Second LanguageSecond LanguageAcquisition TheoryAcquisition Theory

What is SLA ?What is SLA ?

Second Language Acquisition is the Second Language Acquisition is the processes by which people develop processes by which people develop proficiency in a second or foreign language. proficiency in a second or foreign language.

These processes are often investigated with These processes are often investigated with the expectation that information about them the expectation that information about them may be useful in language teachingmay be useful in language teaching

The term SLA has been used particularly The term SLA has been used particularly in the USA by researchers interested in:in the USA by researchers interested in:

. 1.Longitudinal studies and case studies of the . 1.Longitudinal studies and case studies of the development of syntax and phonology in second development of syntax and phonology in second and foreign language learners.and foreign language learners.

2. Analysis of spoken and written discourse of 2. Analysis of spoken and written discourse of second and foreign language learners.second and foreign language learners.

3. The study of other aspects of language 3. The study of other aspects of language developmentdevelopment

Another definitionAnother definition

The way in which people learn a language The way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue, inside as other than their mother tongue, inside as well outside a classroomwell outside a classroom

The goalsThe goals

To describe how L2 acquisition proceeds To describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to explain the process, and why some and to explain the process, and why some learners seem to be better at it than otherslearners seem to be better at it than others

To describe the L2 acquisitionTo describe the L2 acquisition

- the language that learners produce when - the language that learners produce when they use L2 in speech and writing (based on they use L2 in speech and writing (based on the samples of learner language)the samples of learner language)

- The formal features of language, not the - The formal features of language, not the communicative aspects of language communicative aspects of language development, like development of development, like development of pronunciationpronunciation

To explain L2 acquisitionTo explain L2 acquisition

-- Identify external and internal factors that Identify external and internal factors that account for why ones acquire an L2 in the account for why ones acquire an L2 in the way they do.way they do.

- External factors may be social milieu and External factors may be social milieu and input they receive.input they receive.

External factorsExternal factors

Social milieu is the environment where Social milieu is the environment where learning takes place which influences the learning takes place which influences the opportunities that learners have to hear and opportunities that learners have to hear and speak the language, and the attitude they speak the language, and the attitude they develop towards it.develop towards it.

Input the learners receive, the samples of Input the learners receive, the samples of language to which a learner is exposed, be language to which a learner is exposed, be it simplified or authentic lang of the native it simplified or authentic lang of the native speakers.speakers.

Internal factorsInternal factors

Cognitive mechanism which enables Cognitive mechanism which enables learners to extract info.learners to extract info.

Experience in learning L1, Experience in learning L1, the general knowledge about the world to the general knowledge about the world to

help understand L2 inputhelp understand L2 input Communicative strategies that help to make Communicative strategies that help to make

effective use of learners L2 knowledgeeffective use of learners L2 knowledge Language aptitudeLanguage aptitude

The Nature of Learner LanguageThe Nature of Learner Language

Errors versus mistakesErrors versus mistakes Errors reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge; Errors reflect gaps in a learner’s knowledge;

they occur because the learner does not they occur because the learner does not know what is correct. They are systematic know what is correct. They are systematic and universal.and universal.

Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance; they occur because the learner performance; they occur because the learner is unable to perform what s/he knowsis unable to perform what s/he knows

Sources of errorsSources of errors

They have different sources. Some are They have different sources. Some are universal reflecting learners’ attempts to universal reflecting learners’ attempts to make the task of learning and using the L2 make the task of learning and using the L2 simpler, such as omission, simpler, such as omission, overgeneralization, and transfer.overgeneralization, and transfer.

Errors of omission and overgeneralization Errors of omission and overgeneralization are common in the speech of all L2 are common in the speech of all L2 regardless of the L1regardless of the L1

continuedcontinued Omission: leaving out the articles Omission: leaving out the articles the and and a a

and leave the -s off the plural nouns

Overgeneralization: overgeneralize the forms that they find easy to

learn and process, such as eated for ate.

Transfer: the transfer of L1 knowledge to learn L2. such as car red

Developmental patterns of SLADevelopmental patterns of SLA

Children undergo a silent period, that is no Children undergo a silent period, that is no attempt to say anything but mentally active attempt to say anything but mentally active to learn through listening to and reading . It to learn through listening to and reading . It may be preparation for a later production.may be preparation for a later production.

Begin to speak in L2, in which their speech Begin to speak in L2, in which their speech has two characteristics, that is, containing has two characteristics, that is, containing formulaic chunks and propositional formulaic chunks and propositional simplificationsimplification

Cont’dCont’d

Formulaic chunks, such as Formulaic chunks, such as how do you dohow do you do?, ?, I don’t know, my name is …..I don’t know, my name is …..etc. etc. Propositional simplifications : learners find it Propositional simplifications : learners find it difficult to speak in full sentence so they difficult to speak in full sentence so they leave words out, like: leave words out, like: Me no blueMe no blue

Learning grammatical structures of the L2.Learning grammatical structures of the L2.

Do learners acquire the grammatical Do learners acquire the grammatical structures of the L2 in a definite order structures of the L2 in a definite order (acquisition order), (acquisition order),

Cont’dCont’d

Do learners learn a particular structure in a Do learners learn a particular structure in a single step or do they proceed through a single step or do they proceed through a number of interim stages before they master number of interim stages before they master it? (sequence of acquisition)it? (sequence of acquisition)

The Theoretical Model of SLA, The Theoretical Model of SLA, the so called the so called

The Five Hypothesis.The Five Hypothesis.

1.1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis.The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis.

2.2. The Natural Order Hypothesis.The Natural Order Hypothesis.

3.3. The Monitor Hypothesis.The Monitor Hypothesis.

4.4. The Input Hypothesis.The Input Hypothesis.

5.5. The Affective Filter HypothesisThe Affective Filter Hypothesis

Why hypotheses?Why hypotheses?

Guesses as to how language acquisition Guesses as to how language acquisition works. works.

Hypotheses may change or be rejected as Hypotheses may change or be rejected as research finds out more contra evidences orresearch finds out more contra evidences or

if observations or data prove differentlyif observations or data prove differently

1. The Acquisition-Learning 1. The Acquisition-Learning HypothesisHypothesis

It claims that adults have two distinct ways of It claims that adults have two distinct ways of developing competence in second language, that developing competence in second language, that is, viais, via

1.1. acquisition acquisition 2.2. learninglearning

What are the differences between them?What are the differences between them?

Acquisition ?Acquisition ?

1.1. Similar to how child learn first language.Similar to how child learn first language.

2.2. Picking up a language.Picking up a language.

3.3. SubsconsciousSubsconscious

4.4. Implicit knowledgeImplicit knowledge

5.5. Formal teaching does not helpFormal teaching does not help

Learning ?Learning ?

1.1. Formal knowledge of language.Formal knowledge of language.

2.2. Knowing about languageKnowing about language

3.3. ConsciousConscious

4.4. Explicit knowledgeExplicit knowledge

5.5. Formal teaching helpsFormal teaching helps

2. The Natural Order Hypothesis2. The Natural Order Hypothesis

It claims thatIt claims that1.1. Grammatical structures are acquired (not Grammatical structures are acquired (not

necessarily) in a predictable order.necessarily) in a predictable order.2.2. Every acquirer will not acquire grammatical Every acquirer will not acquire grammatical

structures in the exact order.structures in the exact order.3.3. Certain structures tend to be acquired early and Certain structures tend to be acquired early and

others late.others late.4.4. There is the possibility that structures may be There is the possibility that structures may be

acquired in group.acquired in group.

There exists a natural order of the acquisition There exists a natural order of the acquisition of English morphology for children acquiring of English morphology for children acquiring

English as a first language.English as a first language.Brown discovered children acquiring certain Brown discovered children acquiring certain

grammatical morpheme or function words grammatical morpheme or function words relatively earlier and others relatively late with relatively earlier and others relatively late with some considerations on individual variation.some considerations on individual variation.

ExamplesExamples-ing (the progressive tense marker) and –s (the -ing (the progressive tense marker) and –s (the plural) are acquired earlier, whileplural) are acquired earlier, while-s (the 3-s (the 3rdrd person sing.’he goes….’) and ‘s (the person sing.’he goes….’) and ‘s (the possessive marker) are acquired late.possessive marker) are acquired late.

Similar order of acquisition of grammatical Similar order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as a second morphemes for English as a second

language (children and adults) is also language (children and adults) is also found by other researchersfound by other researchers

Average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for Average order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes for English as a Second LanguageEnglish as a Second Language

(adults and children)(adults and children)

Progressive (-ing)Progressive (-ing)

PluralPlural

Copula (to be)Copula (to be)

AuxiliaryAuxiliary

ArticleArticle

Irregular PastIrregular Past

Regular PastRegular Past

33rdrd Singular (-s) Singular (-s)

PossessivePossessive

3. The Monitor Hypothesis3. The Monitor Hypothesis

It claims thatIt claims that1.1. Conscious learning has an extremely Conscious learning has an extremely

limited function in adult 2limited function in adult 2ndnd language language performance: it can only be used as a performance: it can only be used as a monitor or an editor.monitor or an editor.

2.2. When we produce utterances in 2When we produce utterances in 2ndnd language, the utterance is initiated by the language, the utterance is initiated by the acquired system and our conscious acquired system and our conscious learning only comes into play laterlearning only comes into play later

3. We use the monitor to make3. We use the monitor to make changes in our changes in our utterances only after the utterance has been utterances only after the utterance has been

generated by the acquired system. It may generated by the acquired system. It may happen before we actually speak or write or it happen before we actually speak or write or it

may happen after.may happen after.

4. Our fluency in production is hypothesized to 4. Our fluency in production is hypothesized to come from what we have picked up, what we come from what we have picked up, what we have acquired in natural communicative have acquired in natural communicative situationssituations

Three requirements to be satisfied for requirements to be satisfied for using the Monitorusing the Monitor

1. The performer has to have enough time. (taking time to think about the rules disturb communication)

2. The performer has to think about correctness or be focused on form. (we may be more concerned with what we are saying and not how we are saying it).

3. The performer has to know the rules.

4. The Input Hypothesis4. The Input Hypothesis

It claims thatIt claims that1.1. We acquire language by understanding input, We acquire language by understanding input,

that is a little beyond our level of competencethat is a little beyond our level of competence2.2. Listening comprehension and reading are of Listening comprehension and reading are of

primary importance in the language program, primary importance in the language program, and that the ability to speak or write fluently and that the ability to speak or write fluently comes on its own with time.comes on its own with time.

3.3. We use meanings to help us acquire language.We use meanings to help us acquire language.ESL teachers do this by adding visual aids and ESL teachers do this by adding visual aids and by using extra linguistic context.by using extra linguistic context.

44. In order to progress to the next stages in the . In order to progress to the next stages in the acquisition of the target language, the acquirers acquisition of the target language, the acquirers need to understand input language that includes need to understand input language that includes a structure that is part of the next stage. For a structure that is part of the next stage. For example, if the learners are up to the 3example, if the learners are up to the 3 rdrd person person singular morpheme (-s) in English, they can only singular morpheme (-s) in English, they can only acquire this morpheme if they hear or read acquire this morpheme if they hear or read messages that utilize this structure and messages that utilize this structure and understand their meanings.understand their meanings.

5. An acquirer can move from a stage i (the acquirer’s level competence) to a stage i+1(the stage immediately following i along some natural order) by understanding language containing i+1.

If an English acquirer has acquired –ing, If an English acquirer has acquired –ing, plural and copula, and is ready to acquire plural and copula, and is ready to acquire auxiliary and article , the teacher needs not auxiliary and article , the teacher needs not worry about providing auxiliary and article in worry about providing auxiliary and article in the input. the input.

But teacher should make sure that students understand what is being said or what they are reading. When this happens, when the input is understood, if there is enough input, i+1 will usually be covered automatically.

How do acquirers understand language that How do acquirers understand language that contains structures that they have not acquired?contains structures that they have not acquired?

They acquired it through context and extra They acquired it through context and extra linguistic information. Caretakers provide this linguistic information. Caretakers provide this context for young children by restricting their talk context for young children by restricting their talk to the to the here and nowhere and now, and to what is to child’s , and to what is to child’s domain at the momentdomain at the moment

The property of the caretaker speechThe property of the caretaker speech

1.1. It is motivated by the caretaker’s desire to be It is motivated by the caretaker’s desire to be understood. understood. Caretakers modify their language in Caretakers modify their language in order to communicate, not teach languageorder to communicate, not teach language..

2.2. It is not structurally simpler than the language It is not structurally simpler than the language adults use with each other.adults use with each other.

3. It is about the 3. It is about the here and nowhere and now

The description of the caretaker speech fits the The description of the caretaker speech fits the input hypothesis: caretakers teach language by input hypothesis: caretakers teach language by altering their language to children so that they will be altering their language to children so that they will be

understoodunderstood..

Another form of caretaker speech is foreigner talk Another form of caretaker speech is foreigner talk which is the modifications native speakers make which is the modifications native speakers make when talking to non-native speakers.when talking to non-native speakers.

Teacher talk is foreigner talk in the second Teacher talk is foreigner talk in the second language classroom.language classroom.

Another form of simple input available to the 2Another form of simple input available to the 2ndnd language language acquirers is acquirers is interlanguageinterlanguage talk which is the speech of other talk which is the speech of other 22ndnd language acquirers in which they use some aspects of language acquirers in which they use some aspects of their 1their 1stst language into 2 language into 2ndnd language. language.

Silent period is the period during which acquirers Silent period is the period during which acquirers build up competence by active listening via input.build up competence by active listening via input.

1.1.

1. 1. Relates to acquisition, not learning.Relates to acquisition, not learning.

2. We acquire by understanding language a bit 2. We acquire by understanding language a bit beyond our current level of competence. This is beyond our current level of competence. This is done with the help of context.done with the help of context.

Major points in the Input HypothesisMajor points in the Input Hypothesis

3. Spoken fluency emerges gradually, and is not 3. Spoken fluency emerges gradually, and is not taught directly.taught directly.

4. 4. When caretakers talk to acquirers so that When caretakers talk to acquirers so that acquirers understand the message, input acquirers understand the message, input automatically contains i+1, the grammatical automatically contains i+1, the grammatical structures the acquire is ready to acquire.structures the acquire is ready to acquire.

5. The Affective Filter.5. The Affective Filter.

It states thatIt states that1.1. Attitudinal variables relating to success in Attitudinal variables relating to success in

22ndnd language acquisition generally relate to language acquisition generally relate to subconcious language language subconcious language language acquisition (but not necessarily to acquisition (but not necessarily to language learning)language learning)

2.2. A lower affective filter means the performer A lower affective filter means the performer is more open to the input and that input is more open to the input and that input strikes deeper.strikes deeper.

Attitudinal variables have two effects:Attitudinal variables have two effects:

Attitudinal variables have two effects:Attitudinal variables have two effects:1.1. They actually encourage input; people who are They actually encourage input; people who are

motivated and who have a positive self image motivated and who have a positive self image will seek and obtain more input.will seek and obtain more input.

2.2. They contribute to a lower filter, given the two They contribute to a lower filter, given the two acquirers with the exact same input, the one with acquirers with the exact same input, the one with a lower filter will acquire more.a lower filter will acquire more.

This effect of great importance to the acquirer This effect of great importance to the acquirer in a classroom setting which implies that our in a classroom setting which implies that our

pedagogical goals should not only includepedagogical goals should not only include supplying optimal input, but also creating a supplying optimal input, but also creating a situation that promotes a low filtersituation that promotes a low filter

Assignment 2.

Each of the Monitor Model hypotheses has problems in it. Find out in any related literature the problems with each hypothesis. You just need to show one of them for any hypothesis.

Assignment 1Assignment 1 Discuss the distinction between SLA and Second Discuss the distinction between SLA and Second

Language Pedagogy as described in chapter 1. Language Pedagogy as described in chapter 1. Take the position that they are fundamentally Take the position that they are fundamentally different. How would you defend this position? different. How would you defend this position? Then, take the opposite position. Then, take the opposite position.

Consider how this might affect such linguistic Consider how this might affect such linguistic areas as phonology, syntax, morphology, areas as phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics and pragmatics.semantics and pragmatics.

The role of the Native LanguageThe role of the Native Language

1. Language Transfer1. Language Transfer– The carrying over the learned behavior from one The carrying over the learned behavior from one

situation to another or learning of task A affect the situation to another or learning of task A affect the learning of task Blearning of task B

– It is assumed that the learners rely much on their It is assumed that the learners rely much on their native language in learning second language. Robert native language in learning second language. Robert Lado (1957) states that individuals tend to transfer Lado (1957) states that individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings , and the distribution of the forms and meanings , and the distribution of forms and meanings of their native language and forms and meanings of their native language and culture to the foreign language and cultureculture to the foreign language and culture

Two types of transfer: positive Two types of transfer: positive transfer (facilitation) and negative transfer (facilitation) and negative

transfer (interference)transfer (interference) 1. Positive transfer (faciltation).1. Positive transfer (faciltation).

– Learning in one situation which helps or Learning in one situation which helps or facilitates learning in another later situation.facilitates learning in another later situation.

2. Negative transfer (interference).2. Negative transfer (interference).

learning in one situation which interferes with learning in one situation which interferes with learning another later situation.learning another later situation.

Two types of interference: Two types of interference: retroactive and proactive retroactive and proactive

interferenceinterference

1. Retroactive inhibition (interference)1. Retroactive inhibition (interference)– the effect of later learning on earlier learning. the effect of later learning on earlier learning.

For example: children learning English may For example: children learning English may learn irregular past tense forms, such as went, learn irregular past tense forms, such as went, saw. Later, when they begin to leran the regular saw. Later, when they begin to leran the regular –ed past tense iflection, they may stop using –ed past tense iflection, they may stop using went and saw, and produce goed and seed.went and saw, and produce goed and seed.

2. Proactive inhibition/ 2. Proactive inhibition/ interferenceinterference

the interfering effect of earlier learning on later the interfering effect of earlier learning on later learning. For example: if a learner first learns how to learning. For example: if a learner first learns how to

produce questions which require auxiliary verb produce questions which require auxiliary verb inversion (I can go – Can I go?) this may interfere inversion (I can go – Can I go?) this may interfere

with the learning of patterns where auxiliary with the learning of patterns where auxiliary inversion is not required. The learner may write: I inversion is not required. The learner may write: I don’t know where can I find it, instead of I don’t don’t know where can I find it, instead of I don’t

know where I can find it. know where I can find it.

Contrastive Analysis.Contrastive Analysis.

The comparison of the linguistic systems of two The comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, such as the sound systems orgrammar languages, such as the sound systems orgrammar

systems.CA was developed and practiced in the systems.CA was developed and practiced in the 1950s nand 1960s as an application of Structural 1950s nand 1960s as an application of Structural

linguisticslinguisticsIt is based on the following assumptions:It is based on the following assumptions:

1. the main difficulties in learning a new language 1. the main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by injterference from the first language.are caused by injterference from the first language.2. these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive 2. these difficulties can be predicted by contrastive

analysis.analysis.3. teaching materials can make use of contrastive 3. teaching materials can make use of contrastive

analysis to reduce the effects of interference.analysis to reduce the effects of interference.

Error AnalysisError AnalysisThe study and analysis of the errors made by The study and analysis of the errors made by

second language learners. second language learners. Error analysis may be carried out in order toError analysis may be carried out in order to

1. identify strategies which learners use in language 1. identify strategies which learners use in language learninglearning

2. try to identify the causes of leaner errors.2. try to identify the causes of leaner errors.3. obtain information on common difficulties in 3. obtain information on common difficulties in

language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the language learning, as an aid to teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials.preparation of teaching materials.

Error analysis developed as a branch of applied linguistics in the 1960s, and set out to demonstrate that many learner errors were not due to the learner’s mother tongue but

reflected universal learning strategies.

Error analysis was therefore offered as an alternative to Contrastive Analysis. Attempts were made to develop classifications for different types of errors on the basis of the different processes that were assumed to account for them

A basic distinction was drawn betweenA basic distinction was drawn between1. intralingual errors: those which result from faulty or partial 1. intralingual errors: those which result from faulty or partial

learning of the target language. It may be caused by the learning of the target language. It may be caused by the influence of one target language item upon another. For influence of one target language item upon another. For

example, a learner may produce:” He is plays” based on the example, a learner may produce:” He is plays” based on the blend of the English structure “ He is playing or He plays”.blend of the English structure “ He is playing or He plays”.

2. interlingual errors: errors which result from language 2. interlingual errors: errors which result from language transfer, that is, which is caused by the learner’s native transfer, that is, which is caused by the learner’s native

language. For example, “He wants that book blue instead of language. For example, “He wants that book blue instead of He wants that blue book”He wants that blue book”

Intralingual errorsIntralingual errors

1. overgeneralizations: those caused by extension 1. overgeneralizations: those caused by extension of target language rules to inappropriate context.of target language rules to inappropriate context.

2.simplifications: those resulting from learners 2.simplifications: those resulting from learners producing simpler linguistic rules rather than those producing simpler linguistic rules rather than those found in the TLfound in the TL

3.developmental errors: those reflecting natural 3.developmental errors: those reflecting natural stages of development.stages of development.

4.communication-based errors: those resulting 4.communication-based errors: those resulting from strategies of communication.from strategies of communication.

..

5.induced errors: those resulting from transfer of 5.induced errors: those resulting from transfer of training.training.

6.errors of avoidance: those resulting from failure to 6.errors of avoidance: those resulting from failure to use certain target language structures because they use certain target language structures because they

are thought to be too difficultare thought to be too difficult7. errors of overproduction: structures being used 7. errors of overproduction: structures being used

too frequently. too frequently.

DIFFERENTIAL SUCCESS AMONG L2 LEARNERS

A. AGE. There is a controversy as to the age someone is

first exposed to L2, in the classroom or naturalistically effects acquisition of L2.

3 positions : a. Some claim that SLA is the same process and

just as successful whether the learner begins as a child or an adult and/or that adults are really better learners.

b. Others think the data ambiguous and/or b. Others think the data ambiguous and/or that adults are at a disadvantage only in a that adults are at a disadvantage only in a few areas, especially phonology.few areas, especially phonology.

c. others are convinced that younger c. others are convinced that younger learners are at an advantage particularly learners are at an advantage particularly where ultimate levels of attainment, such as where ultimate levels of attainment, such as accent-freeperformance.accent-freeperformance.

Krashen (1979)

1. Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children.

2. Older children acquire faster than younger children in early stages of syntactic and morphological development

Explanations for age -related differences4 major causes

1. Social-psychological explanations.– Adults differ from children in that they might be

more inhibited or that their identity as a speaker of a certain L1 might be more firmly established.

2. Cognitive explanation.

Child SLA and adults SLA might actually involve different processes; utilizing a LAD in child SLA while employing general problem-solving in adults.

3. Input explanation.– Young learners are said to receive better input than

adults (enjoy language play).

4. Neurological explanation.

Around puberty, lateralization which is the two halves of the brain becomes specialized for different functions. Prior to puberty, a critical period exists during which the brain is more plastic and flexible.

B. APTITUDE

Individual learn languages at different rates. It can be attributed to language-specific

aptitude.

C. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS.

1. Motivation– Gardner and Lambert proposes 2 kinds:

– a. Integrative motivation A learner is said to be integratively motivated when the learner

wishes to identify with another ethnolinguistic group.

– b. instrumental motivation Learner is motivated to learn a language for utilitarian purpose,

such as furthering career, improving social status etc.

Findings

1. Gardner and Lambert hypothesized that those having integrative motivation would be better in the long run for sustaining the drive necessary to master the L2.

2. Lukmani found out that students with instrumental motivation outperformed those with integrative motivation on test of proficiency.

2. Attitude

1. Positive attitude toward the L2 is related to success in the Canadian bilingual setting (van Els et al, 1984).

2. Genesee and Hamayan (1980) found no relationship between attitude factors and the proficiency in the L2 in children due to the fact that children have not yet their attitude.

D. PERSONALITY

1. Self-esteem.

– There are 3 kinds of self-esteem: – global self-esteem: the individual overall self

assessment.– Specific self-esteem or how individuals perceive

themselves in various life contexts (education, work etc) and according to various characteristics (intelligence, attractiveness etc)

– The evaluation of one gives to oneself to on specific tasks (writing a paper, driving a car)

Findings

Heyde (1979) studied the effects of the three levels of self-esteem on performance on a French oral production task by Americal college students and found that students performance correlated significantly with all three levels

Busch (1982) found that hza negative correlation between the suibjects’ English pronunciation and extroversion for Japanese learners of English in Japan

Introverts tend to have higher scores on the reading and grammar components of the standardized English test. Only on the oral interview task did certain extroverted subjects have higher scores

2. Extroversion

extroverted learners learn at a faster rate than introverts.

Results of empirical research are inconclusive.

Naiman et al (1978) found no significant correlation between scores on an extroversion/introversion measure and performance on listening comprehension.

3.Anxiety

It is thought that certain people might be anxious more often than others or have a more severe reaction to anxiety-producing situations such that language learning would be impeded.

Chastain (1975) found that in some cases the correlation was negative indicating the deleterious effect of anxiety; in otherf cases anxiety seemed to enhance performance.

4. Risk-taking

Rubin (1975) characterized good language learners as willing to guess, willing to appear foolish in order to communicate, and willing to use what knowledge they have of the TL in oredr to create novel utterances.

Beebe (1980) studied the risk taking behavior of Puerto Rican children learning ESL . Those experiencing difficulty with do insertion in wh-questions displayed significantly greater risk-taking behavior with English interviewer than with Spanish interviewer (the amount of talk and info children volunteered

Sensitivity to rejection

The subject’s expectation of the negative reinforcing quality of others for himself.

Naiman et al (1978) hypothesized indiduals whom were sensitive to rejection might avoid active participation in language class fearing ridicule by their classmates or teacher.

This lack of participation would then translate into less successfull SLA

6. Emphaty

Guiora (1972), just as a child develops a general ego, so the child also acquires a language ego. When the child is young the ego boundaries are flexible, a new accent is more readily adopted than when the boundaries are more fixed. Some adults presumably those who are more emphatic are likely to have more permeability of language ego boundaries since they are able to temporarily suspend the separateness of their identity, and that should in turn result in their having an advantage in FL pronuncation

E. HEMISPHERE SPECIALIZATION

Lateralization is a process whereby each of the two hemispheres of the brain becomes increasingly specialized.

Each hemisphere may be responsible for a particular mode of thinking.

ACCULTURATION THEORYACCULTURATION THEORY

Acculturation is a process in which changes Acculturation is a process in which changes in the language, culture, system of values of in the language, culture, system of values of group happen through interaction with group happen through interaction with another group with a different language, another group with a different language, culture and a system of value.culture and a system of value.

For example, in second language learning, For example, in second language learning, acculturation may affect how well one group acculturation may affect how well one group (immigrants) learn the language of another (immigrants) learn the language of another (the dominant group).(the dominant group).

Schumann’s Social and Schumann’s Social and Psychological HypothesisPsychological Hypothesis

Schumann proposes the relationship Schumann proposes the relationship between acculturation and the SLAbetween acculturation and the SLA

SLA is just one aspect of acculturation and SLA is just one aspect of acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target language group will control the the target language group will control the degree to which he acquires the L2.degree to which he acquires the L2.

In this view, acculturation (SLA) is determined In this view, acculturation (SLA) is determined by the degree of social and psychological by the degree of social and psychological distance between the learner and the target distance between the learner and the target language culture. language culture.

Social distance is the feeling a person has that Social distance is the feeling a person has that his or her social position is relatively similar to his or her social position is relatively similar to or relatively different from the social position of or relatively different from the social position of someone else. It is the result of factors, such as someone else. It is the result of factors, such as domination vs subordination, assimilation vs domination vs subordination, assimilation vs adaptation, enclosure etc.adaptation, enclosure etc.

Psychological distance is the result of various Psychological distance is the result of various affactive factors that concern the learner as an affactive factors that concern the learner as an individual, such as resolution of language shock, individual, such as resolution of language shock, culture shock, and culture stress, integrative vs culture shock, and culture stress, integrative vs instrumental motivation.instrumental motivation.

It is assumed that the more social and It is assumed that the more social and psychological distance between the L2 learner psychological distance between the L2 learner and the target language group, the lower the and the target language group, the lower the learner’s degree of acculturation will be toward learner’s degree of acculturation will be toward that group.that group.

It is predicted that the degree to whioh L2 It is predicted that the degree to whioh L2 learners succeed in socially and learners succeed in socially and psychological adapting or acculturatiing to psychological adapting or acculturatiing to the target language group will determine the target language group will determine their level of success in learning the target their level of success in learning the target language.language.

More specifically, social and psychologial More specifically, social and psychologial distance influence SLA by determining the distance influence SLA by determining the amount of contact learners have with the amount of contact learners have with the target language and the degree to which target language and the degree to which they are open to input that is available.they are open to input that is available.

Positive (little distance ) and negative (greater Positive (little distance ) and negative (greater distance ) social and psychological situations are distance ) social and psychological situations are described below.described below.

Factors detrmining social and psychological Factors detrmining social and psychological distance.distance.

1. Positive social distance1. Positive social distance Socially equality between L2 group and the Socially equality between L2 group and the

target group.target group. Both groups desire assimilationBoth groups desire assimilation L2 group is small and not cohesiveL2 group is small and not cohesive

ii L2 group’s culture is congruent with the target L2 group’s culture is congruent with the target

language group.language group. Both groups have positive attitudes toward Both groups have positive attitudes toward

each other.each other. Both groups expect L2 group to share facilities.Both groups expect L2 group to share facilities. The L2 group expects to stay in the target The L2 group expects to stay in the target

group area for an extended period. group area for an extended period.

2. Negative Social Distance 2. Negative Social Distance No social equality.No social equality. No desire of assimilationNo desire of assimilation L2 group is large and cohesiveL2 group is large and cohesive Culture of L2 group not congruentCulture of L2 group not congruent Groups do not have positive attitudes toward Groups do not have positive attitudes toward

each other.each other. No expectation of shared facilitiesNo expectation of shared facilities No expectation by L2 group that they would No expectation by L2 group that they would

stay in the TL group area for an extended stay in the TL group area for an extended timetime

3. Positive Psychological 3. Positive Psychological DistanceDistance

No language shockNo language shock No culture shockNo culture shock High motivationHigh motivation Low ego boundariesLow ego boundaries

4. Negative Psychological 4. Negative Psychological DistanceDistance

Language shockLanguage shock Culture shockCulture shock Low motivationLow motivation High ego boundariesHigh ego boundaries

A case study of a 33 year old Costa Rican immigrant, A case study of a 33 year old Costa Rican immigrant, alberto. As a member of a group of Latin Amerrican alberto. As a member of a group of Latin Amerrican working-class immigrants. Alberto was seen as socially and working-class immigrants. Alberto was seen as socially and psychologically quite distant from the target language psychologically quite distant from the target language group. He interacted almost exclusively with a small group group. He interacted almost exclusively with a small group of Spanish-speaking friends, and showed nop interest in of Spanish-speaking friends, and showed nop interest in owning television, which would have exposed him to the owning television, which would have exposed him to the English language, because he said he could not English language, because he said he could not understand English. Ho chose to work at night and day understand English. Ho chose to work at night and day time rather that attend English classes. time rather that attend English classes.

Alberto showed very little linguistic development during a 9-Alberto showed very little linguistic development during a 9-month longitudinal study.month longitudinal study.

His interlanguage was characterized by His interlanguage was characterized by many simplifications and reductions:many simplifications and reductions:

Use of the general preverbal negators: no, Use of the general preverbal negators: no, don’tdon’t

No question inversionsNo question inversions Lack of auxiliaryLack of auxiliary No inflection of possessiveNo inflection of possessive Use of uninflected forms of the verb.Use of uninflected forms of the verb.

These simplifications and reductions Schumann saw These simplifications and reductions Schumann saw to be a form of pidginization which leads to to be a form of pidginization which leads to

fossilization when the learner no longer revises the fossilization when the learner no longer revises the IL system in the direction of the TLIL system in the direction of the TL

Pidginization?Pidginization? The development of a grammatically reduced form The development of a grammatically reduced form

of a TL which is a temporary stage in language of a TL which is a temporary stage in language learning.learning.

Fossilization?Fossilization? A process which sometimes occur s in which A process which sometimes occur s in which

incorrect linguistic features become permanent part incorrect linguistic features become permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language of the way a person speaks or writes a language (pron., vocab,grammar).(pron., vocab,grammar).

Assignment 5Assignment 5

Find in literature the Acculturation theory. Find in literature the Acculturation theory. What inspires Schumann to develop the What inspires Schumann to develop the theory, describe it and elaborate the theory, describe it and elaborate the research findings.research findings.