystem • These foreign species can be INTRODUCED (brought in) on purpose or accident • Some of these introduced species can be considered INVASIVE if they harm the native species r

take over their habitat Competition

• The invasive species competes with the native species for resources • Ex. The Africanized honey bee • Invasive species often have advantages over the native species as they lack in natural predators in

the new environment • Invasive species aren’t all bad → they can be very useful (Asian carp)

Habitat Alteration

• The invasive species alters the habitat, negatively affecting the native species • Ex. the Kudzu vine

Predation • The invasive species actively hunts and eats the native species. • Ex. the Cane toad

Disease or Parasitism

• Invasive species either bring disease or is itself a parasite • Ex. Tongue eating louse

4.1 Atomic Theory and Bonding

What is an ELEMENT? • Anything you can see on the PERIODIC TABLE is an ELEMENT • An element is a PURE SUBSTANCE • Elements cannot be broken down by chemical means

The smallest piece of an Element

• The smallest piece of an element that still has properties of that element is an ATOM What is a COMPOUND?

• A compound is two or more atoms CHEMICALLY BONDED TOGETHER IN A SPECIFIC MATTER • A compound s a PURE SUBSTANCE

The smallest piece of a compound

• The smallest piece of a compound that still has properties of that compound is a MOLECULE What are atoms made of?

• Atoms are made up of 3 subatomic particles: PROTONS, NEUTRONS, ELECTRONS PROTONS

• Protons “live” in the nucleus • Have a mass of 1 Atomic Mass Unit (a.m.u.) • Has an electric charge of +1

NEUTRONS

• Neutrons also “live” in the nucleus • Have a mass ever so slightly larger than a proton (still considered 1 amu) • Has an electric charge of 0

ELECTRONS • Electrons “live” in orbit around the nucleus • Have so little mass, they are considered to be massless (9.1x10-31kg) • Has an electric charge of -1

How to figure out how many of each there are in an atom?

• The ATOMIC NUMBER (abbreviated “z”) is usually located on top of the atomic symbol • The atomic number is the number of protons in the element • The number of protons DEFINES THE ELEMENT (42 protons is Mo… 41 is Nb)

What else does the atomic number equal?

• In an ATOM, the number of electrons is the same as protons • This is not true for ions (atoms that have gained or lost electrons and are charged)

Neutrons • The ROUNDED ATOMIC MASS is basically equal to protons and neutrons • # of Neutrons = rounded atomic mass - atomic number • Ex. Molybdenum • N = 96 - 42 • N = 54 neutrons

Ion Formation

• Remember that the number of protons defines the atoms • Ion Formation • Remember that the number of protons defines the atoms • When an atom gains or loses electrons, it will become charged. We call these things IONS • Ions form because atoms “want” to have a full outer (valence) shell of electrons

How to judge the charge?

• Look at the upper right hand corner for the charge • If the ion is a positively charged ion, it is a CATION • If the ion is a negatively charged ion, it is a ANION

How do we figure out protons, neutrons and electrons for ions?

• The # of protons and neutrons will be the same as if you are calculating them for an atom • You must consider the charge of the ion to get the electrons

“+2+” - lose electrons "-2” - add electrons

Bohr Models • Electrons “live” in orbits • Remember this pattern (you can count it off the period table): 2,8,8 • Take your total number of electrons, and start filling shells till you have “found them all a home”

Nitrogen: Carbon: #p = 6 #p = 7 #n = 6 #n = 7 #e = 6 #e = 7

Oxygen: Oxygen Ion:

*Ions have brackets around them

Lewis Structures Only show the outer (valence) electrons Binding pairs of electrons are shown on a line Oxygen Atom: Oxygen Ion:

Bohr Sodium Atom: Bohr Sodium Ion: Lewis Sodium Atom: Lewis Sodium Ion:

Lewis Structures for Basic Polyatomics • Step 1: Count up all VALENCE electrons

Ex. NO3- N O3 -

5 + 3(6) + 1 = 24 • Step 2: Skeleton.

Connect the atoms with lines. Each line is TWO ELECTRONS & signifies a bond Ex.

• Step 3: Place remaining electrons around the atoms to fill up the valence shell Remember the OCTET rule: Each atom wants 8 electrons (except H, which wants 2) Ex.

The number of electrons has to equal the total number of valence electrons (Step 1)

• Step 4: Check if all elements have full octets If they don’t, use a lone pair from (an)other element This creates a BOND = bonding electrons count for both atoms Ex.

• Step 5: Don’t forget the sign (and brackets!) Ex.

Bohr Models and Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds • Models with a metal and a non-metal • Place the ions beside each other

• Bohr: LiCl CaF2

• Lewis:

Ionic Covalent • Give and take electrons - Share electrons • Bohr: bracket - Bohr: balls • Lewis: brackets - Lewis: lines • Has a charge - Has a charge • Non-metal vs. metal - Non-metal vs. metal

• Diatomic molecule - Pair of atoms of the same element that are joined together by COVALENT

bonds. • Ex. Br2, N2, O2, C2 → HOFBriINCl

4.2 Names and Formulas Compounds

• There are 4 types of chemicals we have to between names and formulae • Binary ionic (one metal and one non-metal) • Ionic with multivalent metals • Ionic with polyatomic ions • Binary covalent (non-metal and non-metal)

For Ionic Compound Naming

• Place the cation (positive ion) first, and the anion (negative ion) second, but change the ending to ‘ide’

• Ex. Lithium + Fluorine = Lithium Fluoride

For the Formula • Write down the symbol of the metal (cation) with it’s charge, and the non-metal (anion) with its

charge • Use the fewest of each ion needed to get a net charge of zero. Show the number with subscripts

(unless it’s a 1) • Magnesium Fluoride = Mg2+F- = MgF2

• Magnesium Phosphide = Mg2+ P3- = Mg3P2

• Beryllium oxide = Be2+ O2- = BeO

• Sodium Nitride = Na+ N3- = Na3N

Multivalent Metals • You have to use the charge of the anion to figure out the roman numeral • Roman numerals are used to show the charge: I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII, IX, X • Ex. What is the name of FeCl3 = Iron (III) Chloride • Formula for Copper (II) Bromide = CuBr2 • Osmium (IV) Nitride = Os3N4

What About Polyatomic Ions

• You will occasionally see things that are not on the periodic table in a name (such as Carbonate or Perchlorate)

• In a formula, it will appear as a grouping atoms (KNO3 for instance) • They are treated as a single entity, and their endings are NOT changed • Brackets may have to be used to show that there is more than one of the polyatomic ion in

question • Ex. Ca(NO3)2 is different from CaNO32

What is the name of the following compounds?

• Mg(NO3)2 = Magnesium Nitrate • NH4Cl = Ammonium Chloride

What is the formula for:

• Aluminum bicarbonate = Al(HCO3)2 • Sodium acetate = NaCH3COO • Iron (III) sulfide = Fe(HS)3 • Rhenium (VII) phosphite = Re3(PO3)7

Covalent Compounds

• Covalent compounds are NON-METAL bonded to NON-METAL • The rules for these are slightly different • DO NOT EVER REDUCE THE SUBSCRIPT ON COVALENT COMPOUNDS

The Only Prefix Rule

• If the 1st element in the only one (it’s a mono) we don’t use the mono • Ex. CO = Carbon monoxide… NOT monocarbon monoxide • Ex. N2H4 = Dinitrogen tetrahydride • Ex. Dihydrogen monoxide = H2O • Ex. Dicarbon hexahydride = C2H6

4.3 Chemical Equations

Balancing Equations (Making sure the world doesn’t end)

• Remember what an equation looks like: REACTANT → PRODUCTS Why will the world end?

• The Law of Conservation of Mass States: • Matter cannot be created nor destroyed, only changed from one form to another • Ex. Magnesium metal reacts with Oxygen gas to form Magnesium oxide

Mg(s) + O2 (g) → MgO(s) 2Mg + O2 = 2MgO

Phases • (s) = Solid • (aq) = Aqueous… dissolved in solution • (l) = Liquid… a pure liquid • (g) = Gas

We use “coefficients” to make sure we have equal number of atoms on each side of the equation

• Ex. P(s) + Cl2 (g) → PCl3 (g) = 2P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3

• Ex. Al(OH)3 + HCl → AlCl3 + H2O Al(OH)3 + 3HCl → AlCl3 + 3H2O

5.1 Acids and Bases Acids in Everyday Life

• Acids can be recognized from their chemical formula because of a “H” in the front: HCl, HBr • HCH3COO - acetic acid • CH3COO - also acetic acid • Acids have a sour taste and are corrosive to metals • Critic (in citrus fruits) and carbonic acids (in pop) are common acids found in foods

Naming Acids

• When a compound with the hydrogen in the front is in aqueous solutions, we use its acid name. (for a few exceptions, it can be liquid)

• HCl(g) is Hydrogen chloride, but HCl(aq) is Hydrochloric acid 3 Types of Chemical Name Endings

• “ide”, “ate”, “ite” “ide” Endings

• For “Normal” endings (-ide) the word Hydrogen is added to the front and the ending becomes “-ic acid”

• Hydrogen Fluoride becomes “Hydrofluoric acid” “ate” Endings

• If the name ends in “-ate”, the Hydrogen is dropped and the ending is changed to “-ic acid” • Ex. Hydrogen nitrate becomes Nitric acid

“ite” Endings

• If the formula ends “-ite” the hydrogen is dropped and the ending is changed to “ous acid” • Hydrogen nitrite would become Nitrous acid

Bases in Everyday Life

• Bases can be recognized from their chemical formula because of on “OH” in the end: • NaOh, LiOH, Ba(OH)2 • Bases are bitter tasting and felt slippery • Often found in cleaning solutions

The pH Scale

• Stands for the “potential hydrogen” • Each level is 10x stronger than the previous one

pH Indicators

• There are solutions that will change colour in certain pH ranges (see p. 224) • You can use this to “dial in” the pH of an unknown substance

5.2 Salts

What is a salt?

• A salt is an ionic compound (a metal and a non-metal), that is the “non-water” product of an acid/ base reaction

• Ex. HBr + NaOH → NaBr + H2O acid + base → salt + water

Metal Oxide

• A metal oxide is a metal reacted with an oxide • When a metal oxide is dissolved in water, you create a base • Ex. MgO + H2O → Mg(OH)2 Mg oxide + water → base • Ex. Calcium oxide reacts with water CaO + H2O → Ca(OH)2

Non-metal Oxide

• Non-metal bonded to an oxide • When a non-metal oxide (unofficial: nmo) is placed in water, you get an acid • Ex. SO2 + H2O → H2SO3

nmo + water → acid • Ex. Carbon dioxide reacts with water

CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 Metals Reacting with Acids

• Metals will react with acids to create a salt and hydrogen gas • Ex. H2SO4 + 2Na → Na2SO4 + H2

Carbonates and Acid rain

• H2SO4 and HNO3 are the main acid components of acid rain • These acids react with the carbonate ions found in limestone around many lakes to neutralize it,

protecting the ecosystem • Some lakes do not have limestone, so they will become acidic

5.3 Organic Compounds

Organic Compounds Must Contain Carbon

• Almost all compounds that contain carbon are considered ORGANIC • Except: • Carbonates (anything with CO3

-2) • Carbides (for now… anything with a Carbon at the end of the formula) • Oxides of Carbon

Methods of Drawing Organic Compounds

• Structural formula • Drawn out like a Lewis structure, except no lone pairs shown

Hydrocarbons • Hydrocarbons contain ONLY Carbon and Hydrogen • Many of them are fuels (methane, propane, butane, etc.)

Alcohols

• Contain a covalently bonded OH group in the formula • All alcohols are poisonous • Commonly used as solvents

6.1 Types of Chemical Reactions

Types of Radiation • SYNTHESIS • DECOMPOSITION • SINGLE/ DOUBLE REPLACEMENT • COMBUSTION • ACID BASE

General rule that works most of the time…

• When predicting products that are not elements, use the charges of the ions to create the new products

Synthesis

• Two or more “things” come together to form one • Ex. Magnesium reacts with oxygen

Mg + O2 → MgO 2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

Decomposition

• One thing breaks down into two or more different things • At this level, you will always break things down to their elements • Ex. Water breaks down

H2O → H2 + O2 2H2O → 2H2 + O2

Single Replacement

• One thing bumps out another in a compound • Be sure you sub the metal for metal or the non-metal with the non-metal • Ex. Lithium reacts with iron (II) chloride

Li + FeCl2 → LiCl + Fe 2Li + FeCl2 → 2LiCl + Fe

Double Replacement

• Two things in different compounds switch positions • Ex. Lead (II) nitrate reacts with potassium iodide

Pb(NO3)2 + KI → KNO3 + PbI Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI → 2KNO3 + PbI2

Acid Base • An acid (H in front) reacts with a base (OH in the back) to create a salt & water • Ex. Hydrobromic acid (HBr) reacts with sodium hydroxide

HBr + NaOH → NaBr + H2O acid + base → salt + water

Combustion

• A hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to form Carbon dioxide and water • C10H8 + 12O2 " 10CO2 + 4H2O • If the hydrocarbon has a S or a N in it, SO2 and NO2 will be produced as well • Ex. 2C2H7N + 9O2 " 4CO2 + 7H2O + 2NO2 2C2H7S + 15O2 " 8CO2 + 10H2O + 2SO2

6.2 Factors Affecting Reaction

• Chemical Reactions can happen at different speeds • Somethings are very fast, like a burning match, others are quite slow, like rusting iron • The speed at which the reaction occurs is called the Rate of Reaction • It is possible to speed up or slow down a Reaction Rate

Collision Theory

• A chemical reaction happens when particles collide with ! The correct orientation ! Enough energy to begin the reaction (Activation energy)

Temperature

• Temperature is the average kinetic energy of all particles in a sample • If you increase the temperature, you increase the numbers of particles that have enough energy to

undergo a reaction • Increasing temperature also increases the number of collisions, but it is far less of an effect

Concentration

• The concentration of a solution is now much SOLUTE is dissolved in a certain amount of SOLVENT

• If you have more SOLUTE, then there are more particles to undergo collisions, and thus the rate of reaction will increase

Surface Area • Only effects heterogeneous (different phases) systems (and solid/solid**) • If you increase the surface area, you are increasing the amount of “stuff” in contact, allowing for

more collisions • Increasing surface area increases the reaction rate

Catalysts

• A catalyst is something that is not consumed (or is consumed and regenerated) in a reaction and increases the rate

• Catalysts do this by lowering the amount of energy required for a successful collision

7.1 Atomic Theory, Isotopes, and Radioactive Decay Radioactivity

• High energy rays and particles are called RADIATION • Travel like a wave in space. The smaller the wavelength the more energetic it is • The longer the wavelength the less energetic it is (ex. radiowaves)

Isotopes and Decay

• Isotopes are different forms of an element that differ ONLY IN NUMBER OF NEUTRONS • Samples of elements in nature are usually a mixture of different isotopes

Protons, neutrons and electrons for isotopes

= Neon; 10 protons; 11 neutrons; 10 electrons

• Sometimes an isotope is unstable, and will emit radiation to become more stable • There are 3 types: alpha, beta and gamma

Alpha Radiation (decay)

• Is a Helium nucleus • Most massive and slowest radiation particle • Cannot penetrate paper

Beta Radiation

• Is an electron emitted from the nucleus • A lie that works: “it’s like a neutron split into a proton and an electron” • Atomic mess will stay unchanged, but the atomic # will increase by one • Cannot go through tinfoil

Gamma Radiation

• Is a high energy proton of energy from an “excited particle” • Does not change the atomic mass or number • Goes through most things (need lead or concrete to stop it)

Nuclear Equations

• Pretend that the arrow is an equal sign and treat the top row and bottom row as separate additions

7. 2 Half-Life

What is half-life? • Half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of a substance to decay (become something else) • An element’s half-life is constant. (Ex. Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years. This doesn’t

change… EVER) • As a result, you can use the amount of a substance that remains as a clock to tell how old

something is Carbon dating, potassium clock, etc.)

Decay Curves • Because everything decays in the same way, all decay curves will look the same • The difference is that the time scale on the bottom will differ

Using Half-lives as a Clock • If you can figure out how many half-lives have passed, and you know how long a half-life is, you

can use the info like a clock • Ex. A substance in a bottle has a half-life of 5 days. If you find that 6.25% of the substance is

remaining how old is the sample • 100 → 50 → 25 → 12.5 → 6.25 • 4 half-lives x 5 days = 20 days

Parent + Daughter Isotopes

• When an isotope decays (parent isotope) a new isotope (daughter isotope) is created • These parent and daughter isotopes will always exist in the same pairs

8.1 The Language of Motion

Scales

• Scalars have magnitude but no direction • Like time, length, area, etc.

Vectors

• Vectors have magnitude and direction • Like displacement, velocity, acceleration

Guaranteed Questions

What is distance? • It is a scalar quantity. • It is the length of a path between two plants, its symbol is d.

What is position? • It is a vector quantities, it describes the distance and direction of something from a reference

point. • The symbol is “𝑑”

What is displacement?

• It is a straight line distance from one point to another. • Δ𝑑 = 𝑑𝑓 − 𝑑𝑖 • Δ = change

Ex. A person leaves their house and walks 10m E, 20m N, and then 10m W. • Distance? 𝑑 = 40m • Position? 𝑑 = 20m N • Displacement? 𝑑 = 20m N - 0m N

= 20m N

8.2 Average Velocity

Speed (𝒗) • The distance an object travels during a given time interval divided by the time interval • Speed is metres per second (m/s) • It is a scalar quantity

Velocity (𝒗) • The displacement of an object during a time interval divided by the time interval • Describes how fast an object’s position is changing • Equation: 𝑣 =   !

!

• It is a vector quantity, and is measured in m/s • Average velocity (𝑣av) is the rate of change in position for a time interval

9.1 & 9.2 Acceleration

• Things speed up or slow down • When the velocity changes, we say the object has undergone ACCELERATION

What About Something That is Slowing Down?

• Signs come into play • Just like in the last chapter, where you can have a negative position, you can have negative

velocities and accelerations • All the negative sign means is that it is going in the opposite direction

Δ𝒗 the Change in Velocity

• You found it the same way you found the change in time, or the change in displacement • Δ𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 • The sign of the answer will tell you which way are going • Ex. A runner starts off running at 2m/s E and speeds up to 11m/s E. What is the change in

velocity? • Acceleration due to gravity 9.8m/s2 towards center earth

12.1 Continental Drift

Continental Drift Theory

• Proposed by Alfred Wegener • States that the continents have not always been where they are now • The continents float and drift on molten rock due to CONVECTION CURRENTS

Evidence #1: JIGSHAW PUZZLE FIT

• The continents appear to be like parts of a jigsaw puzzle that can fit together • This “super continent” is called PANGAEA

Evidence #2: MATCHING GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES

• Looking at rocks and mountain ranges on different continents suggest that they were once joined Evidence #3: MATCHING FOSSILS

• Bands of fossil evidence also suggests continents were once joined • Plant life and land animals appear in different continents separated by ocean

Evidence #4: PALEOGLACIATION

• Moving glaciers leave evidence in the ground it moves over • Evidence of this is found in India and Africa

Other Interesting Bits

• There are coal deposits in Antarctica • Decomposing organic stuff forms coal, which there isn’t much of in Antarctica. • The continent of Antarctica must have been in a more temperate area at some point

How Do These Continents Move? • The continents are on giant slabs called TECTONIC PLATES • These plates move due to CONVECTION CURRENTS in the mantle

Sea Floor Spreading

• Magma pushes up through a ridge forming new rocks and pushing plates apart • Proof of this is found in MAGNETIC STRIPING

Magnetic Striping

• Roughly every 200,000 years or so, the earth’s magnetic field changes polarity • When molten rock solidifies, the iron in it will orient itself into the pole • If you look right at the rock around a ridge, you will see that the iron is striped

12.2 Features of Plate Tectonics

The Earth is Divided into Four Sections

• The crust, mantle, outer core and inner core • The crust moves on a partly molten layer of the upper mantle called the Asthenosphere due to

convection currents Ridge Push, Slab Pull

Plate Interactions • When 2 plates come together, there are 3 things that can happen:

! They move away from each other (Divergent) ! They can come together (Convergent) ! They can slide past each other (Transform)

Divergent Plate Interactions

• The 2 tectonic plates in question are moving apart from each other • The gap is known as a rift

Convergent Plate Interactions

• There are 2 types of place: Oceanic and Continental • Oceanic plates are more dense than continental plates

Oceanic/ Continental Convergence

• The more dense oceanic plate will slide underneath the continental plate • This cause a SUBDUCTION ZONE • A deep underwater valley, called a TRENCH forms where the plates made contact • You will see volcanoes slightly inland due to excess molten rock

Oceanic/ Oceanic Convergence

• Cooling causes one plate to be denser than the other • One of the 2 plates will cool slightly faster and slip underneath the other one • You will find trenches at the boundary and volcanic chains nearby

Continental/ Continental Convergence

• Neither plate is dense enough to sink so they push upwards making a large mountain range like the Himalayas

Transform Plate Boundaries

• In a TRANSFORM plate boundary, the plates are moving past each other Earthquakes

• When plates are moving against each other, they will sometimes stick and a great deal of energy will stores

• The plates will eventually move suddenly, releasing the energy suddenly Earthquake TERMS

• The FOCUS is the place the earthquake actually starts • The EPICENTER is the place on the surface directly above the focus

Seismic Waves

• The energy released through the slipping of the plates is transferred through the land in the form of seismic waves

• There are 3 types waves: P, S, L • P waves and S waves are considered “body wave” (travel through the body of earth) • L waves are considered surface waves as they travel on the surface

P Waves (Primary Waves)

• The 1st wave to be felt (travel at 6 km/s) • Causes the ground to compress and stretch

S Waves (Secondary Waves)

• Also a body wave, is the 2nd wave to be felt (travel at 3.5 km/s) • Cause more damage than P waves • Direction of propagation (movement) is perpendicular to the ground

L Waves (Love Waves)

• Surface waves • Slowest wave (last to arrive) • Like ripples on a pond

Volcanoes

• Moving tectonic plates also cause volcanoes • The type of volcano depends on the type of plate boundary that causes it • Types are composite, shield, and rift volcanoes

Composite

• Happens near subduction zone • Formed by ash and lava from many eruptions • Gas released from melting rocks • Thick magma (due to type of rock it is made of) traps gas, causing explosive eruptions

Shield

• Form over “hot spots” (weak spot in crust where magma can flow through) • Thinner magma causes a larger, shallower volcanoes

Rift Eruption

• Happens at ridge plate boundaries • Magma will seep up through the entire rift