Scintillators
Scintillation Detector
• Scintillation detectors are widely used to measure radiation.
• The detectors rely on the emission of photons from excited states.– Counters– Calorimeters
1. An incident photon or particle ionizes the medium.
2. Ionized electrons slow down causing excitation.
3. Excited states immediately emit light.
4. Emitted photons strike a light-sensitive surface.
5. Electrons from the surface are amplified.
6. A pulse of electric current is measured.
Energy Collection
• Counters need only note that some energy was collected.
• For calorimetery the goal is to convert the incident energy to a proportional amount of light.– Losses from shower
photons– Losses from fluorescence
x-rays
Compton Peak
• For incident photons, Compton scattering transfers energy to electrons.
• This is an important effect for photon measurement below a few MeV.
• The recoil energy:
• Has a maximum at = 180°:
• For photons in keV:
)cos1(1)cos1(0
xxhT 2
0
cmhx
e
2/21
22
0
200
cmhh
xxhT
e
2560
20
hhT
Photon Statistics
Typical Problem• Gamma rays at 450 keV are
absorbed with 12% efficiency. Scintillator photons with average 2.8 eV produce photoelectrons 15% of the time.
• What is the energy to produce a measurable photoelectron?
• How does this compare to a gas detector (W-value)?
Answer• The total energy of scintillation
is 450 x 0.12 = 54 keV.– 5.4 x 104 / 2.8 = 1.93 x 104
photons produced– 1.93 x 104 x 0.15 = 2900
photoelectrons produced• The equivalent W-value for the
scintillator is: – 450 keV/2900 = 155 eV/pe– W-value in gas = 30 eV/ip
Inorganic Scintillators
• Fluorescence is known in many natural crystals.– UV light absorbed– Visible light emitted
• Artificial scintillators can be made from many crystals.– Doping impurities
added– Improve visible light
emission
Band Structure
• Impurities in the crystal provide energy levels in the band gap.
• Charged particles excites electrons to states below the conduction band.
• Deexcitation causes photon emission.– Crystal is transparent at
photon frequency.
conduction band
valence band
himpurity excited states
impurity ground state
Jablonski Diagram
• Jablonski diagrams characterize the energy levels of the excited states.– Vibrational transitions are
low frequency– Fluoresence and
phosphoresence are visible and UV
• Transistions are characterized by a peak wavelength max.
Time Lag
• Fluorescence typically involves three steps.– Excitation to higher energy
state.– Loss of energy through
change in vibrational state– Emission of fluorescent
photon.
• The time for 1/e of the atoms to remain excited is the characteristic time .
10-15 s
S1
S0
10-12 s
10-7 s
Crystal Specs
www.detectors.saint-gobain.com
• Common crystals are based on alkali halides– Thallium or sodium
impurities• Fluorite (CaF2) is a natural
mineral scintillator.• Bismuth germanate (BGO,
Bi4Ge3O12) is popular in physics detectors.
Crystal (ns) max(nm) output
NaI(Tl) 250 415 100CsI(Tl) 1000 550 45CsI 16 315 5ZnS(Ag) 110 450 130CaF2(Eu) 930 435 50
BGO 300 480 20
Tracking Detector
• Iarocci tubes used in tracking are arranged in layers.
• Hits in cells are fit to a track.– Timing converted to
distance from wire– Fit resolves left-right
ambiguity
Organic Scintillators
• A number of organic compounds fluoresce when molecules are excited.
• The benchmark molecule is anthracene.– Compounds are measured
in % anthracene to compare light output
absorption
emission
R. A. Fuh 1995
Pi-Bonds
• Carbon in molecules has one excited electron.– Ground state 1s22s22p2
– Molecular 1s22s12p3
• Hybrid p-orbitals are -orbitals.– Overlapping -orbitals
form bonds– Appears in double bonds
Excited Rings
• -bonds are most common in aromatic carbon rings.
• Excited states radiate photons in the visible and UV spectra.– Fluorescence is the fast
component– Phosphorescence is the
slow component
At left: π-electronic energy levels of an organic molecule. S0 is the ground state. S1, S2, S3 are excited singlet states. T1, T2, T3 are excited triplet states. S00, S01, S10, S11 etc. are vibrational sublevels.
Plastics
• Organic scintillators can be mixed with polystyrene to form a rigid plastic.
– Easy to mold– Cheaper than crystals
• Used as slabs or fibers
Transmission Quality
• Scintillator is limited by the transmission efficiency.– It’s not clear
• The attenuation length cannot be too long for the application.
Liquids
• Organic scintillators can be mixed with mineral oil to form a liquid.– Circulate to minimize
radiation damage– Fill large volume
Waveshifter
• Photons from scintillators are not always well matched to photon detectors.
– Peak output in UV-blue– Peak detection
efficiency in green light.
• Wavelength shifting fibers have dyes that can absorb UV and reemit green light.
• Fibers can be bent to direct light to detectors.