Trends in Food Science & Technology 18 (2007) 599e608

Biologically active

components and

nutraceuticals in

sesame and related

products: a review

and prospect

Philip John Kanua,b, Kerui Zhua,Jestina Baby Kanub, Huiming

Zhoua,*, Haifeng Qiana

and Kexue Zhua

aState Key Laboratory of School of Food Science and

Technology, Jiangnan University, 1800 Lihu Road,

Wuxi 214122, PR China (Tel.: D86 510 85913539; fax:

D86 510 85329037; e-mails: philipkanu@yahoo.com,

hmzhou@sytu.edu.cn)bMilton Margai College of Education and

TechnologydAffiliated to the University of Sierra

Leone, Goderich Campus, Freetown, Sierra Leone

Sesame is one of the oldest oilseed in the world that also con-

tains very good nutritional value that has been reported. They

contain unique oil which is very easily digested and is stable to

oxidative stress and for these reasons they are useful and

healthy for consumption. Sesame not only contained an oil

that has the ‘‘good’’ fat (monounsaturated fat), but they are

also high in a variety of helpful antioxidants or chemicals

that protects the human being from the damaging effects of

free radicals when sesame oil is consumed because of the

presence of sesamin and sesamolin in sesame seed. Sesame

is also a source of helpful biologically active components

found in plant foods, such as phytochemicals and it is a

functional food. This article discusses bioactive compounds

* Corresponding author.

0924-2244/$ - see front matter � 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2007.06.002

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Review

and nutraceuticals in sesame that could be used in the preven-

tion, controlling and even the management of illnesses such as

cancer, oxidative stress, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis

and other degenerative diseases. This paper also briefly

discusses the biological activity of anti-nutritional factors in

sesame.

IntroductionSesame is a plant specie of Sesamum indicum L., and her-

baceous annual plant belonging to the Pedaliaceae family(Sugano & Akinmoto, 1993). Sesame seed is one of theworld’s important and oldest oilseed crops known to man(Sontag, 1981). Sesame has different names according tothe region of production, in some areas it is known as Sesa-mum (China, Mexico, South and Central America), gingelly(South India, Burma), benniseed (Sierra Leone, Guinea inWest Africa), sim-sim (Middle East) and till (East and NorthAfrica). It has been cultivated for centuries, particularly inAsia and Africa, for its high content of edible oil and protein(Salunkhe, Chavan, Adsule, & Kadam, 1991). China, India,Sudan, Mexico and Burma are the major producers of ses-ame seeds in the world by contributing to approximately60% of its total world production. In Burma, it is the majorsource of edible oil for local consumption (USDA, 2004).Sesame is an important source of food worldwide and consti-tutes an inexpensive source of protein, fat, minerals andvitamins in the diets of rural populations, especially children(El-Shafei, 1990; Namiki, 1995).

The chemical composition of sesame shows that the seedis an important source of oil (44e52.5%), protein (18e23.5%). It was also reported to have carbohydrate(13.5%) and ash (5.3%) moisture (5.2%) (Johnson, Sulei-man, & Lucas, 1979; Kahyaoglu & Kaya, 2006). The edibleparts of sesame seeds consist of the embryo. The embryo ofthe sesame seeds are used to make sesame butter-like that iscalled ‘‘tehineh’’ (a popular food in the Middle East),‘‘Ogerie’’ in Sierra Leone West Africa, used in bakeries,confectionaries, in the formulation of baby food, and ses-ame oil (Basim, Kamal, & Hesham, 2002).

Literatures have reported many health benefits associatedwith the consumption of sesame including, weight gain con-trol (Budowski, 1964; Kang, Kawai, Naito, & Osawa, 1999),prevention against cardiovascular diseases (Fremont, 2000;Hsu & Liu, 2002), protection against ageing, smoothing ofthe skin and Alzheimer disease and cancer inhibition (Bhide,

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Azuine, Lahiri, & Telang, 1994). Sesamin from sesameseeds has also been reported to possess in vivo hypocholes-terolemic activity and suppressive attributes activity againstchemically induced cancer, lipopolysaccharide (Kee, Jenga,Rolis, Hou, & Ling, 2005) and human low-density lipopro-tein (LDL) (Kee et al., 2005). Studies have also shown thatincluding sesame in the diet can reduce the risk of heart dis-ease (Kang et al., 1999; Sugano et al., 1990).

Studies have shown that sesamol in sesame is an inhib-itor of several steps in the generation of neoplasia. This isso because sesamol has been shown to inhibit the excessiveproduction of nitric oxide in the lipopolysaccharide/gamma-interferon stimulated C6 astrocyte cells (Soliman& Mazzio, 1998). It was also reported to inhibit the forma-tion of mutagenic/carcinogenic imidazoquinoxaline typeheterocyclic amines through the unstable free radical mail-lard intermediates (Kato, Harashima, Moriya, Kikugawa, &Hiramoto, 1996). Furthermore, sesamol has also beenshown to be a classical inhibitor of lipid peroxidation(Uchida, Nakajin, Toyoshima, & Shinoda, 1996), all ofwhich are involved in the initiation stage of carcinogenesis.Its anti-tumor promoting potentials have been demon-strated in which sesamol inhibited the development ofpre-neoplastic hepatocytic foci formation in rats (Hagiwaraet al., 1996).

These benefits are mainly attributed to the fact that somenatural agricultural products, which include sesame, do notcontain trans-fatty acids, while being rich in mono- andpoly-unsaturated fatty acids (Kris et al., 1999), micronu-trients such as vitamin E, folate, minerals (potassium,magnesium, and zinc), fiber, and health-promoting phyto-chemicals, particularly resveratrol (Fremont, 2000; Wang,Jin, & Ho, 1999) and other phenolic compounds can befound in sesame.

Different articles on specific and different biologicallyactive components in sesame have been written by variousauthors (Ahmad et al., 2006; Govind et al., 2002; Shahidi,Liyana, & Wall, 2006; Uchida et al., 1996), but so far noone has tried to put all those different biologically activecomponents and functional attributes of sesame in one arti-cle to give a more balanced approach that addresses boththe positive and negative aspects of sesame. The biologicalactivity of most components in sesame is desirable but thatof a few components is undesirable (in the area of allergy)and often makes sesame unacceptable to some individualsin society. The main objective of this review is to discusssesame as a potential source of nutraceuticals, antioxidantsand bioactive compounds that could be used in the preven-tion, control and management of diseases such as cancer,cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and other degenerativeillnesses that are caused by oxidative stress from eatingunhealthy fatty foods. The paper also briefly discussesthe biological activity of some anti-nutritional factorssuch as allergens, trypsin and chymotrypsin in sesame thatoften give it negative publicity in some societies in theworld.

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Ethyl protocatechuateChang, Yen, Huang, and Duh (2002) isolated and iden-

tified an antioxidant, ethyl protocatechuate (EP) from thesesame seed coat. Hsieh, Yen, Yen, and Lau (2001) notedthat EP was a major source of the inhibitory effect againsthuman low-density lipoprotein (LDL) oxidative modifica-tion induced by Cu2þ ions. Previously, EP has been demon-strated to be an effective antioxidizing agent in differenttissues, for example in the liver against diethylnitrosamine(Tanaka, Kojima, Kawamori, Yoshimi, & Mori, 1993), inthe oral cavity against 4-nitroquinoline-1-oxide (Tanakaet al., 1994), in the colon against azoxymethane (Kawamoriet al., 1994), in the glandular stomach tissue againstN-methyl-N-nitrosourea (Tanaka, Kojima, Kawamori, &Mori, 1995), and in the bladder against N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine (Hirose, Tanaka, Kaeamori,Ohnishi, & Mori, 1995). Hence, EP protects these organsagainst the damaging effect of free radicals.

In addition, EP may be utilized in food preservation par-ticularly foods with high fatty content, it protects lipidsagainst oxidation. However, an overdose of EP (500 mg/kg)enhanced tumorigenesis, induced contact hypersensitivityin mouse skin and disturbed the detoxification of ultimatecarcinogens (Nakamura, Torikai, & Ohigashi, 2001).Therefore, if EP is to be used as a food additive or phyto-chemical in any food formulation, the safety and toxicologyof EP have to be distinguished in detail and extensivelystudied, but it can be utilized from sesame at an approveddose for it benefits.

In fact, natural phytochemicals present in our diet havebeen shown to protect LDL oxidation and atherosclerosisprogression (Campbell, Efendy, Smith, & Campbell,2001). For example, sesame, an important edible oil sourcein the world, has been suggested to decrease bloodpressure (Sankar, Sambandam, Ramakrishna, & Pugalendi,2005) and lower the cholesterol level in blood (Sankaret al., 2005).

Numerous studies have indicated that vitamin E presentin sesame contributes to these healthy benefits as tocoph-erols derivatives of vitamin E has been found to be presentin sesame EP, these tocopherols are lipid-soluble naturalantioxidants which have been reported to possess the abil-ity to bring most of the above health benefits mentionedabove (Kajimoto, Kanomi, Kawakami, & Hamtani, 1992;Liebler, 1993; Yamashita, Nohara, Katayama, & Namiki,1992).

Sesame oilSesame oil is considered to be a health-promoting food

because it contains a higher proportion of monounsaturatedfatty acids (MUFA) than saturated fatty acids (SFAs) and italso contains bioactive compounds such as tocopherol andphytosterols (Yamashita et al., 1992). Sesame oil generallycontains fatty acids, in the following percentages 45.3e49.4% oleic, 37.7e41.2% linoleic and 12e16% SFAs

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(Weiss, 1983). Sesame oil is composed of various fattyacids, as shown in Table 1 of which good percentages ac-counted for by only oleic and linoleic acids (LA) (Weiss,1983). Oleic acid, with one double bond in its chain, be-longs to the group of MUFAs while linoleic acid withtwo double bonds, belongs to the group of PUFAs.

The fatty acid composition of sesame may also havebeneficial effects on blood lipid profiles. Substitution ofSFAs with MUFAs leads to increased high-density lipopro-tein (HDL) cholesterol and decreased LDL cholesterol, tri-acylglycerol (TAG), lipid oxidation, and LDL susceptibilityto oxidation (Nakao, Iwai, Kalil, & Augusto, 2003). DietaryMUFAs particularly from vegetable oils have also beenshown to elicit a smaller postprandial lipemic response(Weiss, 1971), with lower chylomicron remnant concentra-tion. Sankar et al. (2005) reported that addition of sesameoil or other MUFA-rich nuts to the diet significantly im-proves the blood lipid profile.

Sesamin and sesamolinSesamin and sesamolin in the sesame seed oil also re-

duced LPS-activated p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase(MAPK) and nuclear factor (NF)-kB activations.

Microglia, a resident macrophage-like population of braincells, is involved in inflammatory cytokine mediated centralnervous system (CNS) diseases, such as multiple sclerosis,Parkinson’s disease, and Alzheimer’s disease (Aloisi, 1999).Nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) releasedfrom activated microglia and other glial cells may also partic-ipate in the neurodegenerative process (Wang et al., 2002).Nitric oxide has pleiotropic effects in the CNS (Verity,1994), and excessive NO production in the CNS can be toxicto many different cell types, including astrocytes and neurons(Wang et al., 2002). Sesame lignan can correct such problemssince it has the antioxidant properties that have been reported.

Several sesame lignans including pinoresinol, piperitol,sesamolinol, sesaminol, sesamin and sesamolin have been iso-lated and their chemical structures as shown in Fig. 1. Theselignans have been characterized as a novel type of lipid-soluble antioxidant that exerts strong antioxidative effects in

Table 1. Fatty acid composition of sesame oil

Fatty acid Percentage

Oleic 45.3e49.4Linoleic 37.7e41.2Palmitic 7.8e9.1Stearic 3.6e4.7Arachidic 0.4e1.1Hexadecenoic 0.0e0.5Myritic 0.1Saturated fatty acids 12e16

Adapted from Weiss, E.A. (1983).

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foods and in biological systems (Kato, Chu, Davin, & Lewis,1998; Yoshida, Shigezaki, Takagi, & Kajimoto, 1995).

Bioactive components of sesameTocopherol

Tocopherols, derivatives of vitamin E, are lipid-solublenatural antioxidants produced only by plants like sesameand other oilseeds (Kajimoto et al., 1992). Sesame seedsare a good source of tocopherols. The tocopherol contentof sesame varies with variety and production location. Ses-ame oil mainly contains a-tocopherol (50e373 ppm) andg-tocopherols (90e390 ppm) (Firestone, 1999; Weiss,1971), their chemical structures are shown in Fig. 2. Theirdifference is a-tocopherol regulates protein transfer to theplasma tissue, while g-tocopherols lower lipid contents inthe blood to the rate at which tissue concentration reachesit equilibrium so that excess lipids will not be allowed tostay in the plasma tissue (David, Blatt, Scott, Leonard, &Maret, 2001).

The health benefits of tocopherol as a bioactive com-pound are well documented. a-Tocopherol, the principalform of vitamin E, is a lipid-soluble antioxidant and it func-tions as a chain-breaking antioxidant for lipid peroxidation(LP) in cell membranes and also as a scavenger of reactiveoxygen species (ROS) such as singlet oxygen (O

�) (Liebler,

1993). It is considered to serve as the first line of defenseagainst LP, and it protects PUFAs in cell membranes fromfree radical attack through its scavenging activity in bio-membranes at early stages of LP (Lu, Shimura, Kinukawa,Yoshida, & Tamai, 1999). a-Tocopherol also exerts ananti-inflammatory action by inhibiting the production ofthe superoxide radicals in activated neutrophils, adhesionof neutrophils to endothelial cells, and transendothelial mi-gration of neutrophils (Rocksen, Ekstrand, Johansson, &Bucht, 2003). Animal studies showed that a-tocopherolsand g-tocopherols were able to prevent cerebral ischae-mia-induced brain damage in mice (Mishima et al., 2003),while Sen, Khanna, Roy, and Packer (2000) showedthat a-tocopherols can inhibit glutamate-induced apoptosisalso.

PhytosterolsPlant sterols (phytosterols) are minor components of all

vegetable oils constituting major portions of the unsaponi-fiable fraction of the oil (Fremont, 2000). Sesame oil con-tains 900e3000 ppm total phytosterols, (Choi & Kim,1985). Major phytosterols in sesame oil are b-sitosterol(>80% of total phytosterols), campesterol (about 10%)and stigmasterol (<5%) (Choi & Kim, 1985). Phytosterolsmay occur in the free form but also esterified to free fattyacids, sugar moieties or phenolic acids. Free phytosterolsof both black and white colour type sesame seedsconsisted of about 65% of the total sterols in the oil asreported by Normen, Ellegard, Brants, Dutta, and Andersson(in press).

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Fig. 1. The chemical structures of sesame lignans.

D

E The cholesterol-lowering properties of phytosterols were

first demonstrated about 55 years ago by Peterson (1951) whofed chicks with plant sterols in their diet. Weststrate andMeijer (1998) also demonstrated the plasma cholesterol-lowering effect of a phytosterol ester (PE) contained inmargarine in human. Consumption of 1.8e2.0 g/day of plantsterols has been shown to lower both total LDL and choles-terol concentrations by 10e15% in a variety of differentpopulation groups (Katan et al., 2003). Several authors re-ported that phytosterols (esters), and especially b-sitosterols,have (phyto) oestrogenic potential and act as an effectiveoestrogen-like agonists (Malini & Vanithakumari, 1993;

Fig. 2. Chemical structure of a-tocopherols and g-tocopherols.

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Normen et al., in press). Therefore, phytosterols canalso be used as major components of oral contraceptives(Kamel & Appelpvist, 1994).

PhospholipidsPhospholipids, which are derivatives of phosphatidic

acid and phosphatidylcholine (lecithine), are generally use-ful as syngerists in reinforcing the antioxidant activity ofphenolic compounds (Wu & Sheldon, 1988). Phospholipidsalso contribute to the smoothness, texture, and mouth feelof foods and improve the stability of the product becauseof their inherent antioxidant properties. Phospholipids insesame is the major constituents of cell membranes, andhas a high degree of unsaturation, (Sugano et al., 1990).Hany, Abou, Adel, and Fereidoon (2000) reported that ses-ame comprised 38e48% of the total phospholipids presentin it. It is one of the bioactive compounds with several ben-eficial effects including improved learning and memory inrats (Ahmad et al., 2006), which might be applicable to hu-man beings as well when sesame is consumed.

PolyphenolsPolyphenols are a group of chemical substances found in

plants, characterized by the presence of more than one phe-nol group per molecule (Shahidi et al., 2006). Researchsuggests that polyphenols are antioxidants with potentialhealth benefits. They may reduce the risk of cardiovasculardisease and cancer (Arts & Hollman, 2005).

Elleuch, Besbes, Roiseux, Blecker, and Attia (2007)reported that different polyphenols were found in sesameseed coat, including phenolic acids (caffeic acid, chloro-genic acid, ferulic acid and coumaric acid), flavonoids (cat-echins and procyanidins), and stilbene (resveratrol). A

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study by Shahidi et al. (2006) found that the seed coat ofsesame particularly the black colour contains about150 mg total polyphenols per gram of defatted dry seedcoat. Lee, Wen, Shiow, and Pin (2002) in their study iden-tified A-type procyanidins in sesame seed coat. This com-pound was found to inhibit the activity of hyaluronidase,an enzyme that is responsible for the release of histamine,which causes inflammation. These few studies have shownthe potential of sesame as a potentially rich and inexpensivesource of nutraceutical and functional ingredients such asphenolics.

Elleuch et al. (2007) reported that the compoundsfound in sesame seed coats are considered potent antioxi-dants, particularly, flavonoids and resveratrol. In additionto antioxidant activity, phenolic acids and flavonoids appearto have antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and anticancer activities (Kahkonen et al., 1999).It is important to realize that in addition to the positive bi-ological effects in humans consuming them, plant phenoliccompounds can be used as potent natural antioxidants infood systems. Mohamed and Awatif (1998) reported thatthe phenolic compound extracted from sesame could signif-icantly reduce the oxidation of food to extend their storagestability. It also contains some good derivatives which havegood health effects; they are resveratrol and flavonoids.

ResveratrolResveratrol (3,5,40-trihydroxystilbene) shown in Fig. 3

with sesamol is a phytochemical occurring naturally in var-ious spermatophytes and present in sesame particularly thebrown colour on the skin after the seed coat has been re-moved (Namiki, 1995), grapes (Landcake & Price, 1976)and wine (red wine produced from grapes) (Siemann &Creasy, 1992). The American Heritage Dictionary definesresveratrol as a natural compound found in grapes, mul-berries, peanuts, and other oilseed plants or food products,especially red wine, that may protect against cancer andcardiovascular disease by acting as an antioxidant, anti-mutagen, and anti-inflammatory (Landcake & Price, 1976).

Choi and Kim (1985) reported that sesame is one of thelimited number of plant species that synthesize resveratrol,which is both a phytoalexin (an antibiotic produced bya plant that is under attack) with antifungal activity anda photochemical associated with reduced cancer risk and

Fig. 3. The structure of resveratrol and sesamol.

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reduced cardiovascular disease. Resveratrol has been usedfor the treatment of hyperglycemia, arteriosclerosis and al-lergic and inflammatory diseases (Siemann & Creasy,1992). Findings have reported that sesame seeds are a sourceof resveratrol and phytochemical with human health bene-fits. It has been associated with reduced human pathologicalprocesses such as atherosclerosis (Shahidi et al., 2006), andcarcinogenesis (Jang, Cai, Udeani, Slowing, Thomas, &Beecher, 1997).

Over the years, the health protecting properties of resver-atrol have been well described as an antioxidant (Fremont,Belguendouz, & Delpal, 1999), modulator of lipoprotein me-tabolism (Soleas, Diamandis, & Goldberg, 1997), inhibitorof platelet aggregation (Pace, Hahn, Diamandis, Soleas, &Goldberg, 1995) and vaso-relaxing agent (Jager & Nguyen,1999). The most important beneficial effect of resveratrolis its cancer chemopreventive activity as it is involved inthe inhibition of tumor initiation, promotion and progression(Jang et al., 1997). Nonetheless, Govind et al. (2002) re-ported that comparatively sesame resveratrol was the mostpotent followed by other resveratrols like sunflower. Whenthe chemoprotective capabilities of these products (sesameresveratrol and resveratrol from sunflower) were comparedand observed, the in vivo, 7,12-dimethylbenz-anthracene,which is part of sesame resveratrol, prevented the develop-ment of mouse skin carcinogenesis (Govind et al., 2002).Sesame and its products might help in preventing the devel-opment of carcinogenesis in human beings.

FlavonoidsFlavonoids are a class of plant secondary metabolites

based around a phenylbenzopyrone structure as shown inFig. 4. Flavonoids are most commonly known for their an-tioxidant activity and are also commonly referred to asbioflavonoids since all of them are biological in origin(Answers, 2004).

Procyanidins, (�)-epicatechin, guercint and (þ)-catechinsare some of the well studied flavonoids in sesame so far. Ac-cording to Lee et al. (2002), limited studies suggest that ses-ame seed coat may contain potent procyanidin compounds.Catechins, A-type procyanidin dimers, procyanidins trimers,

O

O

Flavone

Fig. 4. Molecular structure of flavone.

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tetramers, and oligomers with higher degrees of polymeriza-tion were also reported to be present in sesame (Lazarus,Adamson, Hammerstone, & Schmitz, 1999).

Human studies also show that diet rich in procyanidinsdecrease/inhibit lipid peroxidation of LDL cholesterol andincrease free radical scavenging capacity (Fuhrman, Lavy,& Aviram, 1995; Natella, Belelli, & Gentili, 2002). Procya-nidins have affinity for vascular tissue and they play a rolein the protection of collagen and elastin, two critical pro-teins in the connective tissue, by strongly inhibiting severalenzymes involved in degradation of collagen, elastin, andhyaluronic acid. Procyanidins were reported to selectivelyinhibit protein kinase C (Takahashi, Kamimura, Shirai, &Yokoo, 2000), and intensively promote hair growth by en-hancing proliferation of mouse hair epithelial cells in vitroand activating hair follicle growth in vivo. Procyanidinswere also found to slow the proliferation and decrease ap-optosis of pancreas b-cells induced by hydrogen peroxide,and promote proliferation of normal pancreas b-cells(Zhong, 2003). Even though the presence of procyanidinsfound in sesame was reported to be small (20 ppm), thatamount was reported to be enough to exact the health ben-efit to the human system as 15e17 ppm is needed by thehuman body (Zhong, 2003).

LectinsLectins possess a remarkable array of biological activi-

ties that have been found in sesame among other sources.An interesting aspect of the lectins in sesame is that highheat treatment does not destroy them (Hany et al., 2000).Lectins are a group of proteins with the common character-istic of reversibly binding carbohydrates including thosefound on the surfaces of cells particularly in sesame seed(Vandamme, Peumanns, Barre, & Rouge, 1998).

Since the demonstration by Springer, Desai, and Banat-wala (1974) that sesame agglutinin binds malignant cells inpreference to normal cells in breast glands, this lectin hasbeen widely used as a probe for malignant phenotype inseveral tissues. Disease-dependent polyagglutin ability ofred blood cells was also assessed using lectin (Springeret al., 1974). A fairly stable and non-glycosylated lectin,sesame has been proven to be a potential structure-specificprobe in glycobiology, especially as it sharply discriminatesbetween sialylated and non-sialylated forms of its mostpowerful inhibitor carbohydrate group, the Galb1 / 3Gal-NAc- (T antigen), unlike the jack fruit seed lectin, jacalin(Carvalho & Sgarbieri, 1998; El-Shafei, 1990).

For many years lectins have been considered toxic sub-stances to cells and animals, mainly because of agglutina-tion of erythrocytes and other cells. Some lectins isolatedfrom legumes and cereals have been shown to inhibit thegrowth of experimental animals and reduce the digestibilityand biological value of dietary proteins (Reynoso, Gonza-lez, & Loarca, 2003). Anti-nutritional effects are mostlikely caused by the fact that some lectins impair the integ-rity of the intestinal epithelium (Reynoso et al., 2003) and

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thus also the absorption and utilization of nutrients. Pusztai(1996) and Radberg et al. (2001) reported that administra-tion of lectins to experimental animals can also alter thebacterial flora. Thus dietary lectins have generally beenconsidered to be toxic and anti-nutritional factors.

Nonetheless, lectins are among the phytochemicals thatare being intensively studied for their role in cancer chemo-prevention (Abdullaev & Gonzalez, 1997). Various authorshave reported that lectins are used as tools in the field of bio-chemistry, cell biology, and immunology, as well as for diag-nostic and therapeutic purposes in cancer research (Sharon &Lis, 2002; Vandamme et al., 1998). Studies on laboratory an-imals show that ingested lectins have a wide range of effectsthat might be relevant to human diseases. Some observationssuggest that sesame lectins, which exhibit growth-promotingeffects on the gut, may have interesting applications in theformulation of new approaches regarding cancer treatment(Govind et al., 2002).

Gonzalez and Prisecaru (2005), who reviewed in detailthe potential for lectins in cancer management, concludedthat lectins have great potential in the treatment, preventionand diagnosis of chronic diseases, such as cancer. The infor-mation from clinical studies using pure lectins is promising.Additional research, including clinical trials, mechanisms ofaction at the molecular level and structureefunction rela-tionships, should help researchers continue to examine andclearly understand the therapeutic effects, nutritional bene-fits, and toxic consequences of lectins.

Biological activity of anti-nutritionalfactors in sesameAllergens

Sesame, peanut, milk proteins and eggs, account for ap-proximately 80% of adverse reactions to foods in patientswith atopic dermatitis individuals particular children(Burks, Williams, Mallory, Shirel, & Williams, 1989).

Wolffa et al. (2003) reported that the reactivity of the14 kDa protein with most of the sera indicates that this isthe major sesame allergen, later identified as 2S albuminprecursor; and its peptide which reacted positively in thedot blot test evidently contains an epitope(s). Some minorsesame allergens, of higher molecular weight, were also re-vealed. But Pastorello et al. (2001) suggested that the majorsesame seed allergen is a 9 kDa, 2S albumin. Furthermore,Beyer, Bardina, Grishina, and Sampson (2002) reported tohave identified 10 IgE-binding proteins in sesame seeds, 4of which were 7 kDa, 34 kDa, 45 kDa and 78 kDa as minorsesame allergens from globulin, HPLC was used to charac-terize these allergens from sesame seed.

Products derived from sesame have been recommendedfor young children in societies of the Mediterranean regionand Africa, because of their high nutritional value, as ses-ame proteins are rich in methionine (Dalal et al., 2002).During recent decades their use has increasingly spread toNorth America as well as Europe. The increasing

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consumption of foods containing sesame seeds and oil (e.g.,vegetarian dishes, mid-eastern foods, bread, cakes, pastries,appetizers, and salad dressings) seems to be paralleled byan increase in reported sesame-induced allergic reactions(Pajno et al., 2000). This increase in sesame-inducedallergic reactions called for additional studies on the char-acterization and identification of the specific sesameallergens.

IgE-mediated reactions are believed to be responsiblefor most food-induced allergic reactions of the immediatehypersensitivity type (Type 1), and the diagnosis relies onbiological and clinical specific features. The most commonallergic reactions are mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE),which occur in the serum and involve activation of effectorcells, mainly mast cells and basophils, leading to an inflam-matory response and specific clinical manifestations(Asero, Mistrello, Roncarolo, Antoniotti, & Falagiani,1999). When antigens, such as certain proteins from pollenor foods, bind to specific preformed IgE antibodies attachedto the surface of basophils in the blood or mast cells in tis-sues, the antigeneIgE interaction results in the release ofvarious mediators such as histamine, prostaglandins, leuko-trienes and cytokines, producing an acute inflammatoryreaction (Leimgruber et al., 1991; D’Hondt, Damme,Eberlein, Rueff, & Przybilla, 1995).

With better characterization of allergens and better un-derstanding of the immunologic mechanism, investigatorshave developed several therapeutic modalities that arepotentially applicable to the treatment and prevention offood allergy. Therapeutic options currently under investiga-tion include peptide immunotherapy, DNA immunization,and immunization with immunostimulatory sequences,anti-IgE therapy, and genetic modification of foods (Wild& Lehrer, 2001). These exciting developments hold prom-ise for the safe and effective treatment and prevention offood allergy in the next several years.

Trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitorsLike most oilseeds, sesame also contains both trypsin

and chymotrypsin inhibitors (Johnson et al., 1979). Theseinhibitors interfere with the process of digestion and lowerthe digestibility of sesame proteins. However, Johnson et al.(1979) also reported that heat treatment destroys their in-hibitory activity. Heating is the most commonly used treat-ment for the elimination of anti-nutritional factors such astrypsin inhibitors although other processes are also used,such as fermentation, precipitation, washing and filtrationduring the manufacture of products for general human con-sumption (Melcion & Colonna, 1986; Mukhopadhyay &Bandyopadhyay, 2003).

ConclusionSesame contains very useful phytochemical such as re-

sveratrol, flavonoids, tocopherol, ethyl protocatechuate,phytosterols, lectins, sesamin, sesamolin and other

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phytochemicals which could be extracted for the purposeof the above to be utilized as functional ingredients. Itcould help in the prevention, control and management ofdiseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease, osteoporo-sis, oxidative stress and other degenerative diseases. Thecombination of functional ingredients and rich nutritionalcomposition of sesame makes it very unique and a verygood functional food that could be developed as food forthe children as well as for the aged.

Nonetheless, the presence of anti-nutritional factors suchas allergens, trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors in sesamecould be tackled well so that it will not lose it functional poten-tialities. But with lectins, sesamin, sesamolin, and tocopherolshaving great potential in the treatment, prevention and diagno-sis of chronic diseases, such as cancer, have greatly improvedthe image of sesame as functional ingredients that could besupplemented in the food system because it serves as both bio-active compounds and nutraceuticals.

However, for individuals who are not allergic to sesame, itremains a very good source of nutrients and phytochemicals.

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