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Mass storage Due to the volatility and limited size of a
computer’s main memory, most computers have additional memory devices called mass storage (or secondary storage) system.
example: magnetic disks, CDs, DVDs, magnetic tapes, and flash drivers.
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Mass storage (secondary storage)Like magnetic disk, CD, DVD, magnetic tapes and flash drives
Advantages of mass storage over main memory:1. include less volatile2. large storage capacity3. low cost4. many cases, the ability to remove the storage medium from the machine for
archival purposes
Disadvantages: A major disadvantage of the mass storage systems is that they typically
require mechanical motion and therefore require significantly more time to store and retrieve data then a machine's main memory, where all activities are performed electronically
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On-line and Off-line:
Means that the devices that can be either attached or de-attached from a machine
On-line: means that the device or information is connected readily available to machine without human intervention
Off-line: means that human intervention is required before the devices or information can be accessed by the machine.
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Magnetic system:
It is significant to two kinds:1. sequential access secondary storage2. Direct access secondary storage
sequential access secondary storage searching for a certain data means starting from the beginning of
the file sequentially till the data is reached ( like magnetic reel tape and cassette )
Direct access secondary storage Data can be reached directly without going through the stored
data (like magnetic disk )
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Magnetic system: sequential access secondary storage1 ) Reel Magnetic Tape: Used in mainframe computers It has a plastic strip coated with one side with magnetized material
(Chromium Dioxide) It is width 1/2 inch and it is length commonly 2400 feet (some reel
with 300, 600 or 1200 feet ) The strip is divided into 7 or 9 tracks (9 common ) Strip with 9 tracks stores about 6250 characters per inch. In strip with 18 tracks, 38000 characters can be stored in 1 inch
The devices that reads the tape is called tape drive it consists of: Two reels one for source and the other for destination R/W head which reads or writes the data on the strip Control unit which control in reading and writing operations
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Magnetic tape
An older from of mass storage Information is recorded on the magnetic
coating of a thin tape that is wound on a reel.
Taps is mounted in a device called tape drive (read/write).
A major disadvantages of it, that moving between different position on tape can be very time-consuming
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Magnetic system: Direct access secondary storage
2 ) magnetic disk Note: the capacity of disk storage system
depends on the number of disk used and the density in which the tracks and sectors are placed Lower-capacity system consists of a single plastic
disk known a diskette or floppy disk (off-line storage). 3 1/2 inch have a capacity of only 1.44 MB
High capacity system like hard-disk (consist of 5-10 rigid disks mounted on a common spindle )
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Mass Storage: Magnetic Disk Systems
Magnetic disks: the most widely used storage medium in computers today
Data is stored by magnetizing particles on the storage medium.
Capacity depends on # of disks & density of tracks and sector placed on
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Magnetic systems
Magnetic disk performance evaluation depends on four criteria's:
Seek time, the time required to move the read/write head from track to another.
Rotation delay (latency time), half -average calculation the time required for the disk to make complete rotation.
Access time, the sum of the seek time and rotation delay.
Transfer rate, the rate at which data can be transferred to/from the disk.
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Mass Storage: Magnetic Disk Systems
Two common types:
Floppy disks: Diskette (low-capacity)Hard disks: (high-capacity)
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Floppy Disks and Drives
Floppy disk characteristics
Single plastic flexible disk
Typically 3½ inches in diameter.
Typically hold 1.44 megabytes.
Inserted into floppy disk drive to be read from or written to.
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Floppy Disks and Drives, Cont’d.
Using floppy disks Must be inserted into the proper drive in the proper direction. Should not be removed when the disk is being accessed.
High-capacity removable magnetic disks and drives Zip disks (750 MB) SuperDisks (240 MB)
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Hard Disk System:Hard disk characteristics Usually (5-10) rigid disks mounted on a common spindle and
combined into a disk pack Disk drive - a device that allows data to be read from or written to
a disk Disk drive for personal computers contained within computer
housing Can be internal or external. Large computer systems may have several external disk drives Capacity in gigabytes Accessing files much faster than accessing files on diskettes
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Disk Packs
Each disk has its own access arm with read/write head
Most disk packs combine disks, access arms, and read/write head
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Reading/Writing Data Access arm moves read/write
head over particular location Read/write head hovers a few
millionths of an inch above disk and doesn’t touch the surface of the disk. If head touches platter, a
head crash occurs and data is destroyed
Data can be destroyed if head touches miniscule foreign matter on surface of disk
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How Data Is Organized
Organized into tracks, sectors, clusters, and cylinders
TrackSectorClusterCylinder
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Disk Access Speed
Access time - the time needed to access data on disk
Three factorsSeek timeHead switchingRotational delay
Once data found, next step is data transfer
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Optical Systems:Like Compact Disk (CD):
These disks are 12 cm (approximately 5 inches) in diameter and consist of reflective material covered with a clear protective coating
The capacity of the CD about 600 to 700 MB. Information is recorded on them by crating
variations in their reflective surfaces. This information can be retrieved by means of a
laser beam. That monitors irregularities on the reflective surface of the CD.
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Optical Systems:CD-DA: (Compact Disk Digital Audio): Which technology applied to audio recordings
Information on these CDs is stored on a single track that spiral around the CD, this track divided into units called sectors. Each with its own identifying marking s and a capacity of 2KB of data
Note: the distance around the spiraled track is greater from the outer edge of the disk than the inner portion
Note: to maximize the capacity of a CD: information is stored at a uniform linear density over the entire spiraled track which means that more information is stored in a loop around the outer portion of spiral than in a loop around the inner portion
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Mass Storage: Optical Systems
Provides inexpensive and compact storage with greater capacity ( approx. 5 inches diameter)
Information is recorded by creating variation in reflective services
Information is retrieved by a laser beam that monitors irregularities on the reflective surface
Laser scans disk and picks up light reflections from disk surface
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Optical Systems: Compact DisksCategorized by read/write capability:
CD-ROM - drive can only read data from CDs CD-ROM stores up to 700 MB per disk Primary medium for software distribution
CD-R - drive can write to disk once Disk can be read by CD-ROM or CD-R
drive CD-RW - drive can erase and record over
data multiple times Some compatibility problems trying to
read CD-RW disks on CD-ROM drives
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Optical Systems: Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) Constructed from multiple, semi-transparent layers
DVD drive can read CD-ROMs Capacity up to 17GB Allows for full-length movies Sound is better than on audio CDs
Several versions of writable and rewritable DVDs exist Which are constructed from multiple layers that serve as
distinct surfaces when viewed by precisely focused laser provide storage capacities of several GB. Such disks are storing lengthy multimedia presentations, including entire motion pictures
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Mass Storage: Flash memory media Bits are stored by sending electronic signals
directly to the storage medium where they causes electrons to be trapped in tiny chambers of silicon dioxide.
Chip-based storage. This technology is suitable for off-line
storage of data
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Flash memory media
Note: data stored in flash can be accessed in small byte-size units as in RAM applications.
Repeated erasing slowly damages the silicon dioxide chambers, meaning that current flash memory technology is not suitable for general main memory application
Since flash memory is not sensitive to physical shock, it is potential in portable applications is enticing
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Flash memory media
Flash drives, with capacities of up to a few GB, are available for general mass storage applications
These units are packaged in small plastic cases approximately three inches long with the removable cap on one end to protected the unit's electrical connector when the drive is off-line
Commonly used with digital cameras, digital music players, handheld PCs, notebook computers, smart phones, etc.
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Flash memory media
Flash memory media, cont’d.
Common forms of flash memory:
Flash memory sticks.
Flash memory cards—CompactFlash, Secure Digital (SD), MiniSD, MultiMedia (MMC), SmartMedia, and xD Picture cards.
Flash memory drives, such as USB flash drives.
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File storage File: A unit of data stored in mass storage
system data stored in a mass storage system is conceptually
grouped into large unit called files Files stored on a magnetic disk must be manipulated
by sector. A block of data conforming to the specific
characteristics of a storage device is called a physical record.
A large file stored in a mass storage will consists of many physical record. “the size of the sector”
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File storage The nature f a file division is determined
by the information represented in the file.File containing information regarding a
company's employee would consists of multiple units. Each consists of information about one employee.
These naturally producing “occurring” blocks of data are called logical records.
Logical record: the nature divisions within the data
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File storage Logical record consists of smaller units
called fields. Employee name, address, employee ID, etc.
Identifying a field by a key field. Buffer: A memory area used for the
temporary storage of data (usually as a step in transferring the data)
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